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The FRANK C. BROWN COLLECTION oj

NORTH CAROLINA
FOLKLORE
THE FOLKLORE OF NORTH CAROLINA COLLECTED BY DR. FRANK C. BROWN
DURING THE YEARS 191'2 TO 1943 IN COLLABORATION WITH THE NORTH CARO-
LINA FOLKLORE SOCIETY OF WHICH HE WAS SECRETARy-TREASURER 1913-1943

IN SEVEN VOLUMES

General Editor
NEWMAN IVEY WHITE

Associate Editors
HENRY M. BELDEN PAUL G. BREWSTER
WAYLAND D. HAND ARTHUR PALMER HUDSON
JAN PHILIP SCHINHAN ARCHER TAYLOR
STITH THOMPSON BARTLETT JERE WHITING
GEORGE P. WILSON

PAULL F. BAUM

Wo od Engravings by
CLARE LEIGHTON

DURHAM, NORTH CAROLINA

DUKE U~TIVERSITY PRESS
 Volume I
GAMES AND RHYMES . BELIEFS AND CUSTOMS . RIDDLES
PROVERBS • SPEECH • TALES AND LEGENDS

Edited hy
PAUL G. BREWSTER, ARCHER TAYLOR, BARTLETT JERE WHITt~G,
GEORGE P. WILSON, STITH THOMPSON

Volume II
FOLK BALLADS FROM NORTH CAROLINA

Edited hy
HENRY M. BELDEN AND ARTHUR PALMER HUDSON

Volume III
FOLK SONGS FROM NORTH CAROLINA

Edited hy
HENRY M. BELDEN AND ARTHUR PALMER HUDSON

Volume IV
THE MUSIC OF THE BALLADS

Edited hy
JAN PHILIP SCH;INHAN

Volume V
THE MUSIC OF THE FOLK SONGS

Edited by
JAN PHILIP SCHINHAN

Volumes VI and VII

POPULAR BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS FROM NOR'TH CAROLINA
Edited by
WAYLAND D. HAND
The FRANK C. BROWN COLLECTION of

NORTH CAROLINA
FOLKLORE
VOLUME SEVEN

POPULAR BELIEFS
and SUPERSTITIONS
from NORTH CAROLINA
**
4874-8569

Edited by
WAYLAND D. HAND

DURHAM, NORTH CAROLINA

DUKE UNIVERSITY PRESS

19 6 4-
 © 1964, BY THE DUKE UNIVERSITY PRESS

Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number 52-10967

ISBN 0-8223-0259-4
Second printing} 1977

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

 AFTER WORD

ITH this the seventh and last volume of The Frank C.

W Brown. Collection of North Carolina Folklore we "knytte
up weI a greet matere"-now after so many years finished, as
the Tales of the Canterbury pilgrims never were. It has been a
long fetch: about thirty years of collecting and nearly half as
many of editing and publishing. In my first Foreword, when the
first three volumes were issued in 1952, I wrote with more con-
fidence than prescience that the haven was in sight; but various
delays intervened (which it would be tedious to relate) and
finally, eleven years later, we can all sing happily Nunc dimittis.
As will be recalled from Dr. White's very full Introduction
to volume I, Dr. Brown began collecting in 1913, the year that
the North Carolina Folklore Society was founded, and continued
till his death in 1943, levying tribute on the nlembers of the
Society, his students at Trinity College and Duke University,
and everyone else he could reach through his trips to the west-
ern counties. Subsequently several additions have been made,
notably the Paul Green collection. Before his death Dr. Brown
had arranged for Dr. White to assume the difficult task of
organizing the voluminous materials and selecting appropriate
Associate Editors to handle the special branches of folklore.
Having chosen them, Dr. White gave them each carte blanche to
treat his specialty in his own scholarly way; and on the whole
their methods have been harmonious.
The collecting of live folklore, as distinguished from the
study of comparative folklore from printed sources, is a complex
affair. There are first the infonnants, voluntary or captive, who
report what they know or remember or have heard from some-
one else, and thus the lapse of a generation or more may be
represented. These reports are put down sometimes as memo-
randa to be written up later in form, or may be left in their first
raw state. Now there is the matter of imperfect expression or
careless spelling-how much of this should be preserved? Often
a dialect word or spelling (drouth for example) may be signifi-
cant. Then there is the matter of repetition. Each editor will
make his own decisions; and, what with scholarly thoroughness
and the desire to let nothing of possible value escape, he ends by
rejecting very little. He is trapped. "All the rivers run into the
sea; yet the sea is not full." Nearly all these original data are
viii AFTERWORD

preserved in the Duke University I-.Jibrary for the inspection of

any students who may wish to consult them.
That the Ballads and Songs) both text and tunes, should oc-
cupy four of our seven volumes is natural and proper, for they
have been a principal interest of collectors in the United States
and Great Britain, although the music was until comparatively
lately neglected. It is also right and proper that Dr. Hand's two
volumes of P'opular Beliefs and Superstitions should bring the
Collection to its conclusion. For 'superstition' in all senses rep-
resents more closely and nlore widely than ballad singing the
mind of the folk. Ballads are entertainment, superstitions are
the folk mind itself. Two distinctions, moreover, are worth
noting. The editing of ballads and songs was necessarily the
work of specialists and conditioned by their special methods;
whereas the superstitions and beliefs have come directly or indi-
rectly from the contributors and are left in their original form.
The other is that these superstitions differ in degree and quality
of belief. We all have our private collection in which we believe,
but not very seriously. Even the most untrained minds must
qualify in some respects their adherence to this or that super-
stition and make of it a kind of game with themselves. Many
of these 'beliefs' call for a sense of humor and a measure of
credulity in both informant and collector. While in print some
of them may look trivial, they are all in fact a testimony of the
immitigable vagaries, the anfractuosities, of the human mind. A
real superstition is a belief you yourself do not share. "What is
truth? said jesting Pilate," but the jest turned against him.
Altogether these seven volumes comprise one of the largest
and fullest collections covering the whole body of folklore in a
single work for any country or any region of a country hitherto
produced. All who contributed to it are to be congratulated-the
hundreds of informants who in the first instance made the work
possible; the zeal of Dr. Brown and the industry of Dlr. White
in organization; the various Associate Editors; Duke Univer-
sity and others for their financial help; and not least Mr. Brice
and his associates of the Duke Press, who have been admirably
patient over a period of more than two lustra.

P.F.B.
 PREFACE

T HE present editor feels honored to have participated in this

co-operative work, and is grateful to the Duke University
Press, and particularly to its managerial and editorial staff for
numerous steps taken to add to the reference value of the
volumes on Popular Beliefs and Superstitions. Scholars every-
where, for one thing, will have cause to rejoice in the decision
to facilitate use of the Index by on-the-page references to chap-
ters and subject headings with inclusive numbers. rfhe added
serviceableness of the Index is justified alone in the saving of
time and bother to users, but more importantly, it will afford
the interested student the means of ascertaining how individual
items of folk belief are topically conceived in various categories
represented in the collection. In a way, the tools are thus pro-
vided for the beginning of comparative study.
Without the indefatigable work of Carole Sherman Davis
during the last weeks of 1960, and the long vigils of Judith
Arlene Wittenberger during the same period, notes to the
present volume might have been delayed well into 1961. As the
1960 deadline was rapidly running out, my wife Celeste also
spent long and wearisome hours at the typewriter. Sidney Gil-
ford stamped source material for the notes, and Enid Aldwell
checked the .A,dditional Bibliography. The ordeal of checking
every itenl in the index against original entries was lessened
by timely help fronl l\1arjorie Griffin. Belatedly acknowl-
edged here rather than in the first volume is the help given by
George P. Wilson, W. L. McAtee, and the late Josiah Combs in
glossing difficult localisms. Also, thanks to 1vIargaret Doremus
for work with scissors and pastepot when the project was still
new. To all these people, and to well-wishers everywhere who
have looked forward with eagerness to the completion of the
work, I should like to express my deep appreciation. The con-
tinued encouragement of Professor B. H. Bronson has been an
inspiration to me, especially so since Professor Bronson has
himself been involved for long years in a task that has perhaps
been even more eroding on body and spirit than has my own
project.
W.D.H.
 CONTENTS

AFTERWORD Vll
PREFACE IX
INTRODUCTION xvii
ADDITIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHY xxiii
VII. DEATH AND FUNEREAL CUSTOMS
INFANTS, CHILDREN: Stars} Prenatal Influences} Drown-
ing 3 - Naming} Physical Activity, Ca,re of Child 3
- Animals and Plants 5 - Miscellaneous 5 - Bur-
ial of Children 6 - Mother 6
ADULTS: General 7 - Death Bell} Singing} Noises 8 -
Choking, Itching} Shivering, Twitching, etc. 10 -
Sneezing II - Hair, Teeth 13 - Nudity, Clothes,
~-'hoes 15 - Sleep, Beds 16 - Wedding} Honeymoon
16 - The Sick 19 - The Dead and the Dying 23 -
Work 24 - Moving, S"tepping 24
DOMESTIC SIGNS AND PORTENTS : House 25 - Clocks 28
- Mirrors 29 - Pictures} Photographs 30 - Table,
Meals} Food 31 - Chairs 34 - Household, Miscel-
laneous 34 - Housework) Removing Ashes 35 -
Sweeping 36 - Washing, Wiping 37 - Sewing)
Quilting 38 - Miscellaneous 40
PIIYSICAL WORLD: Stars 41 - Weather 42 - C'andles,
Fires} Lights 44 - Water, Drowning 46 - An'intal
Portents 47 - Fowls 56 - Birds 60 - Insects,
Worms} etc. 70!.- Plants} Vegetables 71 - Flo'lfJers,
Bushes 72 - Trees 73 - Farm Implements 76
CARE FOR THE DEAD: Clocks} lVfirrors, Pictures) etc. 78-
The Corpse 82 - Wake} Funeral Prelintinaries 84-
Funeral Procession 86 - Funereal Clothing 89 -
Graves" Graveyards 91 - Burying vVeather 94 --
After Burial 97
VIII. WITCHCRAFT, GHOSTS, lVIAGICAL, PRACTICJ~S
C"onjuring} Casting of Spells 99 - Warding Off
Spells 105 - Removal of C'onjurer 109
WITCHES, WITCHCRAFT: Witches} Wizards 110 - Signs
of vVitches} Bewitchtnent I 15 - ]Jreventi';,·'fS of
Witchcraft 121 - Laying Witches 132 - Evil Eye
136 - Nightmare 136 - Ghosts 137 - Dispelling
Ghosts 142 - Spirits 144 - Warding Off ~~-'pirits
I4S - Hants 146 - Laying Hants 148 - Jack-O'-
Lanterns 148 - Devil ISO
xu CONTENTS

FAIRIES, ELVES, GOBLINS 154

CHARMS, LUCKY PIECES: Human ISS - Animal ISS -
Plant 163 - Talismans, Coins, Gems 164 - Mis-
cellaneous Charms 167 - Verbal Charm 169
FORTUNE TELLING, DIVINATION 170: Water Witching
174 - Horses Locating Water 179 - Hidden
Treasure, Mines 179 - Lode Lights, Treasure
Lights 179 - Divining Rods, Dowsing 180
Silver, Gold 181

IX. COSMIC PHENOMENA: TIMES, NUMBERS,

SEASONS
COSMIC PHENOMENA: Portents of War and Disaster 183
- Moon 184 - Seeing the Moon {(Clear)) 186 -
Moon Through Trees, Clouds 1'87 - Moon Through
Rings, Windows 188 - Miscellaneous 189 - The
Man in the Moon 190 - Stars 190 - Falling Slars,
Meteors 192 - Miscellaneous 193
TIMES, NUMBERS, SEASONS: Trial Periods, Indicators
194 - Days of the Week 196 - Ti1ne of Day 200 -
Special Days, Holidays 200 - Nun1bers 204

x. \iVEA THER
SEASONS: Spring 209 - Summer 212 - Autumn 213 -
Winter 213 - Cold (Severe) Winters 215 - Mild
Winters 221 - Weather Indicators 222 - Bad
(Foul) Weather 229 - Changing Weather 235 -
Clear Weather 238 - Sunny Weather, Sun, Eclipse,
etc. 243 - Cold Weather 245 - Dry Weather 251
-Fair Weather 257 - Good Weather 263 - Warm
(Hot) Weather 264 - Wet (Falling) Weather 265
RAIN: Indicators 26g - The Sun as Indicator of Rain
273 - Clouds as Indicators of Rain 281 - The
Moon as an Indica:tor of Rain. 285 - Stars as
Indicators of Rain 290 - Rain, Rainbows as Indi-
cators of Rain 292 - Dew, Moisture, Sweat as
Signs of Rain 293 - Mist, Fog as Indicators of
Rain 296 - Winds, Whirl'Winds as Indicators of
Rain 296 - Lightning, Thunder as Indicators of
Rain 299 - Frost as an Indicator of Rain 300 -
Fire, Sntoke as Indicators of Rain 301
HUMAN INDICATORS OF RAIN: Aches, Physical Signs
303 - Death, Dreams as Signs of Rain 304
ANIMAL INDICATORS OF RAIN: Mammals 305 - Fowls
309 - Birds 3 1 3 - Reptiles 3 1 9 - Amphibians,
Fish 323 - Insects 325 - Arachnids 328 - Crusta-
ceans} etc. 330
 CONTENTS xiii
PLANT INDICATORS OF RAIN: 330 - T11'ees 332 - FlO'lPJ-
ers 333
MISCELLANEOUS 334
STOPPING OF RAIN, No RAIN 336
OTHER KINDS OF WEATIIER: Floods 343 - Storms 344
- Winds~ Cyclones 349 - Lightning~ Thunder 357
- Hail~ Snow 362 - Frost~ Ice 368

XI. ANIMALS, ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

ANIMALS 372 - Cows 372 - Horses 372 - Horse-
shoes 375 - Mules 379 - Cats 380 - Dogs 382 -
Miscellaneous 384 - Chickens~ Eggs 385 - Birds
388 - Redbird 390 - Doves} Bluebirds, Robins~
Wrens 392 - Martins~ Swallows~ Whippoorwills.
Gulls 393 - Jaybirds, Mockingbirds, Filliloo Birds
394 - Owls 396 - Buzzards, Crows, Ravens 399 -
Snakes 400 - Turtles, Lizards 408 - Eels~ Por-
poises 408 - Frogs, Toads 409 - Ants, Beetles,
Bugs, Crickets 410 - Doodlebugs, Ladybugs 412 -
Spiders, Daddy Longlegs 415 - Worms, Snails 417
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY: General 417 - Cats 418 - Dogs
4 1 9 - Rabbits 423
CHICKENS: Setting, Hatching 423 - Laying 427 -
Tonics} Ill-Omens, Diseases 427 - Hawks, Birds
of Prey 42 9 - Loss of Chickens, Death} Killing,
etc., 43 2 - Miscellaneous 433 - Geese 434 -
Turkeys 434
BEES 435
COWS: Milk~ Milking 437 - Churning, Clabbering 439
- Loss of Cud 446 - Hollow Horn 447 - Hollow
Tail 449 - Miscellaneous Ailments 450 - Straying
Cattle 451 - Ill-Omens, Death 452 - Calves, Calv-
ing 45 2 - Bewitchment of Cattle 453
HORSES: Habits, Training, etc. 454 - Colic 455 -
Divers A ilm·ents, Death 456 - Bewitchment of
Horses 457
MULES, OXEN 460
HOGS : Health, Appetite, Habits, etc. 461 - Altering,
Weaning 461 - Fattening, Slaughtering 462 -
Divers Ailments, Death 469
SHEEP 469
XII. FISHING AND HUNTING
FISHING 470 - Fishing Pole 479 - Bait, Hook 480
HUNTING 483 - Bird Hunting 485 - Other Game 486
- Guns 488
xiv CONTENTS

XIII. PLANTS, PLANT HUSBANDRY

PLANTS: Clover, Grass 491 - Plants 494 - Flowers,
Shrubs 496 - Trees 497
PLANT HUSBANDRY: General 500 - Fertilizing, Plow-
ing 500
PLANTING: Phases of the Moon 501 - Signs of the
Zodiac, Holidays, Seasons, etc. 505 - Crops, Culti-
vation 510 - Miscellaneous 511
CROPS: Cotton, Peanuts 511
VEGETABLES: Beans 512 - Beets 517 - Cabbage 518 -
Collards, Greens 519 - Corn 519 - Cucumbers
52 7 - Gourds 528 - Lettuce 528 - Mustard 529
- Okra, Pepper 52 9 - Onions 530 - Parsley 530
- Peas 53 1 - Potatoes 533 - Sweet Potatoes 536
- Tomatoes 537 - Turnips 538
HERBS: Sage, Tansy 539 - Tobacco 540
FORAGE CROPS: Fodder, Grass 540
GRAINS: 541 - Wheat 542
VINES: Cantaloupes, Muskmelons, Squash 543 - Mel-
ons, W atern~elons 544 - Grapes, Hops 547
HARVESTING: 547
PESTS: Birds 547 - Bugs, Caterpillars, Weevils, Worms
548 - Weeds 549
MISCELLANEOUS: 550
FLOWERS, SHRUBS: Hydrangeas, Sweet Peas 551 -
Shrubs, Sprigs 55 2 - Dogwood 553
TREES: Planting, Transplanting 553 - Budding, Graft-
ing, Pruning 554 - Crop Signs, Harvesting, etc. 554
- Miscellaneous 559 - Apples, Cherries, Pears 560
- Firewood, Timbering 561 - Lumber, Fences,
Shingles 563

XIV. MISCELLANEOUS; ADDENDA

Family, Household 566 - Whistling, Laughing 568
- Dreams 570 - Wishes 57 1 - Bad Luck 57! -
Miscellaneous 572
ADDENDA: 573

INFORMANTS AND COLLECTORS 58I

INDEX 5B9
 ILLUSTRATIONS

1COON HUNT frontispiece

MOONSHINERS facing page 190

COCKFIGHT facing page 486

 INTRODUCTION
HE reception of volume VI of the Brown Collection has been
T most enheartening, but it is difficult to judge the impact of the
work without the present sequel volume. Only with the complete
categories which volume VII provides and with the Index to the
whole work, contained herein, will one be able to assess the useful-
ness of the North Carolina Collection as a general work of refer-
ence in the field of folk belief and superstition.
Within the categories and items contained in the Brown Col-
lection the present two volumes give a comparative survey of typical
materials around the United States and Canada. With regard to the
total body of popular beliefs and superstitions in the whole North
American area, however, one must estimate the possible percentage
of existing North Carolina material not collected or presented in
any way, and from these estimated data attempt to posit the extent
of sources still untapped in North Carolina and elsewhere. In
December, 1961, Professor Joseph D. Clark of North Carolina
State College, Raleigh, published in North Carolina Folklore (IX,
4-22) 1 306 superstitions (with variants running to over 500 items)
from a larger collection of 1,600 items collected from many parts of
the state. Even so, thirty-nine of North Carolina's one hundred
counties are entirely unrepresented. Difficult to believe though it
is, approximately 39 per cent of the published parts of Professor
Clark's collection falls outside the material in the large and more
representative body of beliefs and superstitions contained in the
Brown Collection. This percentage in Clark, high though it is,
comports well with findings in other shorter published collections
that have been annotated against the Brown Collection: Hand,
Pennsylvania, 42 per cent new material; Hendricks (Texas), 45 per
cent new material; Hand (Nebraska: U7 estern Folklore, XXI
[1962], 257-278), 43 per cent new material. The only large-scale
work for which comparative data are available, the Ray B. Browne
Collection from Alabama (see Additional Bibliography) re-
veals that 51 per cent of Browne's material, by actual count, has no
counterparts in the North Carolina Collection. Previous estimates
of new material in this important Alabama collection have proved
far too low, and this, notwithstanding the fact that in some cate-
gories relatively high correspondences are revealed. Of 74 items in
Browne having to do with planting by signs of the moon and of
the zodiac, for example, 69 are to be found in the North Carolina
Collection (93.3 per cent) ; 35 of 60 items dealing with colds (58.3
per cent) ; 31 of 41 entries dealing with insect bites and sting~ (75.6
1 This article is reprinted in the S outhern Folklore QuarterlYI XXVI

( 1962), 198-224.
xviii INTRODUCTION

per cent); skin poisoning, only one item in eleven (9 per cent);
hants and ghosts, 9 of a total of 18 entries (50 per cent) ; witches,
14 of 33 references (42.4 per cent). The highest percentage of new
material in the Alabama Collection is in Folk Medicine, which is
often regarded as a special category of folk belief.
These few statistical studies-all of them involving states where
tolerably good coverage exists-show the urgent need for additional
work in many, if not most, states. On the basis of these statistical
surveys, it is clear that questionnaires and finding lists must be de-
vised to bring in material from untilled fields so that future studies
will in their own way be even more complete than the great studies
which have already provided an uncommonly rich store of folk be-
liefs and superstitions. For the projected Dictionary of American
Popular Beliefs and Superstition, the Brown Collection will serve
as the cornerstone, drawing liberally as it does in the notes from
the great tributary volumes, such as Bergen, Brendle-Unger,
Browne, Cannell, Fogel, Hyatt, Kittredge, Puckett, Randolph,
Thomas, Whitney-Bullock, and the many long and basic articles
from all parts of the country, too numerous to mention here. For
the Dictionary project, and by way of giving representation to new
areas as well as broadening the scope of the work in others, the
following people have pledged standard collections for their re-
spective states:
Arizona Byrd Howell Granger, University of Arizona
Arkansas Mary Celestia Parler, University of Arkansas
California Wayland D. Hand, University of ~alifornia,
Los Angeles
Colorado Marjorie M. Kimmerle (deceased), Ben Gray
Lumpkin, University of Colorado
Florida Bertha E. Bloodworth, University of Florida
Georgia Ben W. Griffith and Wilson C. Snipes, Mercer
University
Idaho Jan Harold Brunvand, University of Idaho
Illinois Edith S. Krappe, Southern Illinois University
Indiana W. Edson Richmond, Indiana University
Kansas S. J. Sackett, Fort Hays Kansas State College,
and William E. Koch, Kansas State Uni-
versity.
Kentucky D. K. Wilgus, University of California, Los
Angeles
Louisiana Patricia K. Rickels, University of Southwest-
ern Louisiana
Maryland Dorothy Howard, Frostburg State Teachers
College
Michigan Richard M. Dorson, Indiana University, and
Aili K. Johnson, Franklin, Michigan
(rural); Thelma G. James, Wayne State
University (metropolitan centers)
 INTRODUCTION xix
Missouri \Villianl M. Jones, University of Missouri
Nebraska William B. Gibbon, University of Nebraska
Newfoundland Violetta !vI. Halpert and Herbert Halpert, Me-
morial University of Newfoundland
New Mexico James H. Penrod, Eastern New Mexico Univer-
sity
New York New York Folklore Society
North Dakota John L. Hancock, University of North Dakota
Nova Scotia Helen Creighton, National Museum of Canada
Ohio Newbell Niles Puckett, Western Reserve Uni-
versity
Oregon J. Barre Toelken, University of Oregon
Pennsylvania Robert H. Byington, Lycoming College
Quebec I.. uc Lacourciere, Laval University
Rhode Island George Monteiro, Brown University
South Carolina Louise Jones Du Bose, University of South
Carolina
South Dakota Wayland D. Hand, University of California,
Los Angeles
Texas George D. Hendricks, North Texas State Uni-
versity
Utah Wayland D. Hand, University of California,
and A. S. Cannon, University of Utah
Virginia Arthur Kyle Davis, Jr., University of Vir-
ginia
Washington Henry A. Person, University of Washington
West Virginia Ruth Ann Musick, Fairmont State College
Wisconsin IJee A. Burress, Jr., Wisconsin State College
Wyoming Velnla ~inford, Cheyenne
It is hoped that these state collections will be compiled within
five or six years' time, with all volumes scheduled to be in print
within a ten-year period, as a nlaximum. These broader surveys
will in no way obviate the need of special studies among occupa-
tional and ethnic groups. On the contrary, these larger studies
should stimulate interest in tnany special ways; above all, they are
bound to encourage the compilation of articles and monographs
dealing with special subject fields. Furthermore, the general interest
engendered should result in efforts to clarify the background and
meaning of many individual folk beliefs with regard to their cul-
tural setting. In short, whereas hitherto material has been collected
mainly with a view to getting it in the record, now we are ap-
proaching a point in our researches where function and meaning can
be studied with greater effect.
In the light of these extensive collecting plans, the Brown Col-
lection should be viewed as the first comparative work to come
forth, but not the last. It is likely, however-printing problems and
costs being what they are-that there will not soon be a general
xx INTRODUCTIO~

collection of the magnitude of the present collection from any single

state. Cali fomia collectanea, for example, will be issued in a series
of shorter monographic studies. Other volumes planned around the
United States will generally not contain extensive notes, even
though it is hoped that all will treat special items exhaustively
where the facts warrant. These studies are intended primarily to
add basic data to the swelling reservoir of published materials, and
thus to contribute to the shaping of reasonably full categories of
American folk belief and superstition.
As for the general plans with regard to the Dictionary: ex-
cerpting goes on year in and year out, with the end only now
coming dimly in sight. The searching for folk beliefs in legendry
and in custom and usage has now begun, and is bound to yield
many items now only little known. Efforts are also slowly turning
to older historical materials now that modern folklore sources have
been exploited, and are well on the way to being worked into the
files of the Dictionary. Even so, it is a matter of profound regret to
the Editor that some of the more promising of these folklore studies
could not have been utilized in the Brown Collection.
The Editor will be grateful for communications leading to the
discovery of fugitive materials likely to escape his view, and will
give credit for such help. The Dictionary project will depend on the
collaboration not only of the scholars whose names are listed above,
but of specialists working in all branches of folklore where pop-
ular beliefs and superstitions are to be found. Mirni Clar's excellent
article, "Folk Belief and Custom in the Blues" (Western F olklore J

XIX [1960J, 173-189) is a good example of the kind of a study

needed for the broader field of American balladry and folk song.
Similar investigations might be undertaken for the proverb and for
various genres of folk narrative. Folk beliefs exemplified in chil-
dren's games and verses-as witness the work of Stiickrath in
Germany-also provide the possibility for fruitful study. The
dramatic portrayal of folk belief in CUSt0111S and ritualistic prac-
tices, likewise, will show how basic to these categories are the folk
beliefs and superstitions that prescribe courses of action, whether
to do certain things or to avoid doing them at all cost.
Correspondence on matters pertaining to folk belief and super-
stition will be welcome, and the facilities of the Center for the
Study of Comparative Folklore and Mythology at the University
of California, Los Angeles, will continue to be available to in-
terested parties.
The notes to volume VII are richer, of course, than in the pre-
ceding volull1e, if but by the fact that some 150 new titles have
been brought under survey. As is common in works of this magni-
tude, a few individual items got lost in the vast body of material
being processed. These strays are presented in a special section of
Addenda, chapter by chapter, which has been made part of Chapter
XIV, Miscellaneous. They are numbered in sequence beginning
 INTRODUCTION xxi
with No. 8521, but numbers are also given in parentheses suggesting
where these misplaced items might have fallen in the body of the
work.
In a recheck of the original sources not used in the present
collection, a small body of material has come to light which is made
up of items coming from various states other than North Carolina.
Since primary data are involved and since the material is valuable,
it will be published as a special article in the Southern Folklore
Quarterly in 1965. Newspaper clippings in the Brown Collection
with no special relevance to North Carolina, undated items, feature
articles, and articles otherwise not identified in any way, will be
published later in various ways. Their connection with the Brown
corpus will in all cases be properly indicated.
 ADDITIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHY
FOR VOLUME VII
\\lITH SHORT TITLE LISTINGS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Anderson U rhan Anderson. "A Comparative Study of

Sonle of the Older Beliefs and Usages of
East Tennessee," TFSB, III (1937), 1-7.
Augar Pearl Hamelin Augar. "French Beliefs in
Clinton County," NYFQ, IV (1948), 161-
17 1 .
Aurand A. Monroe Aurand, Jr. Popu.lar Home
Remedies and Sup'erstitions of the Penn-
sylvania Germans. Harrisburg, 1941.
Babcock C. Merton Babcock. "Melville's Backwoods
Seamen," WF, x (1951), 126-133.
Bacon-Parsons A. M. Bacon and E. C. Parsons. "Folk-
Lore from Elizabeth City County, Vir-
ginia," JAFL, xxxv (1922),250-327.
Bandy Lewis David Bandy. "Witchcraft and Divi-
nation in Macon County," TFSB, IX, No.
2 (1943), 1-13·
Bass William W. Bass. "Dog Days: Some Notes
and a Few Superstitions," TFSB, XXII
(1956), 64-68.
Barker Addison Barker. "Weather Lore in Bl'um's
Almanac, 1844-195°," NCF, v, No. I
( 1957), I 1-19.
Baughman, Ernest W. Baughman. "Folk Sayings and
Sa'yings Beliefs," NMFR, IX (1954- 1955), 23-27-
Beck H. P. Beck. "Herpetological Lore from the
Blue Ridge," MF, II (1952), 141-15°.
Bergen, Fanny D. Bergen. "Burial and Holiday
Burial Custonls and Beliefs of the Irish Peas-
antry," JAFL, VIII (1895), 19-25-
13ergen, Fanny D. Bergen. "Some Bits of Plant
Plant Lore Lore," JAFL, V (1892), 19-22.
Bergen, Fanny D. Bergen. "Some Saliva Charms,"
Saliva JAFL, III (1890), 51-59.
xxiv ADDITION AL BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bergen-Newell Fanny D. Bergen and W. W. Newell.

"Topics for Collection of Folk-Lore,"
JAFL, IV ( 1891), 151-158.
Boas Franz Boas. "Current Beliefs of the Kwa-
kiutl Indians," JAFL, XLV (193 2 ), 177-
260.
Bond Clara Chisam Bond. "The Shore Sign,"
TFSB, XII, NO.4 (1946),3-7.
Boshears Frances Boshears. "Proverbial Compari-
sons from an East Tennessee County,"
TFSB, xx (1954), 27-41.
Bradley }1". W. Bradley. "South Carolina Proverbs,"
SFQ, I, No. I (1937), 57-101.
Brewster, Paul G. Brewster. "Stories of the Super-
Supernatural natural from Southern Indiana," SFQ, x
(1946 ), 227-234.
Briggs Harold E. Briggs. "Folklore of Southern
Illinois," SFQ, XVI (1952), 207-217.
Browne Ray B. Browne. Popular Beliefs and Prac-
tices from Alabama. University of Cali-
fornia Publications: Folklore Studies,
vol. 9. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1958.
Burridge Gaston Burridge. "Does the Forked Stick
Locate Anything? An Inquiry into the
Art of Dowsing," WF, XIV (1955), 32-
43·
Burton Glynn Burton. "Some Folkways of Lincoln
County Community," TFSB, XXI (1955),
3-8 .
Carr-Westez Lloyd G. Carr and Carlos Westez. "Sur-
viving Folktales and Herbal Lore among
the Shinnecock Indians of Long Island,"
JAFL, LVIII (1945), 113- 123.
Clar, Mimi Claro "Russian Folk Beliefs Collected
Russian in Los Angeles," WF, XVII (1958), 123-
126.
Collins Yandell Collins, Jr. "Superstitions and Be-
lief Tales fronl Louisville," KFR, IV
(1958 ), 71 -78.
Conlbs Josiah Henry Combs. "Symp'athetic
Magic in the Kentucky Mountains: Some
Curious Folk-Survivals," JAFL, XXVII
(19 1 4), 328-330 .
 ADDITION AL BIBLIOGRAPHY xxv
Cox John Harrington Cox. "The Witch Bridle,"
SFQ, VII (1943),2°3-209.
Crosby Rev. John R. Crosby. "Modern Witches of
Pennsylvania," JAFL, XL (192 7), 304-
309·
Cross Tom Peete Cross. "Folk-Lore from the
Southern States," JAFL, XXII (1909),
25 1 - 2 55.
rCulin] [Stewart Culin.] "Concerning Negro Sor-
cery in the United States," JAFL, III,
(1890), 281-287.
Davidson Levette J. Davidson. "Superstitions Col-
lected in Denver, Colorado," WF, XIII
(1954), 184- 189.
Davis Henry C. Davis. "Negro Folk-Lore in
South Carolina," JAFL, XXVII (1914),
241-2 54.
Day Cyrus L. Day. "Knots and Knot Lore,"
WF, IX (1950), 229-256.
Dober Virginia Dober. "We'll Tell 'Em," NCF,
IV) No. I (July 1956), 15-22.
Dorson, Richard M. Dorson. "Negro Tales of Mary
Negro Richardson," MF, VI (1956), 5-26.
Dorson, Richard M. Dorson. "Aunt Jane Goudreau,
Roup-Garou Roup-Garou Storyteller," WF, VI (1947),
13-27.
Driver Harold E. Driver. "A Method of Investi-
gating Individual Differences in Folklor-
istic Beliefs and Practices," MF, I (1951),
99- 105.
Earthman Glen Earthman. "Superstitions from Den-
ver," WF, XVI (1957), 132 - 133.
ERE James Hastings, ed. Encyclopaedia of Reli-
gion and Ethics. Reprint ed. 13 vols.
New York, 1956-1960.
Ericson, Eston Everett Ericson. "Folklore and Folk-
Tarboro way in the Tarboro (N. C.) Free Press
(1824-185°) ," SFQ, V (1941), 107-125.
Figh, Margaret Gillis Figh. "Folklore in Bill
Arp Arp's Works," SFQ, XII (1948 ), 169-
175·
xxvi ADDITION AL BIBLIOGRAPHY

Figh, Margaret Gillis Figh. "Folklore and Folk

Rawlings Speech in the Works of Marjorie Kinnan
Rawlings," SFQ, XI (1947), 201 -209.
Figh, Margaret Gillis Figh. "Folklore in the 'Ru-
Sanders fus Sanders' Sketches," SFQ, XIX
(1955), 185- 195.
Forster J. Margaret Forster. "Folklore of County
Monaghan, Ireland, Twenty Years
Later," CFQ, II (1943), 309-3 14.
Foster, James R. Foster. "Brooklyn Folklore,"
Brooklyn NYFQ, XIII (1957),83-91.
Gillis Everett A. Gillis. "Zodiac Wisdom," WF,
XVI (1957),77-89.
Grendan Felix Grendon. "The Anglo-Saxon
CharIns," JAFI~, XXII (1909), 105- 2 37.
Guerin \\Tayne Guerin. "Some Folkways of a
Stewart County Community," TFSB, XIX
(1953), 49-5 8 .
Halpert, \Tioletta l\'1. Halpert. "Death Beliefs from
Death Indiana," MF, II (1952), 205-219.
Halpert, Herbert Halpert. "The Devil and the Fid-
Fiddle dle." HFB, II (1943), 39-43.
Hand, \iVayland D. Hand. "California Miners'
Miners Folklore: Above Ground," CFQ, I
(1942), 24-46; "Below Ground," 127-
153·
Hand, \Vayland D. Hand. "Popular Beliefs and
Pennsylvania Superstitions from Pennsylvania," KFQ,
III (1958), 61-74; IV (1959), 106-120.
Hankey Rosalie Hankey. "California Ghosts." CFQ,
I (194 2 ), 155-177.
Harden John Harden. Tar Heel Ghosts. Chapel
Hill, North Carolina, 1954.
Harder, Kelsie B. Harder. HBeliefs and Customs in
Beliefs Perry County, Tennessee," TFSB, XXI
(1955), 9- 10•
Harder, Kelsie B. Harder. "Home Remedies in
Remedies Perry County, Tennessee," TFSB, XXII
(195 6 ),97-98 .
Harris Jesse W. Harris. "Some Southern Illinois
Witch I__ore," SFQ, X (1946), 183-190.
 ADDITION AL BIBLIOGRAPHY xxvii
Hatcher Mildred Hatcher. "Superstitions in Middle
Tennessee," SFQ, XIX (1955), ISO-ISS.
Hendricks George D. Hendricks. "Superstitions Col-
lected in D'enton, Texas," WF, xv
(1956), 1-18.
Hickerson Daisy Faulkner Hickerson. "My Black
MamnlY Cautions Me," TFSB, xv
(1949), 16- 17.
I-Iudson, Arthur Palnler Hudson and Pete Kyle Mc-
Bell Witch Carter. "The Bell Witch of Tennessee
and Mississippi: A Folk Legend," JAFL.
XLVII (1934),45-63.
Hurdle Virginia Jo Hurdle. "Folklore of a Negro
Couple in Henry County," TFSB, XIX
(1953), 7 1-78.
Hurley Gerard T. Hurley. "Buried Treasure Tales
in America," WF, X (1951), 197-216.
Hurston Zora Hurston. "Hoodoo in America,"
JAFL, XLIV (1931),317-417.
Jackson Margaret Y. Jackson. "Folklore in Slave
Narratives before the Civil War,"
NYFQ, XI (1955),5-19.
Jeffrey IJoycl N. Jeffrey. "Snake- Yarns of the
West and Southwest," WI~~, XIV (I95S),
246-2 58 .
Jenness Diatnond Jenness. "Myths of the Carrier
Indians of British Columbia," JAFL,
XLVII (1934), 97- 2 57.
Johnson, John H. Johnson. "Folk-Lore from Anti-
Antigua gua, British West Indies," JAFL, XXXIV
(1921 ), 40-88.
Jones, Louis C. Jones. "The Devil in York
Devil State," NYFQ, VIII (195 2 ), 5-19.
Jones, I-.Jouis C. Jones. "The Evil Eye among Eu-
Evil Eye ropean-Americans," WF, X (1951), 11-
25·
Jones, Louis C. Jones. "The Ghosts of New York:
Ghosts An Analytical Study," J AFL, LVII
(1944), 237-2 54.
Kellner Esther Kellner. "Token Stories of Indi-
ana," MF, III (1953), 223-230.
xxviii ADD1TION AL BIBLIOGRAPHY

KFQ Keystone Folklore Quarterly. Lewisburg,

Pennsylvania, 1956 ft.
Kimmerle Marjorie M. Kimmerle. "A Weather Al-
manac for Colorado," The Colorado
Quarterly} VII (1958), 68-79.
Kirtley Bacil F. Kirtley, ed. "Folklore froln Aroos-
took C:ounty, Maine, and Neighboring
Canada," NF, I (1958),33-47,65-73.
I<ittredge G. L. Kittredge. "Signs and Omens of the
Signs Eighteenth Century," JAFL, XXVIII
(19 15), 191- 194.
Klauber Laurence M. Klauber. Rattlesnakes. Their
Habits) Life Histories and Influence on
Mankind. 2 vals. Berkelev and Los
Angeles, 1956. .,
Kuusi Matti Kuusi. Regen bei Sonnenschein. Zur
Weltgeschichte einer Redensart. FFC,
No. 171. Helsinki, 1957.
I.. assiter Y\T. R. Lassiter. "Why I'm an Old Bache-
lor," TFSB, XIII (1947),27-35.
Loomis, C. Grant Loomis. "Chinese Lore from
Chinese Nevada, 1867-1878," CFQ, v (1946),
r85-196.
Loomis, (~. Grant Loo'mis, "Superstitions and Beliefs
Swift in Swift" [being extracts from A Com-
plete Collection of Genteel and Ingenious
Conversation], WF, xv (1956), 126-128.
Lopez Mary Lopez. "Superstitions," WVF, VII
(1957), 38-44.
McAtee, \\T. I .. McAtee. "Odds and Ends of North
Birds American Folklore on Birds," MF, v
(1955), 16g- I8 3·
McAtee, vV. L. McAtee. "Some Folklore of Grant
Grant County County, Indiana, in the Nineties," MF, I
(195 1 ), 243- 267.
McCadden Helen M. McCadden. "Folklore in the
Schools," NYFQ, III (1947), 330-340.
McKinney Ida Mae McKinney. "Superstitions of the
Missouri Ozarks," T'FSB, XVIII (I952),
104- 1 09.
 ADDITION AL BIBLIOGRApHY xxix
Meeker, Doret Meeker. "Back to the Blanket: Lore
Blanket of Steuben County," NYFQ, VIII (1952),
165- 1 90.
Melusine AI elusine. Receuil de Mythologie} Littera-
ture Populaire} Traditions et Usages. XI
vols. Paris, 1878-1912.
Millard Eugenia L. Millard. "Children's Charms
I and Oracles," NYFQ, VII (195 1), 253-
268.
Millard Eugenia L. Millard. "Children's Charms
II and Oracles," NYFQ, VIII (1952),46-57.
Miller Mary E. Miller. "A Folklore Survey of
Dickson County, Tennessee," TFSB,
XXIV (195 8 ), 57-71.
Milling Chapman J. Milling. "Is the Serpent Tale
an Indian Survival?" SFQ, I) No. I
(1937), 43-55·
Musick, Ruth Ann Musick. "West Virginia Ghost
Ghosts Stories," MF, VIII (1958), 21-28.
Musick, Ruth Ann Musick. "Weather and Planting
Weather Signs," WVF, III (1953),43-45.
NCF North Carolina Folklore. Chapel Hill,
N. C., 1948 ff.
Newell, William W. Newell. "Myths of Voodoo
Voodoo Worship and Child Sacrifice in Hayti,"
JAFL, I (1888), 16-30.
NF Northeast Folklore. Orono, Maine, 1958 fI.
NMFR New Mexico Folklore Record. 10 vot&
Albuquerque, New Mexico, 1946-1956.
Nuttall Zelia Nuttall. "A Note on Ancient Mexican
Folk-Lore," JAFL, VIII (1895), 117-129.
ODEP Oxford Dictionary of English Proverbs.
Compo William George Smith and Janet
E. Hese1tine, 2 ed., rev. by Sir Paul
Harvey. Oxford, 1952.
Opie Iona and Peter Opie, eds. The Oxford Dic-
tionary of Nursery Rhymes. Corrected
Edition. Oxford, 1952.
Padilla Floy Padilla. "Witch Stories from Tapia
Azul and Tres Fulgores," NMFR, VI
(1951-1952) '. 11-19·
xxx ADDITION AL BIBLIOGRAPHY

PADS Publications of the American Dialect So-

ciety. Greensboro, North Carolina, 1944
ff.
Page l\tIarion T. Page (Mrs.) "Superstitions at
Home," TFSB, xx (1954),53-56.
Papashvily Helen Papashvily. "The World in a Cali-
fornia Street: Stockton, 1911-1920," WF,
x (1951),117-125.
Parsley Coy Harlan Parsley. "Ollie Oddities,"
KFR,I (1955),61-79.
Parsons J~lsie Clews Parsons. "Folk-Lore of the
Cape Verde Islanders," JAFL, XXXIV
(1921 ), 89- 1 09.
Parsons Mildred Parsons. "Negro Folklore from
Negro Fayette County," TFSB, XIX (1953), 67-
70.
Pearce T. 1\;1. Pearce. "The Bad Son ( El Mal
Hijo) in Southwestern Spanish Folk-
lore," \iVF, IX (1950), 295-3°1.
l)endleton 1-4ouis Pendleton. "Notes on Negro Folk-
Lore and Witchcraft in the South,"
JAFL, III (IBgo), 201-207_
Person l-lenry i\. Person. "Proverbs and Proverb-
ial Lore fronl the State of Washington,"
WF, XVII (1958), 176-185.
Petroff L,ouis Petroff. "Magical Beliefs and Prac-
tices in Old Bulgaria," MF, VII (1957),
21 4- 220.
Randolph, Mary Claire Randolph. "Rat Satires and
Rat the Pied Piper of Hamelin Legend,"
SFQ, v (1941),81-100.
Ratcliff Lucetta K. Ratcliff. "Some Folklore from
Bicol Province, Philippine Islands," WF,
x (1951), 231-236.
Reynolds Hubert Reynolds. "Grandma's Handbook,"
TFSB, XVI (1950), 13- 1 4.
Richmond, \V. Edson Richmond. "Some Weather Lore
Weather from Indiana," MF, VIII (1958), 183-
184.
Rickard J. A. Rickard. "How to Collect Folklore,"
TFSB, I (1935), 4- 11.
 ADDITION AL BIBLIOGRAPHY xxxi
Roberts, LeonardW. Roberts. "Floyd County Folk-
Floyd c'ounty lore," KFR II (1956 ), 33-66.
Roberts, A. H. Roberts. "We Aren't Magicians, But
Magicians . . . .: Verbal Charms Survive in the
Machine Age," TFSB, XVIII (1952),82-
84·
Rogers, E. G. Rogers. "Some Animal Superstitions
Animal fronl Marshall County, Tennessee," SFQ,
XVIII (1954), 233-238.
Rogers, E. G. Rogers. "Guideposts to Fortune,"
Guideposts TFSB, XVI (1950),31-37.
Rogers, W. Stuart Rogers. "Irish Lore Collected in
Irish Schenectady," NYFQ, VIII (1952), 20-
3°·
Rogers, E. G. Rogers. "Switching for Water,"
Water TFSB, XXI (1955), 108-111.
Salisbury ]ess.e Salisbury. A Glossary of Words and
Phrases Used in S.E. Worcestershire.
English Dialect Society, Series C. Origi-
nal Glossaries, No. 72 . London, 1894.
Shoemaker, Henry W. Shoemaker. "Neighbors: The
Werwolf Werwolf in Pennsylvania," NYFQ, VII
(195 1 ), 145- 15S·
Shultis N eva Shultis. "Woodstock Lore," NYFQ,
XIII (1957), 218-220.

Simon, Gwladys Hughes Simon. "Ceylonese Beliefs

Animals about Animals," WF, XIII (1954), 260-
267.

Simon, Gwladys Hughes Simon. ·"Beliefs and Cus-

Beliefs toms Reported by Students at Tokyo
American School," WF, XII (1953), 85-
93·
Simon, Gwladys Hughes Simon. "General Intro-
Ceylon duction to Ceylon Folklore," WVF, IV
(1954), 38-5 0 [esp. 40 -44].
Simon, Gwladys Hughes Simon. "Proverbs from
Proverbs Ceylon about Animals,." WF, xv (1956),
262-281.

Soldan-Heppe W. G. Soldan. Soldan's Geschichte der

H exenprozesse. N eu bearbeitet von
Heinrich Heppe. 2 vols. Stuttgart, 1880.
xxxii ADDITION AI., BIBLIOGRAPHY

Speck, Frank G. Speck. "Penobscot Tales and Re-

Penobscot ligious Beliefs," JAFL, XLVIII (1935),
1-107·
Starr Frederick Starr. "Some Pennsylvania Ger-
man Lore," JAFL, IV (1891),321-326.
Stephens Claude E. Stephens. "Witching for Water
in Oregon," WF, XI (1952),204-2°7.
Stewart Rosalyn M. Stewart. "Forecasting the
Weather," KFR, III (1957), 15-16.
Taylor, Archer Tavlor. An Index to ({The Prov-
Index erb.}) FFC, No. 113. Helsinki, 1934. [cit-
ed: FFC I 13] .
Thompson, Lawrence S. Thompson. "More Buzzard
Buzzard Lore," KFR, IV (1958), 155-162.
Tillhagen Carl-Herman Tillhagen. "The Conception
of the Nightmare in Sweden." In :
Humaniora. Essays in Literature~ Folk-
lore~ and Bibliography Honoring Archer
Taylor on His Seventieth· Birthday. Lo-
cust Valley, New York, 1960, pp. 317-
32 9.
Vine Louis L. Vine. "Dogs in Folklore and
Fact," NCF, VII) NO.2 (1959), 18-22.
Walker John Walker. "A Sampling of Folklore
from Rutherford County, North Caro-
lina," NCF, III, NO.2 (D'ec. 1955),6-16.
Walker, Warren S. Walker. "Water-Witching in
Water-Witching Central Illinois," MF, VI (1956 ), 197-
203.
'Vallis Wilson D. Wallis. "Beliefs and Tales of the
Canadian Dakota," JAFL, XXXVI
(1923),36-101.
Webb, Wheaton P. Webb. "Witches in the Cooper
Witches Country," NYFQ, I (1945), 5-20.
\Vells J. C. Wells. "Weather and Moon Supersti-
tions in Tennessee," JAFL, VI (1893),
2g8-300.
Wilson, Thomas Wilson. "The Amulet Collection of
A1nulet Professor Belucci," JAFL, IV (ISgI),
144- 1 46 .
 ADDITION AL BIBLIOGRAPHY xxxiii
Wilson, Eddie W. Wilson. "Some American Fish-
Fishing ing Superstitions," MF, v (1955), 217-
220.
Wilson, Eddie W. Wilson. "The Gourd in Folk
Gourd Symbolism," WF, x (1951), 162-164.
Wilson, Eddie W. Wilson. "American Indian Con-
Saliva cept of Saliva," MF, I (1951), 229-232.
Wilson, Eddie W. Wilson. "The Spider and the
Spider American Indian," WF, x (1951), 290-
297·
Wine Martin L. \Vine. "Superstitions Collected
in Chicago," MF, VII (1957), 149-159.
Woods Barbara Allen Woods. "The Devil in Dog
Form," WF, XIII (1954), 229-235.
Yates Irene Yates. "Conjures and Cures in the
Novels of Julia Peterkin," SFQ, x
(1946 ), 137- 1 49.
POPULAR BELIEFS
AND

SUPERSTITIONS
FROM

NORTH CAROLINA
 VII

DEATH AND FUNEREAL

CUSTOMS

INFANTS, CHILDREN

Stars, Prenatal Influe'nces, Drowning

4874 Every time a star falls, it is the sign of a baby's death.
Anonyomus. Cf. HDA VIII, 471; Nos. 5143 fl., below.

4875 If a bird lights upon a pregnant woman, her child will die.
Rebecca Willis (Texas).

4876 Many people believe that the cord may become twisted
about a baby's neck and strangle it.
Green Collection. Fear of entangling the umbilical cord around the
unborn child's neck and strangling it is expressed in various ways. North
Carolina: N eu~sweek, Aug. 10, 1953, p. 72 (mother should not hang up
curtains) - K entuc ky : F owler, No. 5 (reaching above her he~d) -
Georgia: Steiner, No. 91 (carrying water bucket on head) - Alabama:
Browne, No. 15 (sleeping with arms over head); No. 16 (raising arms
over head) - Nova Scotia: Creighton, 16, No. 20 (crawling under
fence) - Pe1l,ns:ylvania: Fogel, No. 1881 (passing under washline [Ger-
man]) - Illinois: Hyatt, No. 2409 (washline) ; No. 2410 (crawling under
fence or through hole in the fence); No. 241 I (stooping): No. 2412
(reaching above head); No. 2413 (sleeping with arms stretched over
head) .--HDA VII, 1424; IX, 97; Schrijnen I, 247 f.; Gallop, Portugal,
85·
48 77 For the mother to drink much water before the baby is
born n1ay drown it.
Green Collection.

4878 The first time a child is ever carried out in the open air,
you must not cross water with him. If you do, he will be
drowned before reaching maturity.
Alex Tugman, Todd, Ashe County. Cf. HDA II, 1685 (die before two
years, but not by drowning).

Nam.ing~ Physical Activity) Care of Child

4879 If several children in a family die, the next one should be
named "Clay." It is sure to live.
Green Collection. Cf. RDA VI, 965 (call him Erd'1'1'lllJlJ1" lit., 'earth
man') ; Nos. 159, 161, above.
4 NORTH CAROLINA FOLKLORE

4880 Never measure the length of a baby under a year. It will

be measured for its coffin beforethe year is over.
Green Collection. General: I(nortz, 9 - South: Puckett, 339 (Negro) -
Georgia: Bergen, Current, No. 59; Moore, 305 (Negro) - New Eng-
land: Black, Folk-Medicine, 181 (measure the child for its coffin) -
Illinois: Hyatt, No. 2781 (it will not live to reach its second year) -
Texas: Turner, 161 (rneasure its coffin) .--....--HDA IV, 603; Schrijnen I
250.

4881 Do not cut the child's hair before he is eight lllonths old,
or he will die.
Mildred Peterson, Bladen county; Zilpah Frisbie, Marion, Mcpowell
county; and Miss Mamie Mansfield, Durham county. Kentucky: Thomas,
No. 58 (a year old).-HDA I, rog.

4882 If a person cuts a baby's hair before it is one year old, it

is a sign the baby will not live another year.
Miss Mamie Mansfield, Durham county. "I know of a case in West
Durham." Cf. No. 4881, above.--Cf. HDA IV, 1320.

4883 If children shed their teeth before they are seven, they
will die before they are eleven.
Anonymous. Cf. Nova Scotia: Fauset, No. 352 (before six months).

4884 If a child falls off the bed before he is a year old, he will
never be raised.
Green Collection. Cf. Tennessee: Rogers, 38 f. (to fall off the bed before
the child was eleven months old indicated it would die before it was
a year old).

4885 If a baby doesn't fall off a bed before it is a year old, it

will not live to be grown.
Anonymous. Kentucky: Thomas, No 74 - Tennessee: Farr, Children,
No. 76 - Illinois: Smith II, 67, NO.2 - California: Dresslar, 26 (it
will die young)

4886 If one steps across a child, it will die unless the person
steps back.
Miss Mamie Mansfield, Durham county. Tennessee: Farr, Children, No.
75 (die within the year) - Indiana: Halpert, Death, 218, No. 19
(within year). Cf. No. 182, above.

4887 It is bad luck to "push" a bright child, for if the_ child is

precocious, there is danger that it will die.
Miss Fannie Vann, Clinton, Sampson county, and an anonymous infornl-
ant. In none of the following- references is mention made of "pushing"
the precocious child. Cf. Kentucky: Thomas, No. 72 (a child prema-
turely wise will not live long) - Ontario: Wintemberg, German II, 93
(German) ; idem) Waterloo, 10 - Penns},h'ania: Fogel, 166 (precocious
children will not live long [German]) ; ide1n, Proverbs, No. 749 (you are
 SUPERSTITIONS: DEATH AND FUNEREAL CUSTOMS 5
too smart; you won't live long [German]) - Illinois: Hyatt, No. 2743
(will not reach maturity) - Washington: Tacoma, 23. The related
proverbial notion, "The good die young," is widely known thrQughout
the United States. Cf. No. 218, above.--HDA IV, 1312 (a child that
thrives too well during the first year "wachst dem Himmel z~," i.e.,
grows toward heaven) ; McCartney, 126; Shakespeare: Richard III, III,
I, 79 ( "So wise so young, they say, do never live long").

Animals and Plants

4888 A cat should not be left in the room with a sleeping baby,
for it might suck the baby's breath and kill it.
Green Collection, and anonymous informant, and three other infqrmants
from Durham and Vance counties. General: Bergen, Animal, No. 928 -
South: Puckett, 470 (Negro) - South Carolina: Bryant I, 288, NO.4
- Maryland: Whitney-Bullock, No. 1964 - Kentucky: Thomas, No. 3310
- Ontario: Wintemberg, Waterloo, 6 (will strangle the infant by lying
across its chest) - New England: Johnson, What They Say, 152 f.
(long discussion) - Pennsylvania: Brinton, 181; Hoffman II, 27 (Ger-
man) ; Sener, 242 (steals the baby's breath and causes its early death) -
Ozarks: Randolph, 205. Cf. No. 267, above.--HDA IV, 1320; Gregor,
123; Lean II, 113.

4889 Transplanting parsley will cause the death of one's chil-

dren.
Rebecca Willis (Texas). In only the Williamson reference are children
specifically mentioned. South: Puckett, 429 (family [Negro]) - Louisi-
ana: Roberts, No. 1137 (family); Williamson, No. 32 (one's children
[Negro]) - Pennsylvania: Fogel, No. 969 (family [German]); Hoff-
tnan I, 130 (German) .--HDA VI, 1528.

Miscellaneous
4890 If an empty cradle is rocked, the baby will die.
Rebecca Willis (Texas). South: Puckett, 339 (Negro) - Louisiana:
Williamson, No. 17 (Negro) - Florida: Hauptmann, 26 (Spanish) -
New York: Bergen, Curren.f, No. 49 -Pennsylvania: Fogel, No. 525
(will not live long [German]) - Pennsylvania: Phillips, 160, No. 13 -
Illinois: Hyatt, No. 2741 - Ozarks: Randolph, 309 (for the cr~dle to
rock without any visible reason; not mentioned whether the cr~dle is
occupied) -California: Dresslar, 26. Cf. Nos. 201 f., above.--Radford,
25,91 (Holland also), 204; HDA VII, 1080; Schrijnen 1,250.

4891 Never let a baby sleep in a dead baby's cradle.

Helen Fraser Smith.

4892 The child who looks in a mirror very young will die.
Mildred Peterson, Bladen county. Nova Scotia: Creighton, 16, No. 23 -
On.tario: Wintemberg, German II, 89 (will not become very old [Ger-
man]) - Illinois: Wheeler, 63 f. (will not live long) - Ozarks: Ran-
dolph,207 (will not reach maturity) - New Mexico: Espinosa, 415, No.
6 (Spanish). Cf. Nos. 255, 671, above.-HD'A IX (Suppl.), 566.
6 NORTH CAROLINA FOLKLORE

4893 Hold a baby to a looking glass, and he will die before he

con1pletes his first year.
Lucille Massey, Durham county, an anonymous informant, and four other
informants from central counties. All of the items cited here involve
either the child's seeing itself in a mirror before the first year, and dying,
or seeing itself and dying before it is a year old. Unless otherwise speci-
fied, and thus differing from the text of the present item, the child itself
initiates the action. General: Chamberlain, Superstitions, 145 - Ken-
tucky: Thomas, No. 63; No. 65 (if you show a baby itself ... before it
is six months old, etc.) ; Price, 37 - Tennessee: Farr, Children, No. 77
- Mississippi: Hudson, 149, NO.4 (if a baby is shown a mirror, etc.) -
:..V07Jcz. Scotia: Fauset, No. 355 - Ontario: Wintemberg, Waterloo, 10
- .l'1ew Engla,nd: Johnson, What They Say, 112 - .Alaine: Bergen,
Current, No. 35 - Massachusetts, Bergen, Current, No. 36 (pold a
baby to a looking glass, etc.) - N l?'W York: Gardner, No. 288 - I ndi-
ana: Halpert, Death, 218, No. 18 - Illinois: Allison, No. 436; Hyatt,
No. 2832 (show a baby its reflection, etc.) ; Norlin, 21 I, No. 49 (before
three months); Smith II, 66, No. I - [o1.oa: Stout, No. 23; No. 35
(looks at self before six months, die within year) - Nebraska: Cannell,
23, No. 38; Ericson, IS0, No. 6 -- California: Dresslar, 26, 54.i also
on same page (54): ". . . before their ears are pierced, they will die
soon") - Washington: Tacon1a, I8-Radford, 25, 174.
4894 If a baby is allowed to look in a mirror before it is one
year old, it will die before it is seven.
A.n anonymous informant, and Pearl Forbes (Tennessee). Cf. Kentucky:
Thomas, No. 64 (die before two years) - 0 za-rks: Randolph, 309
(sanle) - Texas: Turner. 161 (die before three years) .--Cf. HDA IX
( Suppl.), 566.

4895 Do not let a baby look in a mirror before it is two years

old. If so, it will die before it is ten years old.
}-:dna Arrowhead, Buladean, Mitchell County, and an anonymous inform-
ant.

Burial of Children
4896 Southern Negroes believe implicitly In burying children
with the face down.
Helen Fraser Smith. North Can)lina: Brewster, Customs~ 256; cf. also
pp. 224 f. For a discussion of this custom, African and American Negro,
see Puckett, pp. 100, 107.

Mother
4897 If you turn over the bedtick before the baby is nine days
old, the mother will die.
Edith Walker, Watauga county. Cf. South: Richardson, 247 (you must
not turn over the quilts or pillows in the bed where the child was born,
for a whole month, or the mother will take a cold from which she will
never recover [Negro]) - Ozarks: Randolph, 204 (bedding should not
be changed for nine days, but death is not mentioned as following the
 SUPERSTITIONS: DEATH AND FUNEREAL CUSTOMS 7
breaking of the tabu). Cf. No. 67, above-Hovorka-Kronfeld II, 597;
Harland-Wilkinson, 26 I.
4898 The mother or child will die if the bed is swept under
within nine days.
Green Collection. Cf. Alabama: Browne, No. 63 (don't sweep under a
new mother's bed; she will never arise if you do) - Tennessee: Rogers,
39 (both mother and child; no time limit mentioned for sweeping) -
Ozarks: Randolph, 201 (mother; no time limit).
4899 If a mother eats fish before the baby is a month old, death
will follow.
Mrs. Norman Herring, Tomahawk, Sampson county.
4900 If a glass is broken in the room, the mother will die at
childbirth.
Green Collection. Cf. HDA III, 853.

ADULTS
General
4901 The big "M" in the lines of the palm is taken by fortune
tellers to indicate death.
Mrs. Nilla Lancaster, Goldsboro, \\T ayne county. Cf. HDA II, 52.
4902 It is said a person born in November seldom dies a natu-
ral death.
Green Collection. Cf. Maryland: Whitney-Bullock, No. 2300 (Whitsun-
day or the day thereafter) - Pennsylvania: Starr, 322 (boy bOJ:n Jan-
uary I).
4903 Deaths do not come singly. If one member of a family
dies, a second death in the same family will come within a year.
Death, having found his way to a certain household, is more
likely to arrive a second time.
Elizabeth Sutton, Durham, and others. J.V orill Carolina: Hoke, I 15 -
Kentucky: Thomas, No. 728 - Massachusetts: Bergen, Current, No. 1220
- California: Dresslar, 122 (if one member of a family dies, anot4er will
soon follow, or else two more in the neighborhood will die), ibid. (two
in the same neighborhood) - Washington: Tacoma, 30. More prevalent,
in a ratio of at least four to one in published examples, is the notion of
death's occurring in three's.--HDA VI, 768; Lean II, 572 (quoting
Longfellow's The Golden Legend VI).
4904 Suicides never come singly. One is always followed by
another.
Mrs. Luchans. New England: JAFL VII (1894),219.
4905 If thirteen people meet together, the first one to leave will
die within a year.
Green Collection. Cf. No. 5074, below.
8 NORTH CAROLIN A FOLKLORE

4906 1'0 change the name of a person will cause his death.
Lucille Massey, Durham county. Kentucky: Thomas, No. 3906 - Illi-
nois: Hyatt, No. 10652 (changing Christian name) - Texas: Hendricks,
No. 131 - California: Dr~sslar, 26 (baby's name).

4907 If anyone calls your name, and you answer, or go to see,

and find no one has called you, you are going to die. The spirit
of your dead father or mother, or some other deceased relative
has called you. So, if you are called, do not answer.
Mrs. Luchans. "Forerunners" of death of this kind are numerous, and
references are therefore limited to items involving the calling of one's
name in some supernatural or mysterious way. South: Puckett, lIS
(Negro), 463 (someone calling you three times in your sleep [Negro])
- Kentucky: Thomas, No. 3896 (it brings death to answer a mysterious
voice [Negro]) - Nova Scotia: Creighton, 25, NO.7 (narrative details)
- New York: NYFQ VI (1950), 167 (details) - Indiana: IJalpert,
Death, 212 - Illinois: Hyatt, Nos. 9751-9756 (intimate narratives), No.
9757 (do not answer, etc.), No. 9758 (if you think someone called and
you answer, then discover your mistake, it is a token of your death).--
Henderson, 45; Radford, 100.

4908 The person whose name is called last by a dying person

will be the next to go.
Clara Hearne, Roanoke Rapids, Halifax county.

4909 If anyone follows you and walks in your tracks, you will
die.
Anonymous. Cf. Illinois: Hyatt, No. 10178 (a member of your family
will die if you walk on the cracks of lines in a sidewalk) - Ozarks:
Randolph,60 (unwise to step in anyone's tracks in the snow or mud, with
resulting headaches or blindness). The utilization of the dirt froqi one's
footsteps or tracks is well known, of course, in conj ury of all kinds.

Death Bell~ Singing~ Noises

4910 Ringing in the ears is the tolling of the death bell.
Louise Lucas, White Oak, Bladen county, and the Green Coll~ction
("When my mother died, a neighbor said next day: 'I knowed they's
something happening som~wh~re. The death bells rung in my head all
the whole evening. I told Alfred,'" etc.). General: Knortz, 40 - Mary-
land: Whitney-Bullock, No. 780 - West Virginia: Sanders, 20 -
Tennessee: Guerin, 56; Hatcher, 152; McGlasson, 23, NO.9; Redfield,
No. 304 - Louisiana: Roberts, No. 193 (death in the family) - Ala-
batna: Browne, No. 3137 - Prince Edward Island: Bergen, Current, No.
1215 - New England: Bergen et al., 18, No. 34 - NeuJ York: G~rdner,
No. 19B (heard in the afternoon or night) - Ohio: Bergen, Current,
No. 1214 (actual account) ; JAFL II (1889), 72 (A funeral is near,/For
the death bell is tolling e'en now in mine ear [part of a long folk dog-
gerel]) - Indiana: Busse, 26, No. 36 - Illinois: Hyatt, No. 9909.--
Napier, 57 (deid bells),. HDA VIII, 1000.
 SUPERSTITIONS: DEATH AND FUNEREAL CUSTOMS 9
4911 If you hear a buzzing ring in your ear, you will soon hear
of death.
Elsie Doxey, Currituck county. Only the second Illinois item (Norlin)
specifies a "buzzing ring." Unless otherwise noted, reference is to ring-
ing in the ears. General: Bergen, Current, No. 1213 - South: Duncan,
235, No.2 - Georgia: Figh, Arp, 173 - Alabama: Browne, No. 3138
(left ear: woman); No. 3139 (right: man) - Nova Scotia: Fauset,
No. 203 (right ear: woman); No. 204 (left: man) - Massachusetts:
Bergen et al., 17, No. 34 - Pennsylvania: Shoemaker, 19 - India11..a:
Halpert, Death, 211; 212 (if your ear rings in tolling fashion, you will
die) - Illinois: Hyatt, No. 991 I (a rumbling noise in the left ear) ;
Norlin, 203, No. 13 - New Mexico: Espinosa, 416, No. 30 (people fear
death and cross themselves, saying, "Anda la muerta cerca" [Spanish])
- California: Dresslar, 103 (left ear) - Washington: Tacoma, 19.--
HDA VI, 1215; VIII, 1000.

4912 A ringing in your ears is the sign of the future death of

some friend or relative of whose death you will hear before the
week is out.
Professor ]. T. C. Wright, Boone, Watauga county, and nine other
informants. In only the first Bergen item is there mention of a time
limit. General: Bergen et al., 18, No. 34; Bergen-Newell, 154 (friend) -
Kentucky: Tholnas, No. 811 (family) - Indiana: Halpert, Death, 211
(someone you know) - Illinois: Hyatt, No. 9910 (right ear: family) -
Iowa: Stout, No. 218 (if you hear a death-knell tingling in your ear,
there will be a death in the family soon) - Ozarl,s: Randolph, 302 (a
ringing in the ears, the jingle of the so-called death bells, means that
somebody near you is about to die; a little tinkling sound means the
death of a close friend or relative).

4913 When you have a peculiar ringing in your ear-a death

bell-somebody you know has died or is going to die in the
direction your ear is turned.
R. T. Dunstan, Greensboro. General: Bergen, Current, No. 1216 -
South: Puckett, 462 (Negro) - Tennessee: Carter, 3; Frazier, 39, No.
7 (known as the death bell).

4914 If you have a kind of ringing in your right or left ear, it

is called a death bell, and you will hear of a death in the direc-
tion of east or west.
Miss Fannie Vann, Clinton, Sampson county. Kentucky: Carter, Moun-
tain, 15.
4915 If you hear singing or music in the night, it is a token of
someone's death.
Anonymous. West Virginia: MF II (1952),266 (example of boy hearing
"In the Sweet By and By" when no one else heard it, and then later
learning that his grandmother had died) - Indiana: Brewster, Supernat-
ural, 233 (singing: similar to above) - Illinois: Hyatt, Nos. 10011-
10015 (all deal with supernatural music as a forerunner of death). Cf.
Nos. 4907 f., above--Thiselton Dyer, Ghost World, 412 f., 424 f.; HDA
IX ( Suppl.), 483.
10 NORTH CAROLIN A FOLKLORE

4916 If one sings in the morning before getting out of bed, it

means the death of a friend.
Miss Mamie Mansfield, Durham county. Cf. California: Dresslar, 87
(singing at the table).

Choking, Itching, Shivering, TUfitching, etc.

4917 If you get choked, you will hear of a death.
Anonymous.

4918 If your left eyebrow itches, you will see a corpse.

Green Collection. All references are to the left eye rather than to the left
eyebrow, unless otherwise stated, and all refer to death rather than to a
corpse. South: Puckett, 449 (left eye quivering on New Year's Day:
death in fatuity in less than two months' time [Negro]) - New York:
Gardner, No. 199 (if the eye twitches: someone is walking on the place
where you are going to be buried) - Indiana: Halpert, Death, 213 (left
eye jumping) - Illinois: Hyatt, No. 9914 (If your left eye itches for two
days, either your brother or your sister will be lost by death) ; No. 9916
(feet burning and eye jumping at same time: death in family within two
weeks).--HDA IV, 793.

4919 When the lower part of the spine itches, a Chinaman has
died.
L. B. Brantley, Zebulon, Wake county. Philippines: Meeker, 290.

4920 When the flesh jumps, it is a sign of death.

Constance Patten, Greensboro. RDA III, 144.

4921 When you shiver without any cause, someone is walking

where your grave will be.
Fawn Watson, West Durham, and an anonymous informant. G~neral:
Bergen, Current, No. 1229 - New England·: Johnson, What They Say,
166 (shivering on a warm day) - Pennsylvania: Phillips, 159, NO.4;
Shoemaker, 19 - Illinois: Hyatt, No. 10327 - Nebraska: Cannell, 33,
No. 46 - California: Dresslar, 105, 137; Papashvily, 1I8.--Napier,
138; Udal, 183, 285; Simon, 90.

4922 If your left foot itches, you will walk on fresh graveyard
dirt.
Green Collection. Cf. South: Puckett, 45 I (right foot itching: you are
standing over a grave [Negro]) - Maryland: Whitney-Bullock, No. 789
(you will walk in graveyard) - Kentucky: KFR III (1957), 74 (same
as text, except for right foot); Thomas, No. 981 (you will soon walk
on the ground that you will later be buried in) - Tennessee: ~razier,
47, No.8 (itches under the bottom: you are going to the graveyard)
Alabama: Browne, No. 3200 (if your foot itches, you'll go to a funeral)
-California: Dresslar, 104 (if your foot itches, you will walk on dead
men's graves).
 SUPERSTITIONS: DEATH AND FUNEREAL CUSTOMS II

4923 If you shudder without any cause, someone has stepped

over your grave.
Green Collection, and an anonymous informant. Kentucky: Thom~s, No.
718 - Maryland: Whitney-Bullock, No. 810 - New Hampshire: Ber-
gen, Current, No. 1371.--Loomis, Swift, 128, No. 31.

Sneezing
4924 When you are sitting on the front porch and sneeze three
times in succession, it is a sign that a corpse will pass your house
the same day.
Green Collection.

4925 I f one sneezes at the table, he will soon hear of a death.

Fawn Watson, West Durham, and Julian P. Boyd. Maryland: Whitney-
Bullock, No. 817 (a sign of death, either more or fewer being at the
table next meal) -- Kentucky: Thomas, No. 1049; No. 1888 (l?-ear of
a death before night) - Alabama: Woodall,325 (death in the fam.ily) -
Pennsylvania: Fogel, No. 568 (German) - Illinois: Hyatt, No. 10122 -
Washington: Tacoma, 31 (death before night).

4926 If you sneeze at the table, you will hear of a death before
the week is out.
1. G. Greer, Boone, Watauga county, and Zilpah Frisbie, Marion,
McDowell county. Cf. Alabanla: Browne, No. 3211 (dinner table: within
three days).

4927 If you sneeze three times during a meal, you will hear of
a death.
Jane N. Ray, Meredith College, near Raleigh. In all items except Whit-
ney-Bullock and the fit:st Hyatt one (No. 10123) (where th~ three
sneezes occur before breakfast), all references are to three sneezes before
breakfast on Sunday morning. General: Kanner, 562 (death before the
week is out) - Maryland: Whitney-Bullock, No. 814 (an aged person
will die) - Kentucky: Thomas, No. 1040 (three deaths before th~ week
is out) - Indiana: Halpert, Death, 213 (death in family soon) - Illi-
nois, Hyatt, No. 10123; No. 10129 (hear of death before the end of
day); No. 10130 (three deaths before the week has passed).

4928 If you sneeze before breakfast, you will hear of a death

before the day is over.
Elsie Doxey, Currituck county, and an anonymous informant. In all
references except Norlin (where the sneezing takes place before break-
fast). sneezing takes place at breakfast, or at the breakfast table. Unless
the time is indicated, references are ge.neral and lack time limits. M ary-
land: Whitney-Bullock, No. 818 - Kentucky: Price, 36; Thom~s, No.
1047 - Tennessee: McGlasson, 22, No. 4 (before the week is gon~) ; 23,
NO.4 - Alabama: Browne, No. 32°7 (death in the family soon) -
Pennsylvania: Fogel, No. 567 (hear of a funeral [German]) - ItJdiana:
Brewster, Beliefs, No. 137 (death in the family within a week) - Illi-
nois: Norlin, 204, No. 25 (death before the week is over) ; Smith II, 66,
12 NORTH CAROLINA YOLKLORE

No. 5 - Texas: Hendricks, No. 107 (death in the family in less than
a week).

492 9 If you sneeze on Sunday morning before breakfast, you

will hear of a death before the close of the day.
.A.1ex Tugman, Todd, Ashe county; Pearle Webb, Pineola, A very county;
and an anonymous informant. Tennessee: Redfield, No. 364 (no time
limit) - Illinois: Hyatt, No. 10127 (expect a death in the family; no
time set).

4930 If you sneeze at table on Sunday morning,you will hear

of a death in twenty-four hours.
Green Collection.

4931 If you sneeze on Sunday before breakfast, you will hear

of the death of someone you know before the next Saturday.
Mrs. Luchans, and Julian P. Boyd. Vern'l.ont: Bergen, Current} No. 1226.

4932 If you sneeze before breakfast on Sunday rllorning, you

will hear of a death before the week has passed.
Mrs. Gertrude Allen Vaught, Alexander county. Alaba1na: Bro\vne, No.
3209 -Illinois: Hyatt, No.10126 (at the breakfast table) - Nebraska:
Cannell, 22, No. 15.

4933 If you sneeze when eating, death isn't far off.

Constance Patten, Greensboro, and Mrs. Gertrude Allen Vaught,. Alex-
ander county.

4934 Sneezing during a meal is the sign of a death in the neigh-

borhood.
Green Collection.

4935 If you sneeze with a 1110uth full of food, you will hear tell
of a death soon.
Miss Fannie Vann, Clinton, Sampson county, and six other informants.
South: Puckett, 453 (Negro) - North Carolina: Bruton, Beliefs, No.
36 (no time indicated) - Kentucky: Thomas, No. 1050 (no time) -
Tennessee: Frazier, 39, No. 12 (family; no time) - Louisiana: ~oberts,
No. 370 (no time) - Alaba,rna: Browne, No. 3214; No. 3210 (sudden
death in the family) - Nova Scotia: Fauset, No. 207 (no time [N_egro])
-Illinois: Hyatt, No. 10124 (someone in the family; no time); Smith
III, No. 12 (Negro) - Ozarks: Randolph, 55 (woman sneezing; 24
hours); 303 (woman sneezing; hear of a close friend's death before
another sunrise).

4936 If one sneezes while he has a mouthful of victuals, he will

hear of a death of a friend within a week's time.
Carl G. Knox, Leland, Brunswick county. Virginia and Alabama: Ber-
gen, Current} No. 1227 (acquaintance; soon).
 SUPERSTITIONS: DEATH AND FUNEREAL CUSTOMS 13
4937 If the oldest person at the table sneezes, it is a sign of
death.
Kate S. Russell, Roxboro, Person county. Maryland: Whitney-Bullock,
No. 820 (sneezing at the supper table is a sign that the sneezer ·will hear
of the death of an old person within a few days) - Alabama: Browne,
No. 32°5 (death in three days).

4938 If the oldest or youngest member of the family sneezes at

the table, there will be a death in the family soon.
Students, Lees-McRae College, Banner Elk, Avery county; Pearl Forbes
(Tennessee) ; and an anonymous infqrmant. Alabama: Browne, No. 3206
(youngest; time not stated).

4939 If you sneeze after getting in bed, you will hear of a

death in less than twelve hours.
Kate S. Russell, Roxboro, Person county. Kanner, 567, Nos. I I, 22;
Storaker, M ennesket, No. 199.

Hair, Teeth
4940 To dream of hair is a sign of death.
Madge Colclough, Durham county. Massachusetts: Wilson, Syrian~ 134,
No. 13 (if one dreams of a woman 'with disheveled hair it means that
some member of his family will soon die [Syrian]) .--Cf. HDA III~
1241.

4941 If your hair grows fast, you will not live very long.
Madge Colclough, Durham county.

4942 If two people comb your hair at the same time, the
younger one will die first.
Edna Beasley, Louisburg, Franklin County, and Minnie Stamps Gosney,
Raleigh. South: Puckett, 400 (Negro) - Maryland: Whitney-Bullock,
No. 1062 (brushing the hair) - Kentucky: Thomas, No. 875; No. 876
(the person allowing it will die) - Louisiana: Roberts, No. 300 -
Pennsylvania: Owens, 121 (one will die) - Illinois: Hyatt, No. 9940
(one of the combers will die before the year is gone) - Texas: Turner,
161 (the older one will die).

4943 If the hair is cut in the month of March, one will die
before the end of the year.
Vella Jane Burch, Durham, and Elsie Doxey, Currituck county. Tennes-
see: Harder, Beliefs~ 9.

4944 If you' cut your hair in March, you will never live to see
the next March.
Marie Harper, Durham county, and three other informants from western
and central counties. Kentucky: Thomas, No. 2801 - Tennessee: Page,
56 - Illinois: Hyatt, No. 9943.
14 NORTH CAROLINA FOLKLORE

4945 If you dream about a tooth, it is a sign that you will hear
about a death.
Minnie Stamps Gosney, Raleigh. Kentucky: Thomas, No. 1991 - Penn-
sylvania: Shoemaker, 5 (if you dream of dry yellow teeth, an old person
will die) - Illinois: Hyatt, No. 6405 - Wisconsin: HF" VI (1947), 4
(German) - Texas: Hendricks, No. 138 - Nebraska: Cannell, 29, No.
3 - California: Dresslar, 129 (filled tooth).

4946 To dream of the loss of a tooth is a sign of death.

J. Frederick Doering, Durham, and an anonymous informant. South:
Puckett, 502 (Negro) - Kentucky: Thomas, No. 1992 - Louisiana:
Roberts, No. 822 - Newfoundland: Bergen, Current, No. 548 - Nova
Scotia and Cape Breton Island: Bergen, Current" No. 549 - New Eng-
land: Johnson, What They Say, 114 - Ohio: Bergen, Current, No. 548
- Indiana: Halpert, Death, 215; Kellner, 229 (someone you know) -
Illinois: Hyatt, No. 6407 - California: Dresslar, 129 - Washington:
Tacoma, 19.--Lean II, 299, 552; Henderson, III; HDA VIII, 10°5;
Hovorka-Kronfeld II, 853; Gallop, Portugal, 95.

4947 If you dream about a tooth falling out, it's a sign of death
in the family.
Green Collection, Dorothy McDowell Vann, Raleigh, and an anonymous
informant. Alaba,ma: Browne, No. 3201 - Pennsylvania: Fogel, No. 269
(German) - Texas: Bogusch, 119 - California: Dresslar, 129.--
Black, Folk-Medicine, 187; HDA II, 1162; Storaker, M ennesket, No.
510.

4948 If you lose a front tooth, a relative will die.

Constance Patten, Greensboro. Cf. Kentucky: Thomas, No. 1997 (dream)
- ],,1 assachusetts: Wilson, Syrian, 134, No. 1 (if a person dreams that
a front tooth is pulled without starting blood, member of family . . .
[Syrian]) - Pennsylvania: Brinton, 183 (dream: family).

4949 If you lose a jaw tooth, a friend will die.

Constance Patten, Greensboro. Cf. Kentucky': Thomas, No. 1994 .(elder~
ly person); No. 1995 (side tooth: middle aged person) - Massachu-
setts: Wilson, Syrian, 134 (if a person dreams that a back tooth is pulled
without starting blood, some aged member of the family . . . [Sy.rian]).
--Lean II, 552 (cheek-tooth: family).

4950 To dream of pulling teeth indicates the death of one's best

friend.
Green Collection. Where the person affected is a friend, as in tQe text,
I shall so indicate; otherwise all references to the dream of a tooth's
being pulled are simply signs of death. Alabama: Browne, 3204 (best
friend); No. 3203 - Quebec: M~rie-Ursule, 131, No. 100 (French) -
Nova Scotia: Fauset, No. 171 - New York: Augar, 163 [Frenchl; ibid.,
(painless extraction: acquaintance [French]) - Pennsylvania: Owens
121; Starr, 321 (German) ~ California: Dresslar, 129 (dear friend).
--Brown, Filipino, No. 29.

4951 If your last tooth is pulled, you will die.

Green Collection.
 SUPERSTITIONS: DEATH AND FUNEREAL CUSTOMS IS

Nudity, Clothes, Shoes

4952 If you dream of woman's nudeness, it is a sign of a man's
death.
Anonymous. Maryland: Whitney-Bullock, No. 688 - Alabama: Browne,
No. 3270 - Illinois: Hyatt, No. 6310; Smith III, No. 15 (Negro).--
Cf. HDA VI.. 908.

4953 If you dream of a man's nudeness, it is a sign of a

woman's death.
Anonymous. Maryland: Bergen, Current, No. 534 (Negro) - Alabama:
Browne, No. 3269 - Illinois: Hyatt, No. 6311; No. 6312 (a sign that
you will die).

4954 When you dream of white clothes it means death.

Constance Patten, Greensboro, and J. Frederick Doering, Durham. In
connection with this item and the following one, too, is an entry (unpub-
lished) from St. Petersburg, Florida: If you dream of a person dressed
completely in white with the exception of one or two articles, whIch are
black, then someone is going to die. Cf. Texas: Lake, 147 (white cotton
clothes: family) - California: Dresslar, 129 (dressed in white with
black trimmings); 130 (white gloves).--HDA IX, 350; Storaker,
Mennesket, No. 513.

4955 Don't tryon a black bonnet, or you will be wearing it for

mourning.
Mrs. Luchans. General: Bergen et al., 16, No. 26.

4956 A person who tries on a mourning bonnet, will wear one

in less than a year.
Irene Thompson, Mt. Airy, Surry county.

4957 If you tryon a shroud for a dead person, you will be the
next one to die.
Edna Beasley, Louisburg, Franklin county.

4958 If a girl wears green, she will soon be in n10urning.

J. Frederick Doering, Durham. Ontario: Doering-Doering I, 62
Michigan: Dorson, lIS (if you wear green you will wear black [Corn-
ish]) .

4959 Both shoes should be put on before either one is tied;

otherwise there will be a death in the family within a year.
Joseph E. Kanipe, Asheville, Annie Hamlin, Durham, Dr. E. V. Howell,
Chapel Hill, Orange county, and an anonymous informant.

4960 Walking with only one shoe on means someone will die
soon.
Rubye Fogel (New York). Cf. Texas: Hendricks, No. 128 (wearing one
shoe means death in the family).
16 NORTH CAROLIN A FOLKLORE

Sleep, Beds
4961 If you go to sleep during New Year's Day, you will die
during the year.
Anonymous.

4962 It is bad luck to sleep during a church service. Some

member of the family will die.
Zilpah Frisbie, Marion, McDowell county.

4963 To cry in your sleep is a sign of death.

Green Collection.

4964 If one sleeps with his head to the foot of the bed, he will
soon be carried from the house feet foremost.
Rebecca Willis (Texas). Louisiana: Puckett, 416; Williamson, .No. 19
(Negro) - Dominica,n Republic: Andrade, 428 (sleeping with feet
toward the front of the house or the street [Spanish]) (perhaps from the
fact that corpses are moved from the hot!se feet first); cf. Maryland:
Whitney-Bullock, No. 859) ; Ratcliff, 235 (head toward door).

4965 If you wake in the morning with the death mold (yellow
spots) on your hand, it is a sign that a dead man has shaken
hands with you.
Green Collection. The following references are to the death mol~ only,
not to shaking hands with a dead man. S outlt: Puckett, 458 (fingernails
[Negro]) .--Lean II" 555 f., 560; Radford, 120; HDA VIII" 1000.

4966 It is a sign of death to dream of a feather bed.

Zilpah Frisbie, Marion, McDowell county; an anonymous informant;
and two other informants from Durham and Bladen counties.

4967 When three people make up a bed together, the oldest

will die first.
Ada Briggs (Virginia). Cf. Indiana: Halpert, Death, 216, NO.4 (if two
people make a bed at the same time, a member of the family will die).
--Lean II" 562; Radford, 29.

4968 There will be death in the family if someone puts a broom

on a bed.
Will S. Sease (Oklahoma). Cf. Alabama: Browne, No. 3143 (fat1!ily not
indicated) - Illinois: Hyatt, No. 9744 (resting a broom against a bed
indicates that the person who sleeps in the bed will soon die).

~eddingJ llone~on
4969 If it rains on the wedding day, the groom will die first.
Edna Beasley, Louisburg, Franklin county. South: Puckett, 459
(Negro); ibid. (rain in afternoon [Negro) -Maryland: Whitney-
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until the pores are choked up. The Southport Water Company
formed their filtering beds of this material, and after years of use it
is still giving satisfaction.
Iron.—From experiments made by allowing water to filter through
spongy iron on to meat, it has been found that after 6 weeks the
meat remained fresh. Another test was made by preparing a hay
infusion, which was kept till it showed abundance of organic life. The
infusion was filtered through spongy iron with layers of pyrolusite,
sand, and gravel, and then was kept in contact with meat for many
weeks. The meat showed no signs of putrescence. In some of the
experiments filtered air was supplied, which proves conclusively that
bacteria or their germs are not revived when supplied with oxygen
after the filtration; this is a result of importance, as it demonstrates
that by filtration through spongy iron, putrefaction of organic matter
is not only suspended for a time, but that it ceases entirely until
reinstated by some putrefactive agent foreign to the water. The
peculiar action of spongy iron is believed to be thus explained. If a
rod be inserted into a body of spongy iron which has been in contact
with water for some time, gas bubbles are seen to escape. These
are found to contain carbon and hydrogen, and experiments lead to
the conclusion that the carbon is due to the decomposition of
organic matter.
The material was introduced for filtration purposes some years
ago by Prof. Bischof. His ordinary portable domestic filter consists of
an inner, or spongy iron, vessel, resting in an outer case. The latter
holds the “prepared sand,” the regulator arrangement, and the
receptacle for filtered water. The unfiltered water is, in this form of
filter, mostly supplied from a bottle, which is inverted into the upper
part of the inner vessel. After passing through the body of spongy
iron, the water ascends through an overflow pipe. The object of this
is to keep the spongy iron, when once wet, constantly under water,
as otherwise, if alternately exposed to air and water, it is too rapidly
oxidised.
 On leaving the inner vessel, the water contains a minute trace of
iron in solution, as carbonate or ferrous hydrate, which is separated
by the prepared sand underneath. This consists generally of 3 layers,
namely, commencing from the top, of pyrolusite (manganese black
oxide), sand, and gravel. The former oxidises the protocompounds
of iron, rendering them insoluble, when they are mechanically
retained by the sand underneath. Pyrolusite also has an oxidising
action upon ammonia, converting it more or less into nitric acid.
The regulator arrangement is underneath the perforated bottom,
on which the prepared sand rests. It consists of a tin tube, open at
the inner, and closed by screw caps at its outer end. The tube is
cemented water-tight into the outer case, and a solid partition under
the perforated bottom referred to. It is provided with a perforation in
its side, which forms the only communication between the upper
part of the filter and the receptacle for filtered water. The flow of
water is thus controlled by the size of such perforation. Should the
perforation become choked, a wire brush may be introduced, after
removing the screw cap, and the tube cleaned. Thus, although the
user has no access to the perforation allowing of his tampering with
it, he has free access for cleaning. Another advantage of the
regulator arrangement is that, when first starting a filter, the
materials may be rapidly washed without soiling the receptacle for
filtered water. This is done by unscrewing the screw cap, when the
water passes out through the outer opening of the tube, and not
through the lateral perforation.
Various modifications had, of course, to be introduced into the
construction of spongy iron filters, to suit a variety of requirements.
Thus, when filters are supplied by a ball-cock from a constant
supply, or from a cistern of sufficient capacity, the inner vessel is
dispensed with, as the ball-cock secures the spongy iron remaining
covered with water. This renders filters simpler and cheaper.
As the action of spongy iron is dependent upon its remaining
covered with water, whilst the materials which are employed in
perhaps all other filters lose their purifying action very soon, unless
they are run dry from time to time, so as to expose them to the air,
the former is peculiarly suited for cistern filters.
Cistern filters are frequently constructed with a top screwed on to
the filter case, by means of a flange and bolts, a U-shaped pipe
passing down from this top to near the bottom of the cistern. This
tube sometimes supplies the unfiltered water, or in some filters
carries off the filtered water, when upward filtration is employed.
This plan is defective, because it practically gives no access to the
materials; and unless the top is jointed perfectly tight, the unfiltered
water, with upward filtration, may be sucked in through the joint,
without passing at all through the materials. This is remedied by
loosely surrounding the filter case with a cylindrical mantle of zinc,
which is closed at its top and open at the bottom. Supposing the
filter case to be covered with water, and the mantle placed over the
case, an air valve is then opened in the top of the mantle, when the
air escapes, being replaced by water. After screwing the valve on
again, the filter is supplied with water by the siphon action taking
place between the mantle and filter case and the column of filtered
water, which passes down from the bottom of the filter to the lower
parts of the building. These filters are supplied with a regulator
arrangement on the same principle as ordinary domestic filters. The
washing of materials, on starting a filter, is easily accomplished by
reversing 2 stop-cocks, one leading to the regulator, the other to a
waste pipe.
The use of spongy iron has now been applied on a large scale to
the water obtained from the river Nette, for the supply of the city of
Antwerp. Dr. Frankland has visited the Antwerp Waterworks at
Waelheim, about 15 miles above that city, and reported on the result
of his inquiry. He attaches especial value to the fact that spongy iron
filtration “is absolutely fatal to Bacteria and their germs,” and he
considers it would be “an invaluable boon to the Metropolis if all
water supplied from the Thames and Lea were submitted to this
treatment in default of a new supply from unimpeachable sources.”
 Many preparations of iron have long been known to possess a
purifying influence on water containing organic impurities. Thus
Scherer, years ago, recommended a solution of iron sulphate where
the impurities were present in large quantity. Later still, iron chloride
was proposed as suitable, the salt being precipitated in the presence
of organic matter as ferric oxide, the oxide thus formed acting also
mechanically on the suspended impurities in course of precipitation,
very much as white of egg acts in clarifying liquids, when it
coagulates and carries impurities with it to the bottom. Other iron
preparations have a similar action, notably dialysed iron, while
several oxidising agents, such as potash permanganate, are also well
known to possess a powerful effect on organic impurities. It will at
once be seen, however, that all such substances are inadmissible as
filtering media, or purifying agents for potable waters, for the
reason, that in the case of some at least of the agents mentioned,
decompositions take place, which in themselves might prove
dangerous, while in the case of all an excess (and it would be almost
impossible to avoid an excess) of the purifying agent would be
equally bad, and would render the water quite unfit for domestic
purposes. It has been found, however, that various kinds of native
rock containing iron protoxide effect the filtration of water very
completely, and Spencer, acting on this idea, after experimenting,
found that when the iron protoxide was isolated as magnetic oxide,
it both freed the water from turbidity and effected decoloration very
quickly. Thus bog-water, as dark as porter, when filtered through it
speedily lost its colour and became clear and sweet, the carbonic
acid given off during the process of decomposition rather tending to
improve the water. The purifying power of the magnetic oxide does
not deteriorate with use. The oxide gets coated with a slimy deposit,
owing to the deposition of decomposed organic matter, but this
being removed, it is as powerful as ever in its purifying action.
Unfortunately this iron rock is not found native to any extent, but the
fact of its action being determined, Spencer continued his
experiments with the result that it can now be produced artificially,
and forms one of the most efficient and useful filters for domestic
purposes.
 Metallic iron is employed by Jennings & Hinde. The filtering
material consists of fine iron or steel shavings, filings, turnings, or
borings obtained from the swarf or skin of cast iron, wrought iron, or
steel; this material may either be used by itself, or it may be used
with other materials, either mixed with them or in separate layers.
The iron or steel shavings, &c., are obtained from iron or steel that
has been brought to a state of fusion either by melting or the
processes necessary for making cast iron, wrought iron, or steel, and
being separated from many of the impurities contained in the ore
from which it was obtained, will have but a comparatively small
portion of earthy impurities mixed with it, and will be for this reason
superior to iron which is obtained from native ores or oxides without
fusion.
By filtering water through small divided swarf or skin of cast iron,
wrought iron, or steel, free oxygen will be withdrawn from the water,
and consequently any insects or animalculæ contained in the water
will be deprived of life, and any germs contained in the water will be
deprived of the oxygen necessary for their development and life, and
the water will be consequently purified and rendered wholesome. A
convenient way of forming a filter is to use a layer of the turnings,
shavings, &c., together with layers of other filtering material resting
upon a perforated partition placed across a closed vessel. The
materials are cleaned by boiling them in hot water with a small
quantity of ordinary washing soda, to remove any oil or grease that
might accidentally be associated with the materials above
mentioned. Afterwards the iron borings should be well washed
before being put into the filter. The filter vessel may be of any
ordinary construction and shape. If sand is used in conjunction with
the above-mentioned materials, it is preferable to place some of the
sand at the bottom of the filtering vessel, and the iron or steel
materials, or both, over the sand, and then more sand over them.
These materials are disposed so that they may be partially separated
from each other by perforated plates of earthenware, glass, or other
suitable material. But this partial separation, though convenient, is
not essential, as the perforated plates may be dispensed with and
the material placed over and under each other in layers without
plates to separate them.
Porous Pottery.—Chamberland has found that the liquid in which
microbes have been cultivated becomes absolutely pure if passed
through unglazed porcelain. Its purity can be demonstrated by
mixing it with liquids sensitive to the action of microbes, such as veal
broth, milk, and blood, in which it produces no alteration.
 A tube a (Fig. 16) of unglazed porcelain is
enclosed in another b of metal, and the
water to be filtered is admitted to the space
between the two by turning a stop-cock.
Thence it slowly filters through to the inside
of the porcelain tube, and flows out at the
bottom. Under a pressure of 2 atmospheres,
or 30 lb. to the sq. in., a tube 8 in. in length,
with a diameter of 1 in., will yield about 5
gal. of water daily. For a larger supply, it is
only necessary to increase the size or the
number of the tubes.
In cleansing the filter, the porcelain tube is
removed, and the microbes and other matter
that have accumulated on the outer face of 16. Chamberland Filter.
it are brushed off. The tube may also be
plunged in boiling water in order to destroy any germs that may be
supposed to have penetrated beneath its surface; or it may be
heated in a gas jet or in a furnace. In fact, it can be more readily
and more thoroughly cleaned than most of the domestic filters in
ordinary use.
It is interesting to remark that some of the earliest filtering vessels
of which we have any knowledge are simply made of porous
earthenware. After all our modern researches after antiseptic
filtering media, we are reverting to the ways of our remotest
forefathers.
Filtering Cisterns.—The following is a description of a filter which
purifies foul water from organic impurities held in solution as well as
from suspended solids. Take any suitable vessel with a perforated
false bottom, and cover it with a layer of animal charcoal, on the top
of that spread a layer of iron filings, borings, or turnings, the finer
the better, mixed with charcoal dust; on the top of the filings place a
layer of fine clean siliceous sand, and you will have a perfect filter.
Allow the foul water to filter slowly through the above filter, and you
will produce a remarkably pure drinking-water. Before placing the
iron filings in the filter, they must be well washed in a hot solution of
soda or potash, to remove oil and other impurities, then rinse them
with clean water; the filings should be mixed with an equal measure
of fine charcoal. If the water is very foul, it must be allowed to filter
very slowly. The deeper the bed of iron filings is the quicker they will
act.
In Bailey-Denton’s cistern filter, the principal novelty is that it runs
intermittently, and thus allows the aëration of the filtering material,
and the oxidation of the impurities detached from the water. The
oxidation is effected by the perfect aëration of the filtrating material,
which may be of any approved kind, through which every drop of
water used in the kitchen, bedrooms, and elsewhere must pass as it
descends from the service cistern for use. As water is withdrawn
from this filter, fresh water comes in automatically by the action of a
ball-tap; and this fresh water immediately passes through the
aërated material into a lower chamber, forming the supply cistern of
filtered water for the whole house. The advantages claimed for the
filter are that it secures pure water for the whole house. It is
attached by pipe to, but is distinct from, the service cistern; it can be
placed in any part of the house, and it cannot get out of order. Any
approved filtering material may be used, and being aërated between
each passage of water through it, oxidation is made certain.
A slate or iron cistern and filter combined may be made by
dividing the cistern with a vertical partition perforated at the bottom,
and placing in the half of the cistern which receives the water, a bed
of filtering material, say 6 in. of gravel at the bottom, 6 in. animal
charcoal in granular form in the middle, and 6 in. clean sharp sand
at the top, covering all by a perforated distributing slab.
Fig. 17 illustrates a method of preparing an ordinary house cistern
for filtering. The pipe and fittings should be of galvanised iron; black
or plain iron is better as long as it lasts, as it rusts fast; in either
case it is better to waste the water first drawn, for the water absorbs
both the zinc and the iron when standing
overnight. The zinc is not healthy, and the taste
of the iron is unpleasant.
The perforations should equal 3 or 4 times the
area of the suction pipe, which in ordinary
cisterns may be 1¼ in. pipe, while the branches
may be ¾ in. pipe. The holes, if ⅛ in., should
number at least 200, distributed along the lower
half of the pipes. Smaller holes are preferable; of
1
/16 in. holes, 800 will be required.

For the filtering material we recommend a

layer of fine gravel or pebbles for the bottom, 3
or 4 in. in depth, or heaped up over the
perforated pipes; upon this a layer of sharp, 17. Filter Cistern.
clean sand, 9 in. in depth; upon this a stratum of pulverised
charcoal, not dust, but granulated to size of peas or beans, or any of
the material above mentioned, 4 in. deep; and upon this a stratum
of fine, clean sand 6 to 12 in. in depth.
Such a filter should be cleansed at least twice in a year by
pumping out all the water, taking out the mud or settlings, and one-
half the depth of the top layer, and replacing with fresh sand.
The double filter cistern, Fig. 18, has much to recommend it,
having a large receiving basin which in itself is a filter placed in a
position for easy cleaning. The recess at the bottom may be covered
with a perforated plate of galvanised sheet iron, upon which may be
laid a filter bed of gravel, sand, charcoal, spongy iron, and sand in
the proportions as stated above. This enables the frequent cleaning
by removing the top layer of the filter bed without disturbing the
water supply. The cover should fit tight enough to keep out insects
and vermin.
A double-bottomed basin perforated and filled with clear, sharp
sand and charcoal should be attached to the bottom of the pump
pipe, as shown.
 This enables the small filter to be drawn up and cleaned, without
the necessity of emptying the cistern or interrupting the water
supply.

18. Filter Cistern. 19. Keg Filter.

The half barrel or keg filter, as illustrated in Fig. 19, is a

convenient form of cistern filter where filtered water is required from
cisterns already filled.
This is also a convenient form for readily cleaning or changing the
filter without the necessity of discharging the water from the cistern.
This filter can be made from an oak keg or half barrel, such as is
used for liquors or beer. Take out one of the heads and cut away the
edge, so that it will just drive into the end of the keg, fasten 2
battens of oak across the head with oak pins left long enough to
serve for legs for the filter to rest upon.
Bore this head full of holes ¼ in. diameter. In the other head bore
a hole 1¼ in. diameter, and bolt an iron flange into which the pump
pipe is to be screwed. Let the bolts also fasten upon the inside a
raised disc of galvanised sheet iron, perforated with a sharp point or
chisel. Proceed to charge the filter by turning the top or flanged
head down, and placing next the perforated plate a layer of fine
gravel 3 in. thick, then a layer of sharp, clean sand 3 in. thick, then a
layer of pulverised charcoal free from dust, 3 in. thick, then a layer
of sharp clean sand mixed with spongy iron, pulverised magnetic
iron ore, or blacksmiths’ scales, followed by a layer of coarse sand,
gravel, and broken stone, or hard burnt bricks broken into chips to
fill up. Place the perforated bottom in as far as the head was
originally; bore and drive a half-dozen oak pegs around the chine to
fasten the head. Then turn over the filter, screw the pump pipe into
the flange, and let it down into the cistern.
Such a filter requires to be taken out and the filtering renewed in
6 to 12 months, depending upon the cleanliness of the water catch.
With the precautions mentioned above in regard to the care of the
roof, such a filter should do good work for one year.

Sanitation.—This heading is intended to embrace the removal

and disposal of the various kinds of refuse and waste produced in
the dwelling from day to day. Endless volumes have been written on
the subject, but in plain words the whole art resolves itself into
sound pipes for the conveyance of the fluid portion and efficient
ventilation of the receptacles and conduits.
House Drains.—It was pointed out by Burton,[1] before the Society
of Arts, that where, as in London, the sewerage system is fairly
good, dangers to health arise not from the sewers direct, but either
from the sewers by means of the house drains, or even more often
from the house drains themselves. It is quite agreed by medical
authorities that diseases may arise from gases evolved from the
drains, or even discharge pipes in a house, entirely apart from any
specific infection such as may be conveyed by means of sewers.
This being the case, it will be seen that the thing which most
behoves us is to make sure that the house system is efficiently doing
its work. It is evident that the objects to be aimed at in constructing
a system of house drainage, are as follows:—
 First. All matter placed in any of the sanitary appliances in the
house must be carried, with the greatest possible expedition, clear
of the premises, leaving behind it as little deposit as possible.
Second. All sewer air must be prevented from entering the houses
by the channels which serve to carry away the sewage.
Third. Since it is impossible to have house drains absolutely clean,
that is, devoid of all decomposing matter, all air from house drains,
and even from sink, bath, and other waste pipes must be kept out of
the dwelling-rooms.
To which might be added a fourth, that a constant current of fresh
air must be established along every pipe in which it is possible that
any decomposing matter may remain, so that such matter may be
rapidly oxidised, or rendered innocuous.
The number of houses in which sanitary inspectors find the
drainage arrangements to be thoroughly good, and to be fulfilling
these conditions, is surprisingly small. In fact, in all the houses they
are called upon to examine, except those which have been arranged,
within the last dozen years or so, by some engineer, builder, or
plumber who has made a special study of the matter, are found
defects which interfere with the due fulfilment of one or other of
these conditions.
Attention is called to Fig. 20, in which the drainage arrangements
are shown to be defective. Here Burton has taken such a state of
affairs as is by no means uncommon in a London house. Alongside it
is a drawing which illustrates a well-drained house (Fig. 21). By their
juxtaposition, the defects exhibited will be made more patent.
20. Ill-arranged House.
 21. Well-arranged House.

The first point demanding attention is the condition of the main

drain. It will be seen that it is little other than an elongated cesspool.
The size is unnecessarily large. As a consequence, even if it were
perfect in all other respects, it would not be self-cleansing, inasmuch
as there can never pass down the drain which serves for a single
house enough water to scour out pipes of the size illustrated,
namely, 9 in. diameter.
It will be seen, however, that the state of affairs is far from
correct, apart from the size of the pipes. In the first place, the joints
are not tight; sewage will soak out into the ground through them. In
the second place, although there is ample allowance between the
two ends of the drain for a good fall, or incline, this fall has all been
confined to a few feet of its length, the part underneath the house
being laid almost level. This is done simply to avoid the trouble of
excavating the ground to a sufficient depth.
Let us now follow the action of a drain of this kind, and see what
it will lead to. Sewage matter finds its way into it. As we all know,
this matter depends on water to carry it forward. It is probable that,
while the drain is new and the ground comparatively solid around it,
sufficient water will remain in it to carry the greater part of the
sewage to the sewer. But this state of affairs will not last. Before
long, some unusually heavy or obstinate matter will get into the
drain. It will be carried only so far, and will then stick. Any water
now coming behind it will “back up,” to a certain extent, and will
very soon find its way into the soil, from one or more points behind
the obstruction—not yet amounting to a stoppage. As a
consequence, sewage now passing into the drain, loses its carrying
power, and gets no farther than a certain distance. Before long, a
complete stoppage takes place, and all the sewage of the house
soaks into the ground under the basement. After this, things go from
bad to worse. The saturated ground no longer properly supports the
pipes, which, as a consequence, will become more and more
irregular, and all hope of the drain clearing itself is lost. It is only a
question of time, with a drain such as that shown, and the inmates
of the house will be living over a cesspool.
As a matter of fact, total obstruction or stoppage has been
discovered in 6 per cent. of the houses which have been inspected.
 The next point worthy of attention is the soil pipe; this term being
at present used to signify the vertical portion of the drain only,
although it very often is also used as meaning the almost horizontal
drain under the house.
The soil pipe is of lead. This is an excellent material if the pipe be
properly arranged, but here it is not. The great fault is that there is
no ventilation. As a consequence, the upper part of the pipe will
always be filled with sewer gas, which tends to rise in a somewhat
concentrated state. Now, sewer gas has a powerful action on lead,
and, therefore, a soil pipe arranged without ventilation never stands
many years before it becomes “holed,” that is to say, is worn through
at its upper part. When this occurs, of course, there is ventilation
enough, but it is into the house. The ventilation in this case will, in
fact, be most active, because every house, on account of the fires in
it, acts, especially in winter, as a chimney, and draws in sewer or
other gas from every possible crevice.
At the top of the soil pipe will be found the commonest of all
water-closet arrangements, namely, the pan-closet with D trap. This
arrangement is exceedingly well known: it is a most skilfully devised
piece of apparatus for retaining sewage in the house, and distilling
sewer gas from the same, and it is the cause of probably nine out of
ten of the actual smells perceived in houses, even if it does not (as
some say) give rise to much actual disease.
The soil pipe discharges over a small cesspool at the foot. This is a
very common arrangement. The cesspool is usually dignified by the
name of a dip trap. The percentage of houses showing leaky soil
pipes is 31.
Now, observe that, although our constructor has not ventilated his
soil pipe, he has been careful not to leave the system entirely
without ventilation. On the contrary, by the simple device of leaving
a rain-water pipe untrapped at the foot, he has ventilated the drains,
and also the public sewer, into the back bedroom windows! This is a
quite common arrangement, and frequently results in typhoid fever.
 Next, in order, we may take the case of the discharge pipes from
baths, sinks, basins, and all such appliances. It has been laid down
as a rule by the best sanitary authorities that these appliances must
discharge not into the soil drains, but into the open air over trapped
gullies, as it has been found that this is the only way of being
absolutely certain that no sewer air shall enter the rooms by the
discharge pipes. It is quite true that if a trap be fixed on a discharge
pipe of, say, a sink, the greater part of the sewer air may be kept
back from the house; but traps, however excellent they may be in
assisting to keep out sewer air, are not alone sufficient. There are
several reasons for this. In the first place, there is the fact that a
certain amount of sewer gas will pass through the water of a trap,
or, to speak more strictly, will be absorbed by the water on one side,
and afterwards given off on the other side. It is true that in the case
of a well-ventilated drain this amount will be infinitesimal, and might
even be disregarded, but there are other causes for the uncertainty
of a trap. If the appliance, on the discharge pipe of which it is, be
disused for a long time, there is the possibility that the water in the
trap may dry. In this case, of course, there is no further security.
Besides this, however, there is an action known as siphonage, in
which the rush of water through a pipe carries with it the water
which ought to remain in the trap and form a seal. In Fig. 21 are
shown several different ways of connecting sinks, &c., with drains.
The discharge pipe often carries an apology for a trap, in the form of
a little apparatus called a bell trap. But, as a matter of fact, it is the
commonest thing possible to find the bell trap lying on the sink. It
has been lifted out of its place to let the water run down the waste
pipe more quickly. It is no unusual thing to go into the scullery of a
house, and to find the discharge pipe of the sink quite open, and a
blast of sewer air issuing from it which will extinguish a candle.
In other cases the sink has an arrangement which is called a
grease trap, but is, in reality, nothing more nor less than a
particularly foul cesspool. It calls for little remark. The pipe from the
sink dips into the foul water to make a trap. In many cases, the pipe
does not dip into the water; but there is a bell at the top. Sometimes
the drain is at various places made up with bricks. This is a very
common thing to find in houses. The bricks are used to save the
trouble of getting special junction bends, &c. The other sinks and
baths in the house are shown as discharging into the closet traps.
This is a very common and objectionable arrangement. Sixty-eight
per cent. of houses examined show the defects last mentioned; that
is to say, the sinks, baths, or fixed basins are connected with the
drain or soil pipe, a trap of some kind generally, but not always,
forming a partial security against sewer gas.
As mentioned before, the only ventilation in this case is such as
will permit the issuing sewer gas to find its way into the house. It is
by no means unusual to find no provision at all for ventilation, or to
find the ventilating pipes so small that they are totally useless. In
more cases than one, Burton found the soil pipe carried up as a rain-
water pipe into the attics, where it received rain-water from two
gutters, one from each side of the roof, and discharged all the sewer
gas which escaped by it. Generally, the drinking-water cisterns are
situated in such attics.
It may be noted, in the other drawing (Fig. 21), that a trap is fixed
on the main drain, which will keep back almost all sewer gas, and
that ventilating pipes are so arranged that a constant circulation of
fresh air exists through the whole drainage system, and will carry
away with it any little sewer gas which passes through the trapping
water.
The most perfect water-supply arrangement does not necessitate
the existence of cisterns in the house at all. This is beside the mark,
for the reason that in London, to which Burton confines his remarks,
the supply of water to the greater portion of the town is intermittent,
so that cisterns are a necessity.
Water, even in London, is almost always delivered in a sufficiently
pure state to be drunk, but it is a very common thing for it to be
contaminated in the cisterns. Even if there be no actual disease
germs carried into the water, there is liability of deterioration from
the mere fact of a large quantity of water being stored for a long
time before use. If the cisterns are of so great size as to hold as
much water as is used in, say, three or four days, it follows that all
water drawn has remained in these cisterns for an average time of
several days. This is by no means likely to improve its quality, but,
on the contrary, if it does nothing else, it renders it flat. There are
far more dangerous causes of contamination than this, however. The
commonest of these is to be found in direct communication between
the drains and the cisterns through the overflow pipes of the latter.
This is shown in Fig. 20. It will be seen that there is a trap on the
pipe by way of protection against the sewer gas. This is a by no
means uncommon arrangement; but, as will be readily understood,
such a trap is absolutely of no good. An overflow pipe to a cistern is
merely an appliance to be put in use in case of an emergency; that
is, in case of derangement of the ball valve through which the water
enters. As a matter of fact, an overflow may not occur from year’s
end to year’s end—probably does not—and, as a consequence, the
trap soon becomes dry, and the temporary security afforded by it is
lost. In 37 per cent. of houses inspected, Burton found direct
communication between the drain or soil pipes and the drinking-
water cisterns.
Another means by which the water of cisterns is contaminated is
by their being placed in improper positions. Quite frequently, a
cistern in which drinking-water is stored, is situated in, or even
under the floor of a w.c. Burton has known more than one case in
which the drip tray under a closet actually discharged into a cistern.
It is even possible for contamination of water to occur through the
mere fact that a water-closet is supplied from a certain cistern. With
a water-closet supplied by the modern regulator-valve apparatus,
this is most unlikely; but it will be readily seen how it may occur with
such an arrangement as that shown in Fig. 20, which is common.
Here it will be seen that for each water-closet there is a plug in the
cistern. This plug is so arranged that when it is raised by the wire
which connects it with the water-closet branch, it suddenly fills what
is called a service box, this being a subsidiary cistern fixed under the
body of the main cistern, and in direct communication with the
water-closet. After the water has run out of the service box, this is
free to fill itself with foul gas from the water-closet by the service
pipe, and the next time the plug is lifted this same foul gas passes
into the water, which absorbs a part of it.
There are many other points in the drainage arrangements of a
house which may possibly become causes of danger, such as surface
traps in areas, &c. In speaking of the drain of a house, it has been
considered as a single length of pipe; but it must be remembered
that in any drainage system, except the most simple, there are
branch drains, often many of them, and that these are liable to the
same evils as the main drains, and require the same attention. In
fact, seeing that less water is likely to pour down them, they require
more attention.
Burton concludes his paper with a brief description of the methods
in use for discovering defects in house sanitation.
One thing that is absolutely necessary for such inspection, and
without which it would be quite incomplete, is to open down to the
drain. This should be done at the nearest point to that at which it
leaves the premises. There is no absolute guide to tell where this
point is, but after some experience it is generally possible to hit upon
the spot with very little searching. In the house illustrated in Figs.
20, 21, it would be under the front area or cellar. The ground should
be entirely removed from the drain for at least two lengths of pipe.
It is also very desirable that a portion of the ground over the top of
the drain should be removed.
We may next take the point of trapping of the main drain and
ventilation of the system. It will be seen that, in the case of the
drawing of the imperfect arrangements, the drain is shown to be in
direct communication with the sewer. The consequence is that any
leakage which may exist in the house drain permits gas not only
from the drain itself, but from the sewer also, to find its way into the
house.
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