Unit-I Unit – II 2.

8 Chemistry aspect for water pollution: The chemistry aspect of water pollution is
2.1Ground water: Sources - Groundwater is the water present beneath the Earth's concerned with understanding the various chemical processes that lead to the
★ Components of Environment 1.Hydrosphere includes all water bodies such as surface in the pores and fractures of rocks and soil. It is one of the essential sources contamination of water bodies and how pollutants interact with the aquatic
lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and ocean etc. Hydrosphere functions in a cyclic nature, of freshwater and plays a vital role in sustaining ecosystems, agriculture, and human environment. It involves studying the sources, transformation, transport, and fate of
which is termed as hydrological cycle or water cycle. Lithosphere means the mantle water supply. Groundwater is primarily sourced from precipitation that infiltrates different chemical pollutants in water. Key chemistry aspects of water pollution
of rocks constituting the earth’s crust. The earth is a cold spherical solid planet of the into the soil and percolates downward, but it can also come from surface water include: 1.Pollutant Types: Inorganic Pollutants: These include heavy metals (e.g.,
solar system, which spins in its axis and revolves around the sun at a certain bodies through seepage. Sources of Groundwater: 1.Infiltration: Precipitation, lead, mercury, cadmium), nutrients (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus), acids, and bases.
constant distance. 2.Lithosphere mainly, contains soil, earth rocks, mountain etc. such as rain or snow, percolates through the soil and eventually reaches the Inorganic pollutants can originate from industrial discharges, agricultural runoff, and
Lithosphere is divided into three layers-crusts, mantle and core (outer and inner). groundwater table. 2.Recharge from Surface Water: Rivers, lakes, and other surface natural sources. Organic Pollutants: These comprise pesticides, herbicides, industrial
Atmosphere The cover of the air, that envelope the earth is known as the water bodies can lose water through seepage, which recharges the underlying chemicals, and petroleum hydrocarbons. Organic pollutants can be introduced
atmosphere. groundwater. 3. Springs: Natural springs occur when groundwater reaches the through agricultural activities, industrial processes, and urban runoff.
3. Atmosphere is a thin layer which contains gases like oxygen, carbon dioxide etc. surface, creating a flow of water. 4.Confined Aquifers: In some regions, groundwater Pathogens: Pathogens include bacteria, viruses, and protozoa, which can contaminate
and which protects the solid earth and human beings from the harmful radiations of is found in confined aquifers, where it is trapped between layers of impermeable water sources through untreated or inadequately treated sewage and animal waste.
the sun. There are five concentric layers within the atmosphere, which can be rock or clay. 2.Chemical Reactions: Oxidation and Reduction: Many pollutants undergo oxidation or
differentiated on the basis of temperature and each layer has its own characteristics. Ground water: quality analysis - Quality Analysis of Groundwater: The quality of reduction reactions, altering their chemical forms and toxicity.
These include the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere, the thermosphere groundwater is crucial to assess its suitability for various uses, including drinking Hydrolysis: Some pollutants can break down into simpler compounds when in contact
and the exosphere. 4.Biosphere it is otherwise known as the life layer, it refers to all water, irrigation, and industrial processes. Groundwater quality analysis involves with water. Acid-Base Reactions: pH levels can affect the solubility and reactivity of
organisms on the earth’s surface and their interaction with water and air. It consists monitoring various physical, chemical, and biological parameters. Some key aspects various pollutants.
of plants, animals and micro-organisms, ranging from the tiniest microscopic of groundwater quality analysis include: 1.Physical Parameters: Temperature: 3.Transport and Fate: Adsorption: Pollutants can be adsorbed onto sediments and
organism to the largest whales in the sea. Biology is concerned with how millions of Groundwater temperature can affect its chemical characteristics and microbial organic matter, affecting their mobility and persistence in water bodies.
species of animals, plants and other organisms grow, feed, move, reproduce and activity. Turbidity: The clarity of groundwater, which can be an indicator of Volatilization: Some volatile pollutants can evaporate from water bodies into the
evolve over long periods of time in different environments. Its subject matter is suspended solids. 2.Chemical Parameters: pH: The measure of acidity or alkalinity of atmosphere. Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification: Some pollutants can accumulate
useful to other sciences and professions that deal with life, such as agriculture, water, which affects the solubility of minerals and the effectiveness of treatment in living organisms and be transferred up the food chain, resulting in higher
forestry and medicine. processes. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS): The concentration of all inorganic and concentrations in top predators.
1.1 Types/ classification of Environment organic substances dissolved in water, often measured as milligrams per liter 4.Chemical Equilibria: Equilibrium between Dissolved and Particulate Phases:
1.natural environment : It consists of all components provided by nature and (mg/L).3. Biological Parameters: Microbial Contamination: Presence of bacteria, Pollutants can exist in dissolved or particulate forms in water, and their equilibrium
hence can be called as the. It is also referred to as the physical environment as it viruses, and other microorganisms that can indicate potential health risks. between these phases can impact their behavior and toxicity.
pertains to the physical requirements of life. These physical or geographic conditions 2.2 Surface water: Sources - Surface water refers to water that is located on the Solubility Equilibria: The solubility of different pollutants affects their concentrations
are not dependent on the existence of humans. Sometimes, humans have no control Earth's surface, such as in rivers, lakes, ponds, reservoirs, and streams. It is an and potential to dissolve or precipitate in water.
over the physical conditions of the environment. essential source of freshwater for various purposes, including drinking water, 2.9 Control of water pollution: Controlling water pollution is a crucial step in
It includes natural resources, the earth’s surface, mountains, plains, land, water, irrigation, industrial processes, and supporting aquatic ecosystems. Surface water is safeguarding water resources, protecting aquatic ecosystems, and ensuring safe
deserts, storms, cyclones, volcanoes, oceans, climatic factors.2.Man-Made primarily sourced from precipitation in the form of rain or snow. Sources of drinking water for communities. Effective pollution control strategies involve a
Environment: This environment is used to refer to the one created by man in order Surface Water: 1.Rainfall: Precipitation that falls on the Earth's surface can combination of regulatory measures, technological solutions, and sustainable
to regulate and monitor certain environmental conditions. Some address it as a accumulate in depressions, form streams, and eventually flow into larger bodies of practices. Here are some key approaches to control water pollution: 1.Wastewater
social-cultural environment. It can further be divided into two types of water like rivers and lakes. 2.Snowmelt: During warmer seasons, snow and ice melt, Treatment: Implementing effective wastewater treatment processes for industrial,
environments. contributing to the flow of rivers and streams. 3.Runoff: Water that flows over the municipal, and agricultural sources can significantly reduce the release of pollutants
1.2 Environmental descriptors: Environmental descriptors are characteristics or land surface when the ground is saturated or cannot absorb additional water. This into water bodies. Utilize advanced treatment technologies, such as activated sludge,
attributes used to describe and define the features and conditions of an runoff can create small streams and contribute to the flow of larger water bodies. biological filters, and membrane filtration, to remove contaminants effectively.
environment. These descriptors help in understanding the specific qualities of an 4.Springs: Natural springs occur when groundwater reaches the surface, creating a 2.Pollution Prevention: Adopt pollution prevention strategies to reduce or eliminate
environment and are often used in various environmental assessments, research, flow of water. pollutant discharge at the source. Encourage industries and businesses to implement
and planning. Here are some common environmental descriptors: 1. Geographical Quality Analysis of Surface Water: The quality of surface water is crucial for cleaner production techniques, use eco-friendly materials, and manage waste
Descriptors: Latitude and Longitude: The location on the Earth's surface. Altitude various environmental, ecological, and human health reasons. Regular monitoring properly. 3.Stormwater Management: Implement stormwater management practices
or Elevation: The height above sea level. 2. Hydrological Descriptors: River and analysis of surface water quality are essential to ensure its safety and suitability to control runoff and prevent pollutants from entering water bodies during heavy
Networks: The arrangement and flow of rivers and streams. Watershed or for various uses. Surface water quality analysis involves assessing several physical, rainfall events. Techniques include green infrastructure, detention basins, and
Catchment Area: The area of land that drains into a specific water body. 3. Soil chemical, and biological parameters. Some key aspects of surface water quality permeable pavements. 4.Regulatory Frameworks: Enforce and strengthen water
Descriptors: Soil Type: Classification based on texture (sand, silt, clay), organic analysis include: 1.Physical Parameters: Temperature: Surface water temperature quality standards and regulations to limit pollutant discharges and establish
content, and mineral composition. can affect aquatic ecosystems and the solubility of gases. Turbidity: The clarity of permissible limits for specific contaminants. Establish penalties and fines for non-
1.3 Environmental quality refers to the overall condition and health of the natural water, which can be an indicator of suspended solids and sediment levels. 2.Chemical compliance to deter polluters. 5.Watershed Management: Implement integrated
and built environment, including air, water, soil, ecosystems, and human settlements. Parameters: pH: The measure of acidity or alkalinity of water, which influences watershed management approaches to address pollution from multiple sources
It is a measure of the state of the environment and its ability to support life, maintain aquatic life and chemical reactions. Dissolved Oxygen (DO): The amount of oxygen within a specific geographic area. Promote land use planning and conservation
ecological balance, and provide essential resources and services for human well- dissolved in water, which is essential for supporting aquatic organisms. 3.Biological practices to protect water resources.
