Mysore University School of Engineering

8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006

Elements of Mechanical Engineering

(21EME15-25)

MODULE 01 NOTES

Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006

Module 01
Contents:
1.0 Sources and Classification of Energy Resources.
1.1 Non-renewable and renewable energy resources,
1.2 Brief Description and Utilization of
a) Solar Energy.
b) Wind Energy.
c) Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC).
d) Geothermal Energy.
e) Tidal Energy.
f) Nuclear Energy.
1.3 Steam Formation at constant Pressure.
1.4 Steam Properties.
1.5 Boilers Classification.
1.6 Lancashire boiler.
1.7 Simple numerical (Using of Steam Table)

Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006
1.0 Energy Sources: Introduction and Classification
Introduction: Energy is essential for modern life, powering everything from homes to industries. It can be
harnessed from various natural sources, and understanding these sources is crucial for sustainable energy
management.

Classification of Energy Resources:

1.1 Non-renewable and Renewable Energy:

Energy resources are broadly classified into two categories:
Non-renewable Energy Resources: These resources are finite and deplete over time. They primarily
include fossil fuels and nuclear energy.
Examples:
• Fossil Fuels: Coal, oil, and natural gas formed from ancient organic matter.
• Nuclear Energy: Generated from nuclear fission of uranium or thorium.
• Examples of Renewable Energy Resources:

Renewable Energy Resources: These are sustainable resources that can be replenished naturally over
a short time. This category includes solar, wind, hydroelectric, biomass, and geothermal energy.
• Solar Energy: Utilizes sunlight through photovoltaic or thermal systems.
• Wind Energy: Captured from wind using turbines to produce electricity.
• Ocean Energy: Includes tidal and wave energy.
• Geothermal Energy: Harnesses heat from within the Earth.
• Biomass: Organic material used for fuel and energy production.

Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006
1.2 Brief Description, Working Principle, and Utilization
a) Solar Energy: Solar energy is the energy from the sun, which can be converted into electricity or heat.
Working Principle:
• Photovoltaic Cells: Convert sunlight directly into electricity using semiconductor materials
that exhibit the photovoltaic effect.
• Solar Thermal Systems: Use mirrors or lenses to concentrate sunlight to heat a fluid, which
can then produce steam to drive a turbine.
Utilization / Applications:
• Electricity generation for homes and businesses.
• Solar water heating for residential use.
• Solar-powered appliances and vehicles.

b) Wind Energy: Wind energy is generated by converting the kinetic energy of wind into mechanical
energy.
Working Principle:
• Wind turbines have blades that rotate when wind blows. This rotation turns a generator to produce
electricity. The efficiency of energy conversion depends on wind speed and turbine design.
Utilization / Applications:
• large wind farms provide grid electricity.
• Small-scale turbines for individual homes or
businesses.
• Integration into agricultural operations
(e.g., powering irrigation systems).

c) Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) : OTEC harnesses temperature differences between warmer
surface water and colder deep water in the ocean.
Working Principle:
• Warm surface water is used to vaporize a working fluid
with a low boiling point. The vapor drives a turbine to
generate electricity. Cold deep water condenses the vapor
back into a liquid.
Utilization / Applications:
• Electricity generation in coastal areas.
• Desalination for freshwater production.
• Supports marine aquaculture and climate control in buildings.

Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006
d) Geothermal Energy: Geothermal energy is derived from the heat stored beneath the Earth's
surface.
Working Principle:
• Geothermal power plants utilize steam or hot water from underground reservoirs to drive turbines
connected to generators. Enhanced geothermal systems
(EGS) can also create artificial reservoirs in hot dry rocks.
Utilization / Applications:
• Electricity generation in geothermal power plants.
• Direct use applications for district heating, greenhouse
heating, and industrial processes.

e) Tidal Energy: Tidal energy captures the energy produced by the gravitational pull of the moon and sun,
which creates tides.
Working Principle:
• Tidal turbines or barrages convert the kinetic and potential energy of moving water into electricity.
Turbines are installed in areas with significant tidal flows.

Utilization / Applications:
• Electricity generation for coastal communities.
• Potential integration with other renewable energy sources.

f) Nuclear Energy: Nuclear energy is produced through nuclear fission, where the nuclei of atoms are split
to release energy.
Working Principle:
• In a nuclear reactor, uranium fuel rods undergo
fission when bombarded by neutrons, releasing heat.
This heat generates steam that drives turbines to
produce electricity.
Utilization / Applications:
• Large-scale electricity generation in nuclear power plants.
• Applications in medicine, such as radiation therapy and imaging.
• Research applications in various scientific fields.
Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006
1.3 Steam Formation at Constant Pressure
Steam, which is gaseous form of pure water, is an excellent working medium in various thermodynamic
systems because of its following properties:
a) It can carry large quantities of heat
b) It is produced from water which is cheap and readily available
c) It can be used for heating purposes after its duty as working agent is completed.
d) It can be used purely as a heating medium in food processing Industries because of a fast, easily
e) controllable and hygienic method of heating. Experimental method for understanding formation of
Steam.

From State (1) to State (2) the water maintains its liquid phase and the specific volume increases very slightly
until the temperature reaches close to 100°C (State (2) – Saturated Liquid). As more heat is added the water
progressively changes phase from liquid to water vapor (steam) while maintaining the temperature at 100°C
(Saturation Temperature – Tsat) until there is no liquid remaining in the cylinder (State (4) – Saturated
Vapor). If heating continues then the water vapor temperature increases (T > Tsat) and is said to be in
the Superheated (State (5)).

Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006
1.4 Steam Properties
A) Quality of steam (Dryness fraction)
Dryness fraction in simple words denotes the mass of dry steam in given steam. Or how much steam is dry
or in other words how much water vapour is present in steam. It is denoted by ‘x’.

B) Specific volume:
Gases (steam is a gas) occupy less space under higher pressure than under lower pressure. This means 1
kilogram of steam occupies different volumes, depending upon its pressure. The term specific volume refers
to the volume that one kg of steam occupies at a given pressure and temperature. Unit is 𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔

C) Enthalpy
The total heat content of a substance is called enthalpy. Actually, it has much broad definition in
thermodynamics. So, total heat content by steam is termed as its enthalpy. It is denoted by ‘h’. SI unit is Kilo
Jouls (KJ), ‘h‘is generally used term which represents specific enthalpy, unit for which is 𝐾𝐽/𝐾𝑔. In steam
tables you will see enthalpy written as ℎ𝑓, ℎ𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑓𝑔
ℎ𝑓, is the enthalpy of liquid that is water at boiling point that’s why subscript ‘f’ is used, similarly, ℎ𝑔, is
enthalpy of dry saturated steam, and ℎ𝑓𝑔, is the latent heat,

D) Entropy
Entropy, the measure of a system’s thermal energy per unit temperature that is unavailable for doing
useful work. By the Clausius definition, if an amount of heat Q flows into a large heat reservoir at
temperature T above absolute zero, then the entropy increase is 𝛥𝑆 = 𝑄/𝑇.

These 3 properties are sub divided int Un-saturated water, Saturated water, wet steam, dry steam, superheated
steam

Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006
E) Wet and dry steam
Wet steam is that steam in which the whole of water has not vaporized but the un-vaporized water is present
in the form of mist / fog suspended in completely vaporized water or steam. Due to this mist the wet steam is
visible. However, the dry steam i.e., in which the vaporization is complete is invisible or colorless. Any steam
which is completely dry and present at saturation temperature is called dry saturated steam.

i) Dryness fraction
This term refers to quality of wet steam. It is defined as the ratio of the weight of dry steam actually presents
to the weight of total wet steam which contains it. It is denoted by x. Thus
𝑊𝑑
𝑥=
𝑊𝑑 + 𝑊
Where 𝑊𝑑 = Weight of dry steam in 1 kg of wet steam,
𝑊 = Weight of water in suspension in 1 kg of wet steam
Dryness fraction is zero for saturated water and one for dry saturated steam.

ii) Wetness fraction

It is the ratio of the weight of water/ moisture in suspension in a wet steam sample to the total weight of wet
steam. It is calculated by subtracting x from 1
𝑊𝑑 + 𝑊
(1 − 𝑥) =
𝑊𝑑
Wetness fraction is 1 for saturated water and 0 for dry saturated steam.

Specific Enthalpies of Steam

i) Specific enthalpy of un-saturated water (𝒉𝒘)
It is simply the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one kg of water from 0 ℃ to its actual
temperature which is below its saturation temperature. It can be calculated by multiplying actual temperature
of unsaturated water with its specific heat which is considered equal to 4.187 𝑘𝐽/ 𝑘𝑔/ 𝐾. It is denoted as hw.
So, ℎ𝑤 = 𝐶𝑤 × 𝑡 Where 𝑡𝑤is the temperature of water in ℃
Note: If water is present at a temperature below its boiling point or saturation temperature, it is called
unsaturated water. If water is present at its boiling point i.e. saturation temperature, it is called saturated water.

ii) Specific enthalpy of saturated water (𝒉𝒇)

It is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one kg of water at 00C to its boiling point or
saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure applied. It is denoted as hf. It can be calculated by
multiplying the specific heat of water to the total rise in temperature. The specific heat Cpw of water may be
approximately taken as constant i.e., 4.187 kJ/kg K, but in actual it slightly increases with increase in saturation
temperature or pressure. Thus ℎ𝑓 = 𝐶𝑤 (𝑡𝑠 − 0) = 𝐶𝑝. 𝑡𝑠 Were, 𝑡𝑠 = Saturation temperature

Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006
iii) Specific enthalpy of wet steam (𝒉𝒘𝒔)
It may be defined as the quantity of heat required to convert 1 kg of water at 00C into wet steam of a given
quality and at constant pressure. It may be denoted by hws. It is equal to the sum of specific enthalpy of
saturated water and latent heat of dry fraction of steam. So ℎ𝑤𝑠 = ℎ𝑓 + 𝑥. ℎ𝑓𝑔

iv) Specific enthalpy of dry saturated steam (𝒉𝒈)

It may be defined as the quantity of heat required to convert 1kg of water at 00C into dry saturated steam at
given constant pressure. It may be denoted by hg. It is equal to the sum of specific enthalpy of saturated water
and latent heat corresponding to given saturation pressure and temperature. Thus ℎ𝑔 = ℎ𝑓 + ℎ𝑓𝑔

v) Specific enthalpy of superheated steam (𝒉𝒔𝒖𝒑)

It is defined as the quantity of heat required to convert 1kg of water at 00C into the superheated steam at given
temperature and pressure. It may be denoted as ℎ𝑠𝑢𝑝 and is equal to the sum of specific enthalpy of dry
saturated steam and product of specific heat of superheated steam (𝐶𝑠) to degree of superheat.
ℎ𝑠𝑢𝑝 = ℎ𝑔 + 𝐶𝑠 (𝑡𝑠𝑢𝑝 − 𝑡𝑠)
Where, ℎ𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑠 are the specific enthalpy of dry steam and saturation temperature at corresponding pressure
and 𝐶𝑠 & 𝑡𝑠𝑢𝑝 are specific heat of superheated steam and temperature of superheated steam at the same
ℎ𝑠𝑢𝑝−ℎ𝑔
pressure. Note: 𝐶𝑠 = 𝑡𝑠−𝑡

Use of steam tables

Till now we had studied that it is very important to study and understand the properties of steam for proper
utilization. Steam tables enable us to know these properties directly i.e. without doing any calculation or other
thing. These properties can be found out at a given pressure or temperature. In steam table use, we can use
either temperature tables or pressure tables. If we have to find properties of steam at given temperature, use
temperature scale and vice-versa. For super-heated steam, different table is given. Keep units in mind while
using steam tables and use scale for current measurement

Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006

Example on steam table usage

Suppose you have to find all properties of steam at 130 °𝐶. Then first of all use temperature scale. Find out in
the temperature where 130 °𝐶 is. Then mark it and put a scale across it covering the entire row. This entire
row will give you all the properties corresponding to this temperature. Fig. in this way, we can get all the
properties, ℎ𝑓, ℎ𝑓𝑔, ℎ𝑔, 𝑒𝑡𝑐.
In Steam table there are two types Temperature & Pressure Table

1.5 Boilers and its Classification.

A boiler is defined as a closed vessel which is used to heat liquid usually water or to generate vapour or steam
or any of such combination under pressure for external use by combustion of fossil fuels.
Working Principle of Boiler
Understanding the working of the boiler is very simple. The boiler is a closed
vessel in which the water is stored. Hot gases are produced by burning fuel in
the furnace. These hot gases are made to come in contact with the water vessel
where the heat transfer takes place between the water and the steam. Therefore,
the basic principle of the boiler is to convert water into steam by using heat
energy. There are different types of boilers used for different purposes.

Parts of Boiler: The parts of a boiler can be classified into two divisions:
a) Boilers Mountings
b) Boilers Accessories

Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
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a) Boiler mounting
These are the essential parts that defined the performance of the boiler.
i) Water level indicator: This is used to check the water level inside the boiler which is fitted in the
front of the boiler consisting of three cocks and a glass tube.
ii) Pressure gauge: This is used to measure the pressure inside the boiler which is fitted in the front
of the boiler.
iii) Safety valve: This is fitted on the drum and is used to prevent the explosion of the boiler due to
high pressure which blows off when the pressure inside exceeds the limit.
iv) Stop valve: This is used to control the flow of steam from the boiler to the steam pipe.
v) Blow off cock: This is fitted at the bottom of the drum and is used to blow off mud and water and
is used to empty the boiler.
vi) Feed check valve: This is used as a Non-Return Valve which is fitted slightly below the normal
water level on the drum. It is used to regulate the supply of water.
vii) Grate: It is the space in the furnace used to burn the fuel.

b) Boiler accessories
These are the parts that are responsible for the efficiency of the boiler.
i) Feed pump: It is used to pump the water into the boiler for continuous working. Either electricity
or steam turbine is used for the running of the feed pump.
ii) Super heater: This is used to superheat the steam before it is passed in the turbine as
saturated steam causes corrosion.
iii) Economizer: It is used to increase the efficiency of the boiler as the flue gases from the boiler is
made to flow through the economizer before releasing it to the atmosphere.
iv) Air preheater: It is also used to increase the efficiency of the boiler by preheating the air.
`
Classification of Boiler
The classification of the boiler is based on the following criteria:
a) According to the relative passage of water and hot gases:
• Water-tube boiler: A boiler in which the water flows through the tubes that are surrounded by
hot combustion gases.
• Fire-tube boiler: A boiler in which the hot combustion gases are surrounded by the water
b) According to water circulation arrangement:
• Natural circulation: The circulation happens due to the difference in density.
• Forced circulation: The circulation happens by pumping the water inside the boiler.
c) According to the use:
• Stationary boiler: These boilers are used for power plants
Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
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• Portable boiler: These are movable and used temporarily in sites.
• Locomotive: These are used in the railway engines.
• Marine boiler: These are used in ships.
d) According to the position of boilers:
• Horizontal
• Vertical
• Inclined
e) According to the pressure generated by steam:
• Low-pressure boiler: The maximum pressure is 15-20 bar. It is used for heating purposes.
• Medium pressure boiler: The maximum pressure is 20-80 bars. It is used for power generation.
• High-pressure boiler: The maximum pressure is more than 80 bars.
• Sub-critical boiler: If the boiler produces steam at a pressure that is less than the critical pressure it
is known as sub-critical.
• Supercritical boiler: These boilers are used to produce steam at a pressure which is greater than the
critical pressure.
f) According to charge in the furnace:
• Supercharged fuel
• Pulverized fuel

Application of Boiler
The boiler has a diverse application in the following industries:
• Food processing industries
• Chemical industries
• Refineries and distilleries
• Thermal power plants
• Sugar plants
• Textile industries
• Health care industries
• Paper industries
• Pharmaceutical industries

Difference between a water tube and fire tube boiler

A water tube boiler and a fire tube boiler are two types of boilers used for generating steam. The main
difference between them is the way the heat is transferred to the water in order to generate steam. This article
explains most major differences between water tube and fire tube boilers; it covers their design, working
principles, applications, advantages, and disadvantages.
Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006

Fire tube boilers Water Tube Boilers

Comparison between a Water tube and a Fire tube boiler, based on various parameters:
Parameter Water Tube Boiler Fire Tube Boiler
Water flows through tubes; hot gases Hot gases flow through tubes; water
Basic Design
surround the tubes. surrounds the tubes.
Heat Transfer Higher, as water is in the tubes with more Lower, as heat is transferred through
Efficiency surface area for heat exchange. the outside of the tubes.
Typically, larger and more compact for
Size Generally smaller and less complex.
high-pressure applications.
Higher capacity, suitable for large-scale Suitable for small to medium
Capacity
operations. capacities.
Suitable for low to medium-pressure
Pressure Range Suitable for high-pressure applications.
applications.
More complex, requires specialized Easier to maintain, with simpler
Maintenance
knowledge for maintenance. design.
Construction Uses high-strength materials capable of Uses standard materials, less robust
Material withstanding high pressure. under high pressure.
More suitable for fluctuating loads due to Slower to respond to load
Operation
faster response time. fluctuations.
Higher safety due to the design of pressure Lower safety margin due to high risk
Safety
handling. of overheating.
Steam Generation
Faster steam generation. Slower steam generation.
Speed
Large-scale industries like power plants, Small industries, heating purposes,
Applications
large factories. and small power stations.
Can handle various fuel types, including Primarily used with solid fuels (coal,
Fuel Types
gas, coal, and oil. oil).
Lower initial cost, simpler
Cost Higher initial cost due to complexity.
construction.

Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006
1.6 Lancashire boiler

Lancashire boiler is a horizontal internally fired, natural circulation fire tube boiler. This boiler rises steam
up to a pressure of its bar and maximum evaporating capacity of 8500 Kg of steam per hour. This boiler was
invented by Sir William Fairbairn in the year 1844.
Construction:
1. Shell: The boiler shell is typically cylindrical and made of steel or iron. It is where water is stored and
heated. The shell has a diameter large enough to accommodate two fire tubes running through it.
2. Fire Tubes: There are two large fire tubes that run longitudinally through the shell. These tubes carry
the hot gases from the combustion chamber to heat the water surrounding the tubes.
3. Combustion Chamber: Located at one end of the boiler, the combustion chamber is where the fuel
(typically coal) is burned to generate heat.
4. Furnace: The furnace is where the fuel burns, and the heat produced from the combustion process is
transferred to the fire tubes. It is positioned at one end of the boiler.
5. Chimney: The exhaust gases exit the boiler through the chimney, where they are released into the
atmosphere after having transferred heat to the water.
6. Water Space: The space between the outer shell and the fire tubes is the water space, where the water
is heated.
7. Feedwater Inlet: The feedwater is supplied to the boiler through an inlet, typically from a pump.
8. Safety Valve and Pressure Gauge: These are important safety components of the boiler. The safety
valve ensures the boiler does not exceed the maximum working pressure, while the pressure gauge
monitors the internal pressure.
Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006
Working:
First Pass:
• Gases Exit Furnace and Enter Fire Tubes:
o The hot combustion gases first pass from the furnace into the fire tubes.
o The gases travel through the fire tubes, transferring heat to the water surrounding the tubes in
the shell.
• Heat Transfer:
o As the gases move through the fire tubes, they release heat, raising the temperature of the water
and converting it into steam.
o The fire tubes are designed to maximize the surface area for heat exchange.
Second Pass:
• Gases Move from Fire Tubes to the Bottom of the Boiler:
o After traveling through the fire tubes, the gases then enter a large space near the bottom of the
boiler.
o This space helps redirect the gases in a second phase of movement.
• Heat Exchange:
o Additional heat is transferred to the water as the gases move across the water space.
o The gases lose more heat, further increasing the water temperature.
Third Pass:
• Gases Move to the Chimney via the Top Pass:
o The combustion gases pass through the top section of the boiler shell in the final pass.
o During this stage, the gases release the remaining heat, contributing to further heating of the
water.
• Exhaust Gas Exit:
o After passing through the third pass, the now cooler combustion gases exit the boiler via the
chimney.
o The gases are released into the atmosphere after the heat transfer process is complete.

Advantage
1. This boiler is easy to clean and inspect.
2. It is more reliable and can generate large amount of steam.
3. It required less maintenance.
4. This boiler is a natural circulation boiler so lower electricity consumption than other boilers.
5. It can easily operate.
6. It can easily meet with load requirement.
7. Lancashire boiler has high thermal efficiency about 80-90%.
Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006
Disadvantages
1. This boiler required more floor space.
2. This boiler has leakage problem.
3. It requires more time to generate steam.
4. It cannot generate high pressure steam if required.
5. Grates are situated at the inlet of fire tube, which has small diameter. So, the grate area is limited in
this boiler.

1.7 Simple numerical (Using of Steam Table)

Problem 1: Find the enthalpy of 1 kg of steam at 12 bar when, (a) steam is dry saturated, (b) steam is
22% wet and (c) superheated to 250°C. Use the steam table. Assume the specific heat of the superheated
steam as 2.25 kJ/kgK.
Solution: From the steam tables at 12 bar, the following values are noted.
𝑇𝑆 = 188°𝐶, ℎ𝑓 = 798.43 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔, ℎ𝑓𝑔 = 1984.3 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
(a) Enthalpy of Dry saturated Steam:
ℎ𝑔 = ℎ𝑓 + ℎ𝑓𝑔 = 798.43 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 + 1984.3 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 = 2782.73 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
(b) Enthalpy of Wet Steam:
When the steam is 22% wet, it will be 78% dry. Therefore, the dryness fraction x = 0.78
ℎ𝑤 = ℎ𝑓 + 𝑥 × ℎ𝑓𝑔 = 798.43 + 0.78 𝑥 1984.3 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
(c) Enthalpy of Superheated Steam:
ℎ𝑠𝑢𝑝 = ℎ𝑓 + ℎ𝑓𝑔 + 𝐶𝑝𝑠( 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑝 ~ 𝑇𝑠)
ℎ𝑠𝑢𝑝 == 798.43 + 1984.3 + 2.25(250 − 188) = 2922.23 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

Problem 2: A steam at 10 bar and dryness 0.98 receives 140 kJ/kg at the same pressure. What is the final
state of the steam?
Solution: From the steam tables, at 10 bar, the following values are noted.
𝑇𝑆 = 179.9°𝐶 ℎ𝑓 = 762.61 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 , ℎ𝑓𝑔 = 2013.6 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
Enthalpy of wet steam at dryness fraction 0.98 is found out.
Enthalpy of Wet Steam: ℎ𝑤 = ℎ𝑓 + 𝑥 × ℎ𝑓𝑔 = 762.61 + 0.98 𝑥 2013.6 = 2735.9 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
When 140 kJ of heat is added at the constant pressure its enthalpy will increase,
Enthalpy of heat addition = 2735.9 + 140 = 2875.9 𝑘𝑗/𝑘𝑔
At 10 bar the enthalpy of dry saturated steam, ℎ𝑔 = ℎ𝑓 + ℎ𝑓𝑔 = 762.61 + 2013.6 = 2776.2 𝑘𝐽/ 𝑘𝑔
Since the enthalpy of steam after heat addition is greater than the enthalpy of dry saturated steam at the
same pressure, the steam is superheated. The superheated temperature of the steam is found as follows.
ℎ𝑠𝑢𝑝 = ℎ𝑓 + ℎ𝑓𝑔 + 𝐶𝑝𝑠 (𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑝 ~ 𝑇𝑠) ≫ 2875.9 = 2776.2 + 2.25 (𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑝 ~ 179. 9) ≫ 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑝
𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑝 = 224. 2 𝐶 °
Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006
Problem 3: Determine the condition of steam at a temperature of 220°C and enthalpy of 2750 kJ/kg.
Solution:
To find: State of steam
Given data: 𝑇 = 220°𝐶, ℎ = 2750 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
From saturated water table of temperature scale at 220°C,
ℎ𝑓 = 943.7 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔, ℎ𝑓𝑔 = 1856.2 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔, ℎ𝑔 = 2799.9 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

Since h < hg, the steam is in wet condition.

Note:
h > hg ⇒ Superheated steam
h = hg ⇒ Dry steam
h < hg ⇒ Wet steam
ℎ𝑤𝑒𝑡 = ℎ𝑓 + 𝑥ℎ𝑓𝑔 ≫ 𝑥 = (ℎ𝑤𝑒𝑡 − ℎ𝑓)/ℎ𝑓𝑔 = (2750 − 943.7) /1856.2 = 0.973 = 97.3%
Steam is having dryness fraction of 97.3%

Practice Problem:
1) Find the specific volume and enthalpy of steam at 9 bar when the condition of steam is (a) wet with
dryness fraction 0.98 (b) dry saturated and (c) superheated and the temperature of steam 240°C.
Hint: Pressure = 9 bar
(i) x = 0.95, (ii) x = 1, (iii) Superheated with Tsup = 240°C = 240 + 273 = 513 K
Steam Table data:
From saturated water table of pressure scale at 9 bar,
Ts = 175.4°C = 175.4 + 273 = 448.4 K
ℎ𝑓 = 742.6 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔, ℎ𝑓𝑔 = 2029.5 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 , ℎ𝑔 = 2772.1 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

Practice Problem:
2) Find the internal energy of unit mass of steam at a pressure of 7 bar (i) when its quality is 0.8 (ii) when
it is dry and saturated and (iii) superheated, the degree of superheat being 65°C. The specific heat of
superheated steam at constant pressure is 2.277 kJ/kg K.
Given data
p = 7 bar = 700 kPa
(i) x = 0.80
(ii) dry saturated and
(iii) Superheated, (Tsup - Ts) = 65°C
𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎: 𝑇𝑠 = 165.0 °𝐶, 𝒉𝒇 = 653.6 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔, 𝒉𝒇𝒈 = 2053.6 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔, 𝒉𝒈 = 2707.2 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006

Modal Questions
3 to 4 Marks Questions
1. Define energy resources and explain their classification into renewable and non-renewable resources.
Provide two examples of each type.
2. List the main disadvantages of non-renewable energy resources.
3. Describe how solar energy is harnessed and list two common uses of solar energy and what are the
main advantages of using solar energy as a power source?
4. How is wind energy converted into electrical energy? Briefly describe the working of a wind turbine.
5. Explain the basic principle behind Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) and its applications.
6. What is geothermal energy, and how is it utilized for electricity generation?
7. How is tidal energy harnessed, and what are its environmental benefits and limitations?
8. Explain the principle behind nuclear energy generation and mention one advantage and one
disadvantage of nuclear power.
9. What is meant by steam formation at constant pressure? Explain how the heat input affects steam
production.
10. Briefly explain the terms Enthalpy and Entropy in relation to steam.

8 to 10 Marks Questions
1. Explain Formation of Steam at constant Pressure using T-h Graph
2. Classify boilers and explain the difference between fire-tube and water-tube boilers.
3. Explain the basic construction and working principle of a Lancashire boiler.
4. Simple Numerical Problems Using Steam Table

Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006