NAME: Radhika Mittal

REGISTRATION NUMBER: 23213443

EXPERIMENT 1: Stroop Effect

SUBMITTED TO: DR. Sanchita Srivastava

To test the colour-word interference hypothesis based on the Stroop Test.

BASIC CONCEPT-

Sensation and Perception:

Specific types of inputs cause specialised neurons known as sensory receptors to respond. When a sensory receptor

detects sensory information, sensation is created. For example, as light reaches the structure, the cells lining the

back of the eye change chemically. Action potentials are how these cells communicate with the central nervous

system. This is called sensation. Though our senses are constantly collecting information from our environment, our

actions in the outside world are ultimately determined by how we interpret that information. Perception is the

organisation, interpretation, and conscious experience of sensory facts. Perception involves both top-down and

bottom-up processing. While bottom-up processing relates to sensory data, top-down processing refers to

knowledge and expectations guiding a process from an environmental stimulus driving a process.

Attention and Interference:

The cognitive activity of selectively focusing on some stimuli while blocking out others is known as attention in

psychology. It is essential to many mental functions, such as memory, perception, and problem-solving. By enabling

people to devote their cognitive resources to pertinent information, attention improves their ability to process

significant stimuli. When contradicting or competing information throws off cognitive processes, it's referred to as

interference. Retroactive interference is when newly learned material makes it more difficult to recall previously

taught material. Proactive interference is when previously learned information gets in the way of learning new

information.

Factors affecting attention to the Stroop effect:

1. When the ink's colour and the word's meaning diverge, the Stroop effect usually becomes more pronounced. For

instance, there will be greater interference if the word "blue" is written in red ink as opposed to blue.
2. The Stroop effect may be impacted by the manner that which instructions are given. For example, interference

may be minimised if participants are specifically instructed to concentrate on the ink's colour rather than the

meaning of the text.

3. Research indicates that the Stroop effect might differ for various age groups. Due to probable variations in

cognitive development and control, younger people may experience greater interference than older people.

4. Linguistic and cultural variables can have an impact on the Stroop effect. People who speak languages with fewer

colour terms, for example, might perform differently on the Stroop scale than people whose colour vocabularies are

more complex.

5. The Stroop effect may be impacted by the way a response is given. For instance, answering verbally could have

different effects than using a keyboard to type your response.

A study by John Wrigley Stroop 1935:

"Studies of Interference in Serial Verbal Reactions," a landmark study by John Ridley Stroop, was published in the

Journal of Experimental Psychology in 1935. Because of the researcher, the study is now frequently referred to as

the Stroop Effect. Stroop's experiment was designed to look at the interference that competing stimuli might

produce when doing cognitive tasks. The primary task required participants to identify the hue of ink used to print

words, omitting the words themselves. By controlling the congruency between the colour of the ink and the

meaning of the word, Stroop was able to produce situations in which the two were either congruent—for example,

the word "red" written in red ink—or incongruent—for example, the word "red" written in blue ink.

Key findings from Stroop's study include:

1. Stroop noted that when a word's meaning conflicted with the ink colour, participants took longer to identify the

ink colour. The difficulty of suppressing automatic reading processes in favour of the directed job was made clear

by this interference effect.

which is why there was interference. The study emphasised the need for selective focus in getting past distractions.

3. Stroop observed that individuals' experiences with the interference effect varied, indicating that individual

variances in cognitive capacity contributed to the degree of interference that participants encountered.

BACKGROUND THEORY-

Theoretical background:

Speed Up Processing Theory

In psychology or cognitive science, "speed-up processing theory" is not a precise and well-known phrase. I will,

however, offer details on a few associated ideas that may be pertinent:

1. The term "processing speed" in psychology describes how quickly a person can notice and react to inputs.

According to the Processing Speed Theory, disparities in cognitive ability are partly explained by individual

variances in processing speed. Simple response time trials and other tasks requiring rapid and effective cognitive

processing are frequently linked to it.

2. The cognitive theory of parallel processing postulates that the brain is capable of processing several facets of an

input or carrying out different cognitive tasks concurrently. This idea is in opposition to serial processing, in which

activities are carried out sequentially. The concept is that information processing can be done more quickly and

effectively with parallel processing.

Selective Attention

The process of shutting out irrelevant stimuli and focusing consciousness on certain information is known as

selective attention. Even though multitasking can help us focus on the current work, we may find it challenging.

Selective attention processes refer to the mental processes that allow humans to choose and focus on one object in

their environment for additional processing while repressing, dismissing, or downplaying distracting or irrelevant
information. During this procedure, people only focus on a small percentage of the visual information. It works

similarly to a highlighter or spotlight, letting you focus on the information that matters most to you and overlook the

less significant stuff. Concentrating on particular data just makes processing it easier and encoding, which has been

linked to better memory performance. Remembering that selective memory and selective attention are two distinct

processes is essential. Selective attention to information means focusing on particular aspects while disregarding

others. People with selective memory can only remember the information they need or choose to remember.

Types of Selective Attention-

Visual Attention

Visual attention is commonly defined in two ways. For instance, the spotlight model suggests that paying close

attention to visual information works similarly to a spotlight. You focus on the information that this "spotlight"

brings to light. Though less clear, the information outside the focal point is still discernible.

Attention to Audition

People can focus on specific information inputs by using one-way selective attention, which is selective listening.

Selective listeners concentrate solely on a small portion of a sound or speech. You could, for example, turn out

surrounding noise and conversation and listen to a podcast exclusively. A phenomenon known as the "cocktail party

effect" allows people to concentrate on specific talks even while they are in the company of several people.

Theories of Selective Attention-

Broadbent’s Filter Model

The Broadbent filter model is the most popular and well-known. According to this hypothe\sis, people can shut out

distracting inputs by using selective attention as a form of selective filter. According to Broadbent's model, selective

attention acts as a selective filter. Unwanted information is filtered and important information is revealed.

The Attenuation Model of Treisman

According to this hypothesis, selective attention only temporarily reduces or neutralises the influence of distracting

stimuli rather than completely suppressing them. Treisman's attenuation hypothesis states that when selective

attention is paid, processing of the distractor happens later in the information processing process. Any distractions,

such as noise, in that area will be When selective attention is directed there, it becomes less obvious.

Automaticity

The term "automaticity" describes the capacity to carry out an action or process data with little to no conscious

thought or awareness. An automatic cognitive process can be carried out with great speed, effectiveness, and

minimal attentional demands. A key idea in cognitive psychology, automaticity may be shown in many facets of

human cognition. The following are some important automaticity-related points:

Review Of Literature: Studies That Are a Variance of The Classic Stroop Test-

1. Classic Stroop Test: The original Stroop test measures the interference in naming the ink colour when colour

names are presented in incongruent ink colours (for example, the word "red" written in blue ink).

2. Emotional Stroop Test: In this version, participants are asked to identify the colour of the ink after seeing

emotionally charged words or images. Emotional processing and its relationship to cognitive control are frequently

studied using the emotional Stroop test.

3. Numerical Stroop Test: This variant uses numerical digits in incongruent numerical values (such as the digit "2"

written as "5") in place of colour words. Similar to the traditional Stroop task, participants are asked to name the

numerical value.

4. The Spatial Stroop Exam: In this variant, individuals are required to react to the way that stimuli are arranged in

space (for example, the word "up" presented in a downward orientation). It uses spatial processing to evaluate

interference.
5. Animal Stroop Test: In this variation, participants are asked to name the ink colour while ignoring the animal

names, which are presented in incongruent hues. It enhances the Stroop interference by adding a semantic layer.

Applications Under Stroop Test-

1. Assessment of Cognitive Function: The Stroop test is often used to examine multiple cognitive functions,

including attention, processing speed, and cognitive flexibility. It sheds light on how people suppress their

instinctive reactions and handle contradicting information.

2. Executive Functioning: Goal-directed behaviour depends on executive functions such working memory, cognitive

control, and inhibitory control. The Stroop test is an effective resource for evaluating executive functioning, in

particular inhibitory control, since reading words is an automatic reaction that people have to suppress.

3. Selective Attention: Participants in the Stroop test are asked to ignore competing information (such as word

meaning) in favour of focusing on a single aspect (such as the colour of the ink) in order to measure selective

attention. The interference seen is indicative of the difficulties in sustaining focused attention.

4. Cognitive Flexibility: The capacity to adjust and transition between various cognitive tasks or mental groups is

referred to as cognitive flexibility. The Stroop test, particularly in its variants, measures an individual's ability to

switch their focus between opposing variables (e.g., word meaning and ink colour), raising questions about

cognitive flexibility.

5. Emotional Processing: To gauge how emotional a person is, emotionally charged stimuli are employed in

emotional Stroop tests. Information tampers with mental operations. Clinical psychology uses these tests to

investigate problems like anxiety disorders.

6. Evaluations by Neuropsychologists:

In order to measure cognitive functioning in people with neurological illnesses, traumatic brain injuries, or

neurodegenerative conditions, the Stroop test is a common component of neuropsychological evaluation batteries.
HYPOTHESES-

1. The time taken to read the incongruent list will be more than the time taken to read the congruent list

2. The time taken to read the colour of the ink (ignoring the word) will be more as compared to the time taken to

read out the word (ignoring the ink colour)

3. The no of errors made for reading the incongruent list than the errors for reading the congruent list

VARIABLES-

Independent Variable: difficulty level/ different sets example SET A, SET B, SET C, SET D

Dependent Variable: time taken to read each set and errors made in each set

Controlled Variables: number of words in each slide, filler activity, font size, font style and spacing is same for all, 4

colours are only used for coloured words and black and white colours for the rest of the words.

MATERIAL REQUIRED-

1. PPT with instructions, SETs and demos

2. Newspaper

3. Colour pencils

PRECAUTIONS -

1. The room should be well-lit

2. Confidentiality must be maintained

3. Participants should not be aware of the test

INSTRUMENT PPT-

Attached
PARTICIPANT DETAILS-

Name: AM

Age: 18 Years

Gender: Female

Date of conduction: 24th January, 2024

Place of conduction: hostel

Time: 1:30 pm

PROCEDURE-

In this experiment, we had to ask the participants to read the words given in each set. There were four sets, we also

had to observe the time and errors taken in each set. Before each set the instructions and demo were given to the

participant for smooth conduction. After each set, I made sure there was some easy filler activity as was instructed

to us so that the participant did not get used to these words.

RAPPORT FORMATION-

Initially the subject displayed nervousness and lacked confidence. However, I made concerted efforts to establish a

rapport, creating a comfortable environment. The subject was situated in a well-lit room with a standard temperature

setting. To alleviate her apprehension, I provided clear instructions and guided her through the process. As the

experiment unfolded, each demonstration showcased a noticeable shift in her demeanour, with a gradual decrease in

nervousness and an increase in confidence. By the conclusion, she had become entirely at ease, exuding confidence

and displaying no signs of nervousness. Following the experiment, I reassured her about the confidentiality of the

results and reiterated her option to withdraw from participation if desired.

RESULT-
 SET TIME TAKEN ERRORS

A 11.72 0

B 11.50 0

C 17.27 1

D 29.60 2

INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS-

The subject took 11.72 cm for SET A and made 0 errors. For SET B it took 11.50 cm approximately and no errors

were made. For SET C 1 error was made and comparatively more time was taken i.e. 17.27 cm. The time taken for

SET C was more due to the memory association of the subject with a nonsense syllable word (mbapp). For SET D

the most time was taken and the number of errors was the most comparatively which is 29.60 cm and 2 respectively.

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION-
INTROSPECTIVE REPORT-

Initially, I was scared but as I progressed through each set, my comfort level increased and I became excited to

finish the task.

BEHAVIOURAL REPORT-

Initially, the subject seemed a little nervous and confused. But as I started giving the instruction it became clear

from her expressions that she was a little comfortable. By the end of the experiment, the subject got used to the

process and was more confident and comfortable.

DISCUSSION-

As the set of difficulty was increasing, the time taken and the number of trials were also increasing. The subject

took some time to get used to the test, but what helped the participant the most was the instructions and demo before

each set. The filler activity was also a great way of engaging them and not getting burdened by the experiment. My

results are under the classical Stroop test so I would like to back my report with the classical Stroop test because the

time taken and errors are progressively increasing.

Hence the three hypotheses have been proven correct i.e. the time taken to read the incongruent list will be more

than the time taken to read the congruent list, the time taken to read the colour of the ink (ignoring the word) will be

more as compared to the time taken to read out the word (ignoring the ink colour), the number of errors made for

reading the incongruent list than the errors for reading the congruent list. We can see this as the time increased from

11.72 in SET A to 29.60 in SET D. Also, the errors increased from 0 in SET A to 2 errors in SET 3.

DEBRIEFING-

Initially, we were asked not to tell the participants about the experiment, because we did not want them to be

pressurized or let any biases come in the way of conducting this experiment. After the experiment, I explained to

my participant about the experiment and told her in detail about the Stroop effect.

REFERENCES-

1. Bench, C., Frith, C., Grasby, P., Friston, K., Paulesu, E., Frackowiak, R., & Dolan, R.

(1993, September). Investigations of the functional anatomy of attention using the

stroop test. Neuropsychologia, 31(9), 907–922.

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2. Graf, P., Uttl, B., & Tuokko, H. (1995, June). Color- and picture-word stroop tests:

Performance changes in old age. Journal of Clinical and Experimental

Neuropsychology, 17(3), 390–415. https://doi.org/10.1080/01688639508405132

3. Jensen, A. R., & Rohwer, W. D. (1966, January). The stroop color-word test: A

review. Acta Psychologica, 25, 36–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/0001-6918(66)90004-7

4. Siegrist, M. (1997, May). Test-Retest Reliability of Different Versions of the Stroop

Test. The Journal of Psychology, 131(3), 299–306.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00223989709603516
5. MSEd, K. C. (2023, November 9). Automaticity—Why We Act Without Thinking.

Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-automaticity-2795018