being. Parameters: Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD): The amount of dissolved oxygen 2.10 Fundamental of water treatment techniques: Water treatment techniques are
Key aspects of environmental quality include: consumed by microorganisms during the decomposition of organic matter. High essential processes that aim to remove impurities and contaminants from water,
1.Air Quality: The presence of pollutants, such as particulate matter, nitrogen BOD levels can indicate organic pollution. Faecal Coliforms: Bacteria used as an making it safe and suitable for various purposes, including drinking, industrial use,
dioxide, sulfur dioxide, ozone, carbon monoxide, and volatile organic compounds in indicator of fecal contamination, which can indicate the presence of harmful and environmental protection. The fundamental water treatment techniques include:
the atmosphere. High levels of these pollutants can lead to respiratory and pathogens. 1.Screening: The initial step in water treatment involves the removal of large debris,
cardiovascular issues, smog formation, and climate change. leaves, and other physical impurities through screens or coarse filters.
2.Water Quality: The chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of water 2.3 Quality parameters in water treatment along with flow sheets: Water 2.Coagulation and Flocculation: Chemical coagulants, such as aluminum sulfate (alum)
bodies, including rivers, lakes, oceans, and groundwater. Water quality is assessed treatment is a process that involves various physical, chemical, and biological or ferric chloride, are added to water to destabilize suspended particles and colloids.
based on factors such as temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, nutrient levels, methods to remove impurities and contaminants from water, making it safe and Flocculation involves gently stirring the water to promote the formation of larger,
presence of toxins, and microbial contamination. Poor water quality can lead to suitable for specific uses like drinking, industrial processes, and recreational heavier particles (flocs) by bringing together the destabilized particles.
waterborne diseases, harm aquatic life, and affect drinking water supplies. purposes. Here are some common quality parameters in water treatment and their 3.Sedimentation: The water is allowed to settle in large sedimentation basins, where
3.Soil Quality: The fertility, structure, and contamination levels of soil. Essential corresponding flow sheets: 1.Physical Parameters: Turbidity: The measure of the flocs, along with other suspended particles, settle to the bottom due to gravity.
factors include soil texture, nutrient content, pH, organic matter, and the presence of suspended particles and sediment in water, which can be reduced through The settled water, known as clarified water, is then separated from the sediment.
pollutants like heavy metals and pesticides. Degraded soil quality can hinder sedimentation and filtration processes. Flow Sheet: Coagulation → Flocculation → 4.Filtration: Clarified water passes through granular media filters (such as sand,
agricultural productivity and harm ecosystems. Sedimentation → Filtration 2.Chemical Parameters: pH: The acidity or alkalinity of gravel, or anthracite) to further remove remaining suspended particles and colloids.
Environmental descriptive parameters are specific characteristics or attributes water. pH adjustment may be necessary to optimize treatment processes. Flow Filtration helps improve water clarity and removes microorganisms.
used to describe and characterize the environment. These parameters provide a Sheet: pH Adjustment (using chemicals like lime or soda ash) . Total Dissolved Solids 5.Disinfection: To kill or inactivate harmful microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, and
detailed understanding of the environmental conditions in a particular area, and (TDS): The concentration of dissolved substances. High TDS levels can be reduced parasites) that may be present in the water, disinfection is essential.
they are often used in scientific studies, environmental assessments, and monitoring through desalination processes like reverse osmosis or distillation. Flow Sheet: Common disinfection methods include chlorination (using chlorine), ultraviolet (UV)
programs. Here are some common environmental descriptive parameters: Soil Reverse Osmosis or Distillation. 3.Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD): BOD radiation, ozone, or chloramines.
Parameters: 1.Soil Type: Classification based on texture (sand, silt, clay), organic measures the amount of oxygen consumed by microorganisms during the
content, and mineral composition. Soil pH: The measure of soil acidity or decomposition of organic matter. BOD reduction can be achieved through biological UNIT -III
alkalinity.Soil Moisture: The amount of water held in the soil. treatment methods like activated sludge or biofiltration. Flow Sheet: Biological 3.1 Definition of pollution and pollutant: 1.Pollution: Pollution refers to the
2.Environmental Health Parameters: Pollution Levels: The concentration of Treatment (e.g., Activated Sludge or Biofiltration) → Secondary Clarification → introduction or presence of harmful substances or contaminants into the natural
pollutants in air, water, and soil. Contaminant Levels: The presence of hazardous Disinfection (using chlorine or UV) environment, such as air, water, or soil, which can cause adverse effects on living
substances, such as heavy metals and chemicals. 3.Geographical Parameters: organisms, ecosystems, and human health. Pollution is typically a result of human
Latitude and Longitude: The geographic coordinates that define the location of a ★ Effects of Over Utilization of Water Resources: a) Lowering of Water Table: activities, although natural processes can also contribute to environmental pollution.
point on the Earth's surface. Altitude or Elevation: The height above sea level. Excessive use of water for drinking, irrigation, industrial and commercial purposes It is a significant environmental concern, as it can disrupt ecological balance, degrade
Landform: The physical features of the land, such as mountains, hills, valleys, plains, has resulted in rapid depletion of water resources in various regions leading to natural resources, and lead to various health problems for both humans and wildlife.
and plateaus. lowering of water table and drying of well. b) Ground Water Subsidence: When 2.Pollutant: A pollutant is a substance or agent that causes pollution by contaminating
1.4 Ecology Definition: Ecology is the scientific study of the relationships between ground water withdrawal is more than the recharging rate, the sediments in aquifer the environment. Pollutants can be of various forms, including solid, liquid, or
living organisms and their environment. It examines how organisms interact with become compacted. It is called ‘Ground Subsidence’. c) Water Logging: When gaseous, and they may be introduced into the environment directly or indirectly.
one another and with their physical surroundings, including other living organisms, excessive irrigation is done with brakish water it raises the water table gradually Common pollutants include chemicals, heavy metals, pathogens, particulate matter,
abiotic factors (such as temperature, humidity, and soil), and the various ecosystems leading to water logging and salinity problems. d) Salt water intrusion, e) Reduced greenhouse gases, and other harmful substances. The source of pollutants can be
they inhabit. Ecology seeks to understand the distribution, abundance, and diversity stream flow, f) Declining well yield, g) Increased costs for the users industrial processes, transportation, agriculture, waste disposal, and natural events
of organisms and how they are influenced by factors like predation, competition, 2.4 Basic processes for potable water supply : The basic processes for providing like volcanic eruptions. The impact of pollutants varies depending on their nature,
environmental conditions, and human activities. potable (safe for drinking) water supply involve several treatment steps to remove concentration, and exposure duration. Effective pollution control and management
Classification of Ecology: 1.Autecology: This branch of ecology focuses on studying impurities and contaminants from the raw water source. These processes aim to strategies aim to identify and mitigate the sources of pollutants to minimize their
individual species and their interactions with their environment. Autecological make the water safe for human consumption by meeting regulatory standards and harmful effects on the environment and human well-being.
studies delve into the physiological, behavioral, and ecological adaptations of a ensuring it is free from harmful pathogens, chemical pollutants, and physical Natural and manmade sources of air pollution: Air pollution can arise from both
particular species and how it responds to various environmental conditions. impurities. The following are the fundamental processes typically used for potable natural and manmade sources. Here are examples of air pollutants from each
2.Synecology or Community Ecology: Synecology deals with the study of groups of water supply: 1.Screening: The raw water is first passed through screens or coarse category, including those associated with refrigerants, internal combustion engines
species living together in a particular habitat or ecosystem. It examines the filters to remove large debris, leaves, and other physical impurities. 2. Filtration: The (I.C.), and boilers: 1.Natural Sources of Air Pollution: Volcanic Eruptions: Volcanic
composition, structure, and dynamics of ecological communities and the interactions eruptions release large amounts of gases, ash, and particulate matter into the
clarified water passes through granular media filters (such as sand or anthracite) to
among the different species within them. atmosphere. These emissions can cause short-term air pollution and affect air quality
3.Population Ecology: Population ecology is concerned with the study of the further remove any remaining suspended particles and colloids. Filtration helps in regional areas. Forest Fires: Wildfires, whether caused by lightning or human
dynamics of a single species population within a given area or habitat. It explores improve water clarity and removes microorganisms. 3. Distribution: Potable water is activities, release smoke, particulate matter, and a variety of gases, including carbon
factors influencing population size, growth rates, and changes over time, including distributed through a network of pipes to homes, businesses, and other consumers. dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), into
birth rates, death rates, immigration, and emigration. the air. 2.Manmade Sources of Air Pollution: Refrigerants: Chlorofluorocarbons
4.Ecosystem Ecology: Ecosystem ecology investigates the flow of energy and 2.5 Water Pollution: Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. (CFCs) and Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs): These synthetic refrigerants were
nutrients within an ecological community and its environment. It examines the lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and groundwater). This form of environmental commonly used in air conditioning and refrigeration systems. They are potent
interactions between living organisms and their abiotic surroundings, such as the degradation occurs when pollutants are directly or indirectly discharged into water greenhouse gases and contribute to ozone depletion. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs):
cycling of carbon, nitrogen, and other essential elements. HFCs replaced CFCs and HCFCs due to their lower ozone-depleting potential. However,
bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds.
5.Landscape Ecology: Landscape ecology focuses on the spatial arrangement and they are potent greenhouse gases, contributing to global warming. 3.Internal
Types of Pollutants: 1.Organic Pollutants: Petroleum Hydrocarbons: Oil spills and
distribution of ecosystems across large geographical areas. It studies how the Combustion Engines (I.C.): Vehicles: Cars, trucks, buses, and motorcycles powered by
structure and connectivity of landscapes influence ecological processes, biodiversity, runoff from roads can introduce petroleum products into water bodies. Industrial
gasoline or diesel engines emit pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate
and ecosystem functioning. Chemicals: Chemical discharges from industries can include organic solvents and matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
other harmful substances. 2.Inorganic Pollutants: Heavy Metals: Toxic metals like
★FUNCTION OF ECOSYSTEM:: •The rate of biological energy flow i.e. production & Industrial Equipment: Construction equipment, generators, and other machinery
lead, mercury, cadmium, and arsenic can contaminate water through industrial using internal combustion engines also emit pollutants into the air.
respiration rates of the community. •The rate of material or nutrient cycles
discharges and natural processes. Acids and Bases: Industrial effluents and mining 3.Boilers: Industrial Boilers: Combustion of fossil fuels in industrial boilers releases
•Biological or ecological regulation including both regulation of organism by
environment and regulation of environment by the organisms. activities can release acids or bases into water bodies, leading to acidification or pollutants like sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM),
alkalization. 3.Pathogens: Bacteria: Waterborne pathogens, such as Escherichia coli and greenhouse gases. Residential Boilers: Boilers used for heating in residential
★ECOSYSTEM: An ecosystem is a community of organisms that interact with each areas can also emit pollutants like NOx, CO, and PM.
(E. coli) and Salmonella, can cause waterborne diseases like gastroenteritis and
other and non-living components for sustainable development and adaptation to
cholera. Viruses: Water sources contaminated with human or animal feces can
changing conditions. There are
contain viruses that cause illnesses. 4.Sediments and Suspended Solids, 5. Thermal
different type of ecosystems around us which involves living organisms and non-
living organisms. If we combine all the ecosystems present on earth, it is called Pollution, 6.Radioactive Substances, 7.Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products
Biosphere.
 2.6 Mode of water pollution: 1. Point Source Pollution: Industrial Discharges: ★ Difference between pollution and pollutant.
★ COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM: Factories, power plants, and manufacturing facilities release pollutants, such as
1.Non-Living Components: (Abiotic) Non living components are the physical and heavy metals, chemicals, and organic compounds, directly into nearby water bodies.
chemical factors that directly or indirectly affect the living components e.g. air, water, Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants: Effluents from sewage treatment plants
can contain nutrients, pathogens, and other pollutants that may adversely affect The particles or components which
land, rock etc. Non living components are also called Abiotic components. Physical
If any harmful substance can are responsible for the pollution
factors include sunlight, water, fire, soil, air, temperature etc. Chemical factors water quality. Oil Spills: Accidental releases of oil and petroleum products, often
contaminate the environment then such as air pollution, water
include moisture, salinity of water, soil nutrients, oxygen dissolved in water from ships or pipelines, can lead to significant water pollution. 2.Non-Point Source
it is known a pollution. pollution etc., these are known as
etc. 2.Living Components: Living components in an ecosystem are either producers Pollution: Non-point source pollution is the opposite of point source pollution; it pollutants.
or consumers. They are also called biotic components. Producers can produce originates from diffuse and widespread sources. These pollutants are often carried
organic components e.g. plants can produce starch, carbohydrates, cellulose from a by surface runoff and enter water bodies indirectly. Examples of non-point source
process called photosynthesis. Consumers are the components that are dependent pollution include: Agricultural Runoff: Excess fertilizers, pesticides, and manure
on producers for their food e.g. human beings and Air pollution, soil pollution, water
from agricultural lands can be washed into nearby water bodies by rainwater, Lead, ash carbon, carbon dioxide,
animals pollution, acid rain, ozone
causing nutrient pollution and harming aquatic ecosystems. Urban Runoff: carbon monoxide, particle
1.5 Environmental impact on ecology: The environment plays a crucial role in depletion, plastic pollution, smog,
Rainwater runoff from streets, parking lots, and lawns can carry pollutants such as pollution, sulphur oxides and
shaping ecological systems and has a significant impact on the distribution, oil spill, land pollution, light
nitrogen oxide are the types of
abundance, and behavior of living organisms. Environmental factors influence the oil, heavy metals, and trash into water bodies. Atmospheric Deposition: Airborne pollution and noise pollution are
pollutants.
functioning of ecosystems and the interactions between organisms, and any changes pollutants, such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, can be deposited into water the types of pollution.
to the environment can have profound effects on ecological processes. Here are some bodies through rain or snow. 3.Agricultural Pollution, 4.Industrial Pollution:
ways in which the environment impacts ecology: 1.Habitat Availability: The Chemical Discharges, 5.Domestic and Municipal Pollution: Wastewater Discharges,
availability and quality of habitats directly affect the distribution and survival of 6.Natural Processes. Pollutants are the main
species. Changes in habitat, such as deforestation, urbanization, or pollution, can Pollution occurs due to pollutants. components which are responsible
lead to habitat loss or degradation, threatening the survival of many species. for the pollution.
2.7 Parameters to be assessed for water pollution: 1.Turbidity: Turbidity is a
2.Climate Change: Alterations in climate patterns, such as rising temperatures,
altered precipitation, and extreme weather events, can disrupt ecosystems and measure of the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by large numbers of
influence the behavior and life cycles of organisms. Some species may struggle to individual particles suspended in the water. It is typically measured using a Reuse, recycle, no plastic bags, Avoid burning of leaves and other
adapt or move to more suitable habitats, leading to shifts in biodiversity and species turbidimeter and expressed in nephelometric turbidity units (NTU) or Formazin filtered chimneys, keeping plants components, use wood stove,
distributions. 3.Pollution: Pollution from human activities, such as industrial Turbidity Units (FTU). High turbidity can indicate the presence of suspended solids around all are the control measures reduce car use all are the control
emissions, agricultural runoff, and plastic waste, can contaminate air, water, and soil, and other pollutants, affecting water clarity and light penetration, which can have for pollution. measures for pollutants.
negatively impacting organisms and ecosystem health. Pollutants can disrupt negative impacts on aquatic ecosystems.
biological processes, harm wildlife, and lead to cascading effects throughout the food 2. pH: pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of water. It is determined using a
web. 4.Invasive Species: Introduction of non-native species into new environments pH meter and is expressed on a scale from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, below 7 is Effects of pollution includes global
can outcompete or predate upon native species, disrupting ecological balance and acidic, and above 7 is alkaline. Water bodies with extreme pH values can harm warming, degradation or Effects of pollutants include
leading to declines in native biodiversity. 5.Natural Disasters: Events like wildfires, aquatic life and alter chemical reactions and solubility of minerals. environment, infertile land, health breathing issues, irritation of
earthquakes, hurricanes, and floods can cause sudden and dramatic changes in 3.Total Suspended Solids (TSS): TSS refers to the total concentration of suspended of human, air pollution, and water throat and eye, wheezing etc.
ecosystems, altering habitat structure and availability and affecting the distribution pollution etc.
particles, both organic and inorganic, in the water. It is measured by filtering a water
and survival of species.
sample, drying and weighing the particles on the filter, and then expressing the
UNIT III result as milligrams per liter (mg/L) or parts per million (ppm). Elevated TSS levels
can indicate sediment runoff, industrial discharges, or other pollution sources 3.2 Air Pollutants: Types, Units of air pollutants
4.1 Definition of solid waste: Solid waste refers to any non-liquid, non-gaseous 1.Particulate Matter (PM): PM10: Particles with a diameter of 10 micrometers or
material or substance that is discarded, abandoned, or no longer useful and is affecting water quality. 4.Total Solids (TS): TS represents the total concentration of
smaller. PM2.5: Particles with a diameter of 2.5 micrometers or smaller. PM1: Particles
intended for disposal. It includes a wide range of materials generated from both dissolved and suspended solids in water. It is determined by evaporating a
with a diameter of 1 micrometer or smaller.
residential, commercial, industrial, institutional, and agricultural activities. Solid measured water sample to dryness, and the remaining solids are weighed and 2.Ground-level Ozone (O3): Formed by chemical reactions between volatile organic
waste can take various forms, such as household trash, industrial waste, expressed in mg/L or ppm. Total solids include both organic and inorganic matter compounds (VOCs) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) in the presence of sunlight.
construction and demolition debris, municipal waste, and agricultural waste. and can affect water clarity and oxygen levels. 5.Biochemical Oxygen Demand 3.Nitrogen Oxides (NOx): Includes nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and nitrogen monoxide
The definition of solid waste may vary slightly depending on regional or national (BOD): BOD is a measure of the amount of dissolved oxygen consumed by (NO), produced mainly from combustion processes. 4.Sulfur Dioxide (SO2): Released
regulations and waste management practices. In some contexts, solid waste may be microorganisms during the biological breakdown of organic matter in water. It is during the combustion of sulfur-containing fuels, such as coal and oil. 5.Carbon
broadly categorized into non-hazardous and hazardous waste, with hazardous waste expressed in mg/L or ppm. High BOD levels indicate organic pollution, which can Monoxide (CO): A colorless and odorless gas produced by incomplete combustion of
requiring special handling and disposal due to its potential to harm human health deplete dissolved oxygen, leading to reduced oxygen levels harmful to aquatic life. carbon-based fuels. 6.Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): Organic compounds that
and the environment. easily vaporize into the air, released from various sources like vehicles, industrial
6. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): COD is a measure of the amount of oxygen
4.2 Classification of solid waste: processes, and certain products. 7.Lead (Pb): A toxic heavy metal emitted from
1.Municipal Solid Waste (MSW): MSW is commonly known as household waste or required to chemically oxidize both organic and inorganic matter in water. It is also
expressed in mg/L or ppm. COD provides a measure of the total oxygen demand, industrial activities, leaded gasoline, and other sources. 8.Benzene, Toluene,
garbage and includes waste generated from residential areas, commercial Ethylbenzene, and Xylenes (BTEX): Volatile organic compounds often found in vehicle
establishments, institutions, and public places. It consists of items like food waste, including both biologically and chemically oxidizable substances, and is useful in
emissions and industrial processes. 9.Ammonia (NH3): Released from agricultural
paper, cardboard, plastic, glass, metal containers, textiles, and yard waste. assessing the overall pollution load in water.
activities, animal husbandry, and industrial sources. 10.Formaldehyde (HCHO): An
2.Industrial Waste: Industrial waste is generated by manufacturing processes, Calculation of BOD and COD: BOD Calculation: BOD is usually measured over a
indoor air pollutant emitted by building materials and furniture.
industries, and commercial activities. It includes waste materials such as scrap specific period, often five days, and is expressed as BOD₅. The BOD₅ value is 3.3 Atmospheric physics for air pollution: Atmospheric physics plays a crucial role
metal, chemicals, sludge, construction and demolition debris, and other by-products determined by measuring the dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration in a water in understanding the behavior and dynamics of air pollution in the Earth's
of industrial processes. 3.Hazardous Waste: Hazardous waste poses significant sample initially and after a five-day incubation period in the dark at a specific atmosphere. It provides insights into the processes that govern the dispersion,
risks to human health and the environment due to its toxic, flammable, corrosive, or temperature (usually 20°C). The BOD₅ is calculated as the difference between the transport, and transformation of air pollutants. Some key aspects of atmospheric
reactive properties. Examples include chemicals, solvents, pesticides, medical waste, initial DO and the DO after five days of incubation. COD Calculation: COD is physics relevant to air pollution are: 1.Atmospheric Dispersion and Diffusion:
electronic waste (e-waste), and certain industrial by-products. 4.Agricultural determined by measuring the dissolved oxygen consumed by chemical oxidation. Dispersion refers to the spreading out of pollutants in the atmosphere due to
Waste: Agricultural waste is generated from farming and agricultural activities. It turbulent mixing and wind patterns. Atmospheric diffusion is the process by which
Unlike BOD, which requires a five-day incubation, COD results are available within a
includes crop residues, animal manure, agricultural chemicals, and discarded pollutants disperse vertically and horizontally from their sources. 2. Meteorological
few hours. It involves adding a chemical oxidizing agent to the water sample and
packaging materials. 5.Biomedical or Healthcare Waste: Biomedical waste, also Factors: Meteorological parameters such as wind speed, wind direction, temperature,
known as healthcare waste, is generated from healthcare facilities and medical measuring the oxygen demand after two hours of incubation.
humidity, and atmospheric stability significantly influence the dispersion of air
activities. It includes used needles, syringes, discarded medical equipment, pollutants. 3. Inversions and Trapping: Temperature inversions are
infectious waste, and pharmaceutical waste. 5.1 Energy Resources: Energy scenario, national and international status: the atmospheric layers where temperature increases with altitude, limiting vertical
energy resources scenario can vary significantly between countries and regions due mixing and trapping pollutants near the surface. Inversions can exacerbate pollution
4.3 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW): MSW is the waste generated from households, to factors such as geographic location, natural resource availability, energy policies, episodes and contribute to the formation of smog.
commercial establishments, institutions, and public places. It includes items like and technological advancements. Here is an overview of the energy resources 3.4 Particulate Pollutants: Effects and control strategies (Bag filter, Cyclone
food waste, paper, cardboard, plastic, glass, metal containers, textiles, and yard scenario at the national and international levels: separator, Electrostatic Precipitator): Effects of Particulate Pollutants:
waste. Proper management of MSW involves collection, transportation, recycling, 1.Respiratory Problems: Inhalation of particulate matter can lead to respiratory issues
National Energy Resources Scenario:1.Fossil Fuels: Many countries heavily rely on
composting, and disposal in landfills or waste-to-energy facilities. 2.Industrial such as asthma, bronchitis, and reduced lung function. 2.Cardiovascular Effects:
fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, for electricity generation,
Waste: Industrial waste is generated by manufacturing processes, industries, and Particulate pollutants are associated with cardiovascular diseases and can increase
commercial activities. It includes waste materials such as scrap metal, chemicals, transportation, and industrial processes. Some countries with abundant fossil fuel
reserves, like the United States, China, Russia, and Saudi Arabia. 2.Renewable the risk of heart attacks and strokes. 3.Premature Mortality: Long-term exposure to
sludge, construction and demolition debris, and other by-products of industrial high levels of particulate matter is linked to premature death, particularly in
processes. Industrial waste may require specialized handling and treatment to Energy: The adoption of renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind,
vulnerable populations like the elderly and those with pre-existing health conditions.
prevent environmental pollution and ensure proper disposal. 3. Hazardous Waste: hydroelectric, biomass, and geothermal, has been increasing globally. 3.Nuclear
4.Reduced Visibility: Particulate matter contributes to reduced visibility, leading to
Hazardous waste poses significant risks to human health and the environment due Energy: Nuclear power plays a significant role in the energy mix of some countries,
smog and haze in urban areas. 5.Environmental Impact: Particulate pollutants can
to its toxic, flammable, corrosive, or reactive properties. Examples include chemicals, providing a stable and low-carbon source of electricity. Nations like France, Japan, deposit on vegetation, soil, and water bodies, affecting ecosystems and agricultural
solvents, pesticides, medical waste, electronic waste (e-waste), and certain industrial South Korea, and the United States have substantial nuclear energy capacities. productivity.
by-products. Hazardous waste is subject to strict regulations and requires 4.Energy Efficiency and Conservation: Many countries are focusing on energy Control Strategies for Particulate Pollutants: 1.Bag Filter: Bag filters are porous
specialized treatment and disposal methods to minimize its impact. efficiency and conservation measures to reduce energy consumption and carbon fabric bags that trap particulate matter from gas streams. As the gas passes through
4.Hospital or Biomedical Waste: Biomedical waste, also known as healthcare or emissions. the bag, particles are captured on the surface or within the fabric. Bag filters are
hospital waste, is generated from healthcare facilities and medical activities. International Energy Resources Scenario: 1.Global Energy Transition: commonly used in industrial processes and power plants to control particulate
It includes used needles, syringes, discarded medical equipment, infectious waste, emissions. 2.Cyclone Separator: Cyclone separators use centrifugal force to separate
Internationally, there is a growing recognition of the need for a global energy
and pharmaceutical waste. Proper handling and disposal of biomedical waste are particulate matter from gas streams. The gas stream is directed into a cylindrical
transition towards cleaner and more sustainable energy sources. 2.Renewable
crucial to prevent the spread of infections and protect public health. chamber, where it spirals downward. 3.Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP): ESPs use an
5.Plastic Waste: Plastic waste consists of discarded plastic products and packaging Energy Expansion: Many countries are collaborating on international projects and
initiatives to promote renewable energy deployment and share best practices. electric charge to remove particulate pollutants from gas streams. Particles are
materials. It is a significant environmental concern due to its slow decomposition, charged as they pass through a strong electric field, and then they are attracted to
leading to plastic pollution in oceans and landfills. Recycling and proper waste 3.Interconnected Energy Markets: The globalization of energy markets allows
oppositely charged plates or electrodes.
management are essential to reduce the environmental impact of plastic waste. countries to import and export energy resources, enhancing energy security and
3.5 Advanced air pollution control methods: Advanced air pollution control
6.E-waste (Electronic Waste): E-waste comprises discarded electronic and facilitating the transition to cleaner energy sources. Cross-border energy methods are specialized techniques used to achieve higher efficiency in reducing air
electrical equipment, such as computers, mobile phones, televisions, and appliances. infrastructure and cooperation agreements are becoming more common. 4.Energy pollutants. These methods are often employed in situations where conventional
It often contains hazardous substances like lead, mercury, and cadmium, making Access and Equity: The international community is working towards providing control measures may not be sufficient to meet stringent air quality standards. Some
proper recycling and disposal essential. E-waste recycling helps recover valuable universal access to affordable, reliable, and modern energy services, particularly in advanced air pollution control methods include: 1.Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR):
materials and reduces the environmental burden of electronic waste. developing countries. SCR is used to reduce nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions from industrial sources, power
5.2 Solar Photovoltaics: Solar radiation and types: Solar photovoltaics (PV) is a plants, and vehicles. It involves injecting ammonia or urea into the flue gas, which
4.4 Solid waste management and disposal process: Solid waste management technology that converts sunlight directly into electricity using solar cells. Solar PV reacts with NOx over a catalyst to form harmless nitrogen and water vapor. 2.Selective
refers to the organized and systematic collection, transportation, treatment, Non-Catalytic Reduction (SNCR): SNCR is another method to reduce NOx emissions,
systems are a clean and renewable energy source that plays a crucial role in the
recycling, and disposal of solid waste to minimize its impact on the environment, especially in industrial boilers and waste incinerators. Ammonia or urea-based
public health, and natural resources. 1.Waste Collection: After segregation, waste is transition to a sustainable energy future. Understanding solar radiation and the
types of solar PV systems is essential for harnessing solar energy effectively. reagents are injected directly into the combustion chamber, where they react with
collected from individual households, commercial establishments, and other NOx at high temperatures. 3.Low-NOx Burners: Low-NOx burners are designed to
sources. Collection may involve door-to-door collection, communal bins, or drop-off Solar Radiation: Solar radiation refers to the electromagnetic energy emitted by
minimize the formation of nitrogen oxides during combustion by optimizing the air-
points. 2.Transportation: Collected waste is transported to transfer stations or the sun. This energy travels in the form of photons and reaches the Earth's surface,
fuel mixture and reducing peak flame temperatures. 4.Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD):
material recovery facilities using waste collection vehicles or trucks. providing the primary source of renewable energy. Solar radiation varies depending
FGD is used to remove sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions from flue gases generated by
3.Public Awareness and Education: Promoting public awareness and education on geographic location, time of day, season, and weather conditions. There are three power plants and industrial processes. It involves using scrubbers to spray alkaline
about waste segregation, recycling, and responsible waste disposal is essential to main types of solar radiation: 1.Direct Radiation: Direct solar radiation refers to sorbents (such as limestone or lime) into the flue gas, which reacts with SO2 to form
encourage active participation and behavior change. 4.Integration of Informal sunlight that reaches the Earth's surface in a straight path without being scattered or solid particles that can be captured and removed. 5.Fabric Filters (Baghouses): Fabric
Sector: In many developing countries, the informal waste sector, such as waste absorbed by the atmosphere. This type of radiation is most intense when the sun is filters are highly efficient particulate matter control devices that use fabric bags to
pickers and recyclers, plays a significant role in waste management. Integrating and high in the sky, typically during midday. 2.Diffuse Radiation: Diffuse solar radiation capture particles from gas streams. They are suitable for capturing fine particles,
formalizing their activities can improve waste recycling rates and livelihoods. occurs when sunlight is scattered by particles in the atmosphere, such as clouds, including PM2.5 and PM1, and are commonly used in industrial processes and coal-
5.Innovation and Technology: Advancements in waste management technologies fired power plants.
dust, and air molecules. It results in a more uniform distribution of solar energy
and innovative solutions can improve efficiency and resource recovery.
throughout the day. 3.Global Radiation: Global solar radiation is the combination of
direct and diffuse solar radiation. It represents the total solar energy reaching a
specific location on the Earth's surface at a given time.
4.4 Disposal process: The disposal process is the final step in solid waste 5.2 basic working principle of solar PV: The basic working principle of solar
management, where waste that cannot be recycled or treated further is safely and photovoltaic (PV) technology involves the conversion of sunlight into electricity 3.6 Noise pollution: sources of pollution: Noise pollution refers to the excessive and
responsibly disposed of. The disposal process ensures that waste is handled in a using semiconductor materials. The key steps in the process are as follows: unwanted sound that disrupts the natural environment and negatively affects human
manner that minimizes environmental pollution and potential harm to human 1.Sunlight Absorption: Solar PV panels are made up of solar cells, typically made health and well-being. Sources of noise pollution can be broadly categorized into
health. The primary disposal methods include: 1.Landfill Disposal: Landfills are from semiconductor materials like silicon. When sunlight (photons) strikes the different groups: 1.Transportation Noise: Road Traffic: Noise from cars, trucks,
engineered facilities where waste is deposited in designated areas and covered with surface of the solar cell, it is absorbed by the semiconductor material. 2.Generation motorcycles, and buses on roads and highways. Aircraft Noise: Noise generated by
soil or other materials to reduce odor and prevent the spread of litter. Landfills also aircraft during takeoff, landing, and flight. 2.Industrial Noise: Factory Machinery:
of Electron-Hole Pairs: The absorption of sunlight energy in the semiconductor
collect and manage landfill gas (primarily methane) produced by decomposing Noise from industrial equipment, machinery, and processes. Construction Sites: Noise
material causes the creation of electron-hole pairs. Electrons are released from their
organic waste, which can be used for energy generation. 2.Incineration: Incineration generated during construction activities, such as drilling, hammering, and heavy
is a waste-to-energy process where solid waste is burned at high temperatures in positions in the atoms, leaving behind positively charged holes. 3.Electric Field: The machinery operation. 3.Neighborhood Noise: Residential Areas: Noise from loud
controlled combustion chambers. The heat generated during incineration can be solar cell is designed with two layers of semiconductor material, one with an excess music, lawn mowers, power tools, and household appliances. Recreational Noise:
used to produce steam and generate electricity. 3.Waste-to-Energy (WtE): Waste-to- of electrons (n-type) and the other with a deficit of electrons (p-type). This creates Noise from recreational activities, such as parties, concerts, and sporting events.
energy facilities use various technologies, including incineration and gasification, to an electric field at the junction between the two layers. 4.Direction of Electron Flow: 4.Commercial and Urban Noise: Noise from commercial establishments like
convert waste into energy in the form of electricity or heat. The electric field forces the flow of electrons from the n-type region to the p-type restaurants, bars, and shops. Urban Noise: Noise from urban infrastructure, sirens,
WtE facilities are designed to recover energy from waste while minimizing region. This creates a flow of electricity known as a direct current (DC) in the solar and traffic in city centers. 5.Natural Noise: Thunderstorms: Thunder and lightning
environmental impacts. 4.Deep Geological Disposal (for Radioactive Waste): cell. 5.Electricity Generation: The flow of electrons in the solar cell generates direct produce natural noise. Animal Sounds: Noise from wildlife, insects, and birds.
Radioactive waste, such as nuclear waste, requires long-term isolation from the current (DC) electricity. However, most household and commercial electrical systems
environment due to its hazardous properties. 5.Specialized Disposal for Hazardous use alternating current (AC). To convert the DC electricity to AC, an inverter is used. Measurement of Noise Pollution: 1. Selection of Measurement Locations: Identify
Waste: Hazardous waste requires specialized disposal methods to prevent harm to 6.Inverter Conversion: The DC electricity generated by the solar cell is sent to an the areas or locations where noise pollution is suspected or known to be a problem.
human health and the environment. Treatment and containment facilities are used inverter, which converts it into alternating current (AC) electricity. AC is the type of Consider factors such as proximity to noise sources, ambient noise levels, and the
to manage hazardous waste safely. potential impact on human health and well-being. 2.Calibration of Sound Level
electricity used in most electrical systems in buildings and the power grid.
4.5 1. Soil Pollution: Soil pollution refers to the contamination of soil with harmful Meter: Before taking measurements, the sound level meter needs to be calibrated
substances, including chemicals, heavy metals, pesticides, industrial waste, and 7.Utilization or Grid Connection: The AC electricity can be directly used to power using a reference sound source to ensure accurate readings. 3.Measurement
urban runoff. Human activities, such as improper waste disposal, agricultural electrical devices in the building. In grid-tied solar PV systems, any excess electricity Procedure: The sound level meter is positioned at the measurement location and
practices, industrial activities, and mining, are major contributors to soil pollution. generated can be fed back into the electricity grid, often earning credits or operated for a specific period to obtain a representative noise level. Measurements
Soil pollution can have detrimental effects on soil health, plant growth, and the compensation for the system owner. are often taken over a period of time (e.g., minutes or hours) to account for
overall ecosystem. The basic working principle of solar cells involves the conversion of sunlight into fluctuations in noise levels. 4.Data Analysis: The recorded noise levels are analyzed
2.Poor Fertility: Soil fertility refers to the ability of soil to support plant growth and electricity using semiconductor materials. Solar cells, also known as photovoltaic to determine the average noise level and the presence of any peak or intermittent
provide essential nutrients to plants. Poor soil fertility occurs when the soil lacks the cells, are the fundamental building blocks of solar photovoltaic (PV) technology. noise events. The data may also be compared with applicable noise standards and
necessary nutrients, organic matter, and microbial activity needed to support Here's how solar cells work: 1.Sunlight Absorption: Solar cells are made of guidelines to assess compliance. 5.Reporting and Interpretation: The results of the
healthy plant growth. Soil fertility can decline due to excessive and unbalanced use semiconductor materials, most commonly silicon. When sunlight (consisting of noise measurements are typically presented in decibels (dB) and compared with
of fertilizers, erosion, overuse of land, and improper soil management practices. photons) strikes the surface of the solar cell, it is absorbed by the semiconductor permissible noise levels set by local regulations or international guidelines.
3.Septicity: Septicity refers to the condition of soil being contaminated with material. 2.Generation of Electron-Hole Pairs: The absorbed sunlight energy in the The interpretation of the data helps identify noise pollution hotspots and areas
putrefied organic matter, leading to foul odors and the production of toxic gases like requiring mitigation measures.
semiconductor material causes the generation of electron-hole pairs. Electrons are
hydrogen sulfide. Septic conditions in soil can occur in poorly managed sewage 3.7 Noise measuring devices: 1.Type 1 Sound Level Meters: Type 1 sound level
excited from their stable positions in the atoms, leaving behind positively charged
systems, landfills, and areas with high organic waste decomposition. These meters are high-precision instruments designed for accurate and reliable noise
conditions are hazardous to human health and can affect nearby ecosystems. holes. 3.Electric Field: Solar cells are designed with two layers of semiconductor measurements in a wide range of applications. They are used in professional
4.Concentration of Infecting Agents in Soil: Soil can harbor various infecting material. One layer has an excess of electrons (n-type), and the other layer has a environments, regulatory compliance, and research studies where precise and
agents, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites, which can cause diseases in deficit of electrons (p-type). This creates an electric field at the junction between the standardized measurements are required. 2.Type 2 Sound Level Meters: Type 2 sound
humans, animals, and plants. Contaminated soil can act as a reservoir for infectious two layers, known as the p-n junction. 4.Direction of Electron Flow: The electric field level meters are slightly less accurate than Type 1 meters but still meet industry
agents and facilitate their transmission to humans through direct contact or at the p-n junction forces the flow of electrons from the n-type region to the p-type standards for general noise measurements. They are commonly used for
contaminated food and water. Poor sanitation, improper disposal of fecal matter, and region. This flow of electrons creates an electric current. 5.Electrical Output: The environmental noise assessments, community noise studies, and occupational noise
contaminated agricultural practices can contribute to the concentration of infecting flow of electrons in the solar cell generates direct current (DC) electricity. This exposure monitoring. 3.Integrating-Averaging Sound Level Meters (Integrators):
agents in soil. electrical output can be used immediately to power electrical devices or stored in Integrating-averaging sound level meters measure and calculate the average noise
4.6 Leaching and its impact on soil pollution: Leaching is a process in which batteries for later use. level over a specific period, typically ranging from a few seconds to several minutes.
water or other solvents dissolve and carry away soluble substances from the soil, 5.2 water pumping and applications of solar PV: Water pumping using solar They are useful for assessing noise exposure levels over time and for complying with
transferring them to other locations or deeper layers within the soil profile. It is a photovoltaic (PV) technology is a common and effective application of solar energy. occupational noise regulations. 4.Personal Noise Dosimeters: Noise dosimeters are
natural process that can occur in response to rainfall, irrigation, or other forms of small, wearable devices used to assess an individual's personal noise exposure.
Solar-powered water pumps harness the energy from sunlight to drive water pumps,
water movement through the soil. However, leaching can also be accelerated and They are commonly used in occupational settings to measure the noise exposure of
providing a sustainable and eco-friendly solution for various water pumping needs.
lead to soil pollution when certain contaminants are present in the soil. workers over their working shifts. 5.Real-Time Sound Level Meters: Real-time sound
The impact of leaching on soil pollution can be significant for several reasons: Here are some common applications of solar PV in water pumping: 1.Agricultural level meters provide instant and continuous measurements of noise levels.
1.Contaminant Transport: When soil is contaminated with pollutants such as Irrigation: Solar-powered water pumps are used in agricultural irrigation systems to They are often used for monitoring environmental noise, assessing noise impacts
pesticides, fertilizers, heavy metals, or industrial chemicals, leaching can transport supply water for crops and livestock. They can be used for drip irrigation, sprinkler from events, and noise mapping.
these contaminants into groundwater, surface water bodies, or neighboring areas. systems, or to fill water storage tanks for later use. 2.Drinking Water Supply: Solar their demonstration: 1.Preparation: Ensure that the sound level meter is fully
This can lead to water pollution and pose risks to human health and ecosystems. PV pumps can be utilized to pump water from wells, boreholes, or rivers to provide charged or has fresh batteries. Familiarize yourself with the device's controls and
2.Groundwater Contamination: Leaching can carry pollutants deep into the soil, clean drinking water to communities, especially in remote and off-grid areas. settings. Choose the appropriate measurement scale (usually A-weighting for general
ultimately reaching the groundwater table. Contaminated groundwater can be a 3.Livestock Watering: Solar-powered water pumps are used to provide water for environmental noise). 2.Select the Measurement Location: Choose the location where
source of drinking water for communities, and the presence of pollutants can render livestock, ensuring a reliable water supply for animals grazing in remote areas. you want to measure the noise level. It could be a busy road, construction site,
the water unsafe for consumption. 4.Water Supply for Remote Areas: In remote and off-grid locations where access to industrial area, or any other place of interest. 3.Calibration: Before starting the
3.Nutrient Loss: Excessive leaching of nutrients like nitrates and phosphates from conventional electricity is limited, solar-powered water pumps offer a cost-effective measurements, it's essential to calibrate the sound level meter to ensure accurate
agricultural lands can lead to nutrient depletion in the soil, negatively impacting soil readings. 4.Measurement: Once the calibration is complete, turn off the calibrator and
and sustainable solution for water supply. 5.Pond Aeration: Solar-powered water
fertility and agricultural productivity. move to the desired measurement location. Hold the sound level meter at arm's length
pumps can be used to aerate ponds and water bodies, promoting better water
4.Erosion: Leaching can contribute to soil erosion by removing soil particles and or mount it on a tripod for stable measurements. 5.Data Collection: Press the
destabilizing the soil structure. This erosion can lead to the loss of fertile topsoil and quality and supporting aquatic life. start/record button on the sound level meter to begin data collection.
decrease soil productivity. Let the meter record the noise level for a specified duration (e.g., 1 minute) to get an
5.Contaminant Accumulation: In some cases, leaching can lead to the 5.3 Solar Thermal System: Basic Working Principle: Solar thermal systems average reading. 6.Data Analysis: After the measurement period, stop the data
accumulation of contaminants in certain areas, such as low-lying regions or harness the heat energy from sunlight to generate hot water, space heating, or other collection on the sound level meter. Interpretation: Compare the measured noise level
groundwater aquifers, creating localized hotspots of pollution. thermal applications. The basic working principle involves the following with local noise regulations or international guidelines to assess compliance.
6.Ecological Impact: Leached pollutants can enter surface water bodies, affecting components: 1.Solar Collectors: Solar collectors are the primary components of a Identify any noise pollution hotspots or areas where noise levels exceed permissible
aquatic life and disrupting the balance of ecosystems. solar thermal system. These are designed to absorb sunlight and convert it into heat. limits. 7.Reporting:Document the measured noise levels, location, date, and time for
UNIT -VI reference and reporting purposes.
There are different types of solar collectors, including flat-plate collectors, evacuated
6.1 Environmental protection rules: Environmental protection rules, also known
tube collectors, and parabolic trough collectors. 2.Heat Transfer Fluid: The solar
as environmental regulations or laws, are legal measures put in place by 5.4 Wind energy systems: basic principle- Wind energy systems harness the kinetic
governments to safeguard the environment, natural resources, and human health. collectors contain a heat transfer fluid (usually a mixture of water and antifreeze) energy from the wind and convert it into electrical power using wind turbines. The
These rules aim to control and minimize the negative impacts of human activities on that absorbs the solar heat and becomes hot as it circulates through the collector. basic principle of wind energy systems involves the following steps: 1.Wind Capture:
the environment and promote sustainable practices. The specific rules may vary 3.Heat Exchanger: The heat transfer fluid passes through a heat exchanger, where it Wind turbines are installed in locations where there is a steady and sufficient supply
from one country or region to another, but they generally cover various aspects of transfers its heat to the water in the storage tank or to the space heating system. of wind. When the wind blows, it causes the turbine's blades to rotate.
environmental protection. Some common environmental protection rules include: 4.Storage Tank: In solar water heating systems, a storage tank is used to store the 2.Kinetic Energy Conversion: As the turbine's blades rotate, the kinetic energy of the
1. Air Quality Standards: Regulations that set limits on emissions of pollutants, heated water. For space heating systems, the heat is transferred to the building's wind is transferred to the mechanical system of the wind turbine. 3.Power Generation:
such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, and volatile organic heating system. The mechanical energy is then converted into electrical power using a generator
compounds, to maintain air quality and reduce air pollution. 2.Water Quality Applications of Solar Thermal Energy: 1.Solar Water Heater: Solar water heaters located within the wind turbine. The generator produces alternating current (AC)
Standards: Standards that establish acceptable levels of pollutants and use solar thermal energy to heat water for domestic use, such as bathing, washing, electricity. 4.Grid Connection: The electricity generated by the wind turbine is either
contaminants in surface waters and groundwater to protect water resources and and cleaning. They are common in residential and commercial buildings and can used locally, for example, to power homes or businesses, or it can be fed into the
aquatic ecosystems. 3.Waste Management Regulations: Laws that govern the significantly reduce the use of electricity or gas for water heating. 2.Space Heating: electrical grid for wider distribution.
proper handling, storage, transportation, treatment, recycling, and disposal of solid
Solar thermal systems can be integrated into space heating systems to provide
waste, hazardous waste, and electronic waste. 4.Environmental Impact Types of Wind Turbines: 1.Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT): The most
warmth for buildings during colder months. In such systems, the heated water or
Assessment (EIA): Requirements for conducting assessments of potential common type of wind turbine used for large-scale commercial wind farms.
environmental impacts before approving major development projects or industrial heat transfer fluid is used to warm the air in radiators or underfloor heating HAWTs have a horizontal axis, with three blades that rotate in a vertical plane.
activities. 5.Protected Areas and Biodiversity Conservation: Regulations to systems. 3.Solar Cooking: Solar cookers and ovens use solar thermal energy to cook They are designed to face into the wind and are mounted on a tall tower to capture
protect ecologically sensitive areas, wildlife habitats, and endangered species from food without the need for conventional fuel sources. They are often used in areas higher wind speeds. 2.Vertical-Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT): VAWTs have a vertical
harmful human activities. 6.Climate Change Mitigation: Policies aimed at reducing with abundant sunlight and limited access to cooking fuels. 4.Solar Pond: Solar axis, and the blades rotate around that axis, resembling an eggbeater.
greenhouse gas emissions and promoting the transition to clean and renewable ponds are large bodies of saltwater used to store and trap solar thermal energy. The They are generally smaller in size and can operate in different wind directions
energy sources. 7.Sustainable Land Use and Resource Management: Rules to energy is captured as heat at the bottom of the pond, and this heat can be used for without the need for complex yaw systems. VAWTs are often used in urban areas or
regulate land use, deforestation, and resource extraction to ensure sustainable various applications, such as electricity generation or space heating. 5.Solar Stills: for smaller-scale applications.
practices and prevent environmental degradation. 8.Environmental Permits and Solar stills use solar thermal energy to desalinate water or purify water by Applications of Wind Energy: 1.Electricity Generation: The primary application of
Licenses: Requirements for obtaining permits or licenses for activities that may evaporating and condensing the water vapor to produce clean drinking water. wind energy is electricity generation. Large wind farms with multiple wind turbines
have environmental impacts, such as industrial operations or waste disposal. Types of Solar Water Heaters: 1.Batch Solar Water Heater: A simple type of solar are installed in regions with favorable wind conditions to generate clean and
water heater consisting of a storage tank placed in an insulated box with a glass or renewable electricity for homes, industries, and communities. 2.Off-Grid Power
6.2 Sustainable environmental management: Sustainable environmental Generation: In remote areas or isolated locations without access to the electrical grid,
plastic cover. Water is heated directly in the tank by sunlight. 2.Flat-Plate Solar
management is an approach to protect and conserve natural resources and the wind energy can be used to power off-grid communities, telecom towers, and other
environment while promoting long-term social and economic well-being. It involves Water Heater: A common type of solar water heater with a flat-plate collector that facilities. 3.Water Pumping: Wind energy can be used to power water pumps for
adopting practices that minimize negative impacts on the environment, preserve absorbs sunlight and heats the water flowing through it. 3.Evacuated Tube Solar agricultural irrigation or to provide water supply in remote locations. 4.Hybrid
ecosystems, and ensure the responsible use of resources. The key principles of Water Heater: This type of solar water heater uses glass tubes with a vacuum inside Systems: Wind energy can be combined with other renewable energy sources, such as
sustainable environmental management include: 1.Conservation of Natural to improve heat absorption and reduce heat loss. 4.Integral Collector-Storage Solar solar or battery storage, to create hybrid power systems that provide a more stable
Resources: Sustainable environmental management focuses on conserving finite Water Heater: Also known as "batch" or "breadbox" heaters, these systems have a and reliable electricity supply. 5.Micro Wind Turbines: Smaller wind turbines can be
natural resources, such as water, forests, minerals, and biodiversity. This involves single tank that serves as both the collector and the storage tank. installed on individual homes or buildings to generate electricity for on-site use or to
using resources efficiently, reducing waste, and promoting recycling and renewable supplement grid power. 6.Desalination: Wind energy can be used to power
alternatives. 2.Ecosystem Protection: Ensuring the protection and preservation of desalination plants, where seawater is converted into freshwater, providing a
ecosystems and their biodiversity is essential for maintaining ecological balance and sustainable solution for water scarcity in coastal regions.
the services they provide, such as clean air, water purification, and climate
regulation. 3.Reducing Pollution: Sustainable environmental management
emphasizes the reduction of pollution, including air, water, and soil pollution. It
involves adopting cleaner technologies, waste reduction, and implementing
pollution control measures. 4.Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation: Addressing
climate change is a critical aspect of sustainable environmental management. This
includes reducing greenhouse gas emissions, transitioning to renewable energy
sources, and developing strategies to adapt to changing climate conditions.
5.5 Bio-energy systems: bio thermal and chemical basic principle: Bio-energy 5.7 Geothermal energy: Basic working principle, types and application of 5.8 Ocean & Tidal Energy: Ocean and Tidal Energy: Basic Working Principle -
systems utilize organic matter, such as biomass, to produce energy in the form of geothermal energy: Ocean and tidal energy are forms of renewable energy that harness the kinetic energy
heat, electricity, or biofuels. There are two main processes involved in bio-energy of ocean currents, tides, and waves to generate electricity. The basic working principle
systems: bio-thermal and bio-chemical. of ocean and tidal energy systems involves using specialized devices to capture the
Types of Geothermal Energy Utilization: 1.Geothermal Power Plants:
1.Bio-Thermal basic principle: Bio-thermal processes involve the direct energy from moving water and convert it into electrical power.
combustion of biomass to generate heat energy. Geothermal power plants use geothermal reservoirs of hot water or steam present
Biomass, which can be in the form of wood, agricultural residues, or other organic beneath the Earth's surface. There are three main types of geothermal power plants: Ocean Energy: 1.Wave Energy: Wave energy converters are deployed in the ocean to
materials, is burned in a controlled environment to release heat. dry steam, flash steam, and binary cycle.Dry steam plants use high-pressure steam capture the kinetic energy of ocean waves. These converters can be floating
The heat produced is then used for various applications, such as space heating, directly from the geothermal reservoir to drive a turbine connected to a generator. structures, submerged devices, or fixed to the seabed
water heating, or generating steam to drive turbines for electricity generation. Flash steam plants use high-pressure hot water from the reservoir. The water is 2.Ocean Current Energy: Ocean current energy is harnessed using underwater
2.Bio-Chemical Process: Bio-chemical processes involve converting biomass into depressurized, causing some of it to turn into steam, which drives the turbine. turbines placed in areas with strong and steady ocean currents.
biofuels, such as biogas or bioethanol, through biochemical reactions. Binary cycle plants use lower-temperature water to heat a secondary fluid with a 3.Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC): OTEC utilizes the temperature
Two common bio-chemical processes are gasification and anaerobic digestion. lower boiling point (such as isobutane or isopentane). The secondary fluid vaporizes difference between warm surface water and cold deep water to produce electricity.
Gasification: Gasification is a thermochemical process that converts solid biomass and drives the turbine. 2.Direct Use Applications: In areas with accessible hot Warm surface water is used to evaporate a working fluid, such as ammonia, in a
into a gas known as "syngas" (synthesis gas), which is primarily composed of carbon springs or geothermal wells, geothermal energy can be used directly for space closed-loop system. The vaporized working fluid drives a turbine connected to a
monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2), and other trace gases. The basic principle of heating, greenhouse heating, and industrial processes.The hot water or steam is generator, producing electricity. Cold deep water is used to condense the vapor back
gasification involves the following steps: 1.Biomass Feedstock: Solid biomass, such into a liquid, completing the cycle.
circulated through a system of pipes to transfer the heat to buildings or industrial
as wood chips or agricultural residues, is fed into the gasifier. 2.Pyrolysis: In the first
stage of gasification, the biomass is heated in a low-oxygen environment (partial applications. 3.Geothermal Heat Pumps: Geothermal heat pumps use the relatively Tidal Energy: Tidal energy is derived from the rise and fall of tides caused by the
combustion) to undergo pyrolysis. Pyrolysis breaks down the biomass into solid constant temperature of the Earth's crust to heat and cool buildings. In winter, the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun on the Earth's oceans.
char, liquid tar, and gases. 3.Cleaning and Conditioning: The syngas is then cleaned to heat pump extracts heat from the ground to warm the building. In summer, the 1.Tidal Stream Energy: Tidal stream energy converters are installed on the seabed
remove impurities, such as particulate matter and sulfur compounds. 4.Energy process is reversed to provide cooling. or floating in tidal streams. As tides flow in and out, they move the tidal stream
Utilization: The cleaned syngas can be used for various purposes, including converters, generating mechanical energy.
electricity generation, heating, or as a feedstock for the production of biofuels or Applications of Geothermal Energy: 1.Electricity Generation: Geothermal power The mechanical energy is converted into electricity using turbines or generators.
chemicals. Anaerobic Digestion: Anaerobic digestion is a biological process that plants generate electricity by converting geothermal heat into mechanical energy, 2.Tidal Barrages: Tidal barrages are large structures built across estuaries or bays.
breaks down organic materials, such as agricultural waste, food scraps, or animal which is then converted into electrical energy. 2.Heating: Geothermal energy is used The changing tides cause water to flow through turbines in the barrages. The flowing
manure, in the absence of oxygen. The basic principle of anaerobic digestion involves water rotates the turbines, generating mechanical energy. The mechanical energy is
for district heating, providing space heating and hot water for residential,
the following steps: 1.Anaerobic Digester: Organic matter is placed in an anaerobic converted into electricity using generators.
commercial, and industrial buildings. 3.Greenhouse Heating: In colder climates,
digester, a sealed container where bacteria break down the biomass in the absence
of oxygen. 2.Biological Reactions: During anaerobic digestion, complex organic geothermal energy is used to heat greenhouses, providing an ideal environment for Ocean & Tidal Energy Applications: 1.Electricity Generation: Ocean and tidal
compounds are broken down by bacteria into simpler compounds, primarily plant growth. 4.Industrial Applications: Geothermal energy is utilized in various energy systems are primarily used to generate electricity for grid supply and local
methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2). 3.Biogas Production: The main product of industrial processes, such as food drying, lumber drying, and mineral processing. communities.2.Island and Remote Area Electrification: Ocean and tidal energy can
anaerobic digestion is biogas, which is primarily composed of methane and can be 5.Aquaculture: Geothermal water is used to maintain optimal water temperatures be harnessed to provide reliable electricity to islands and remote coastal areas,
used as a renewable fuel. 4.Digestate: The remaining material after digestion, known for fish farming. 6.Spa and Wellness: Geothermal hot springs are utilized for spa reducing dependence on imported fossil fuels.
as digestate, can be used as a nutrient-rich fertilizer. and wellness tourism. 7.Desalination: Geothermal energy can assist in desalination 3.Desalination: Ocean energy can be used for desalination processes, converting
processes by providing heat for evaporation or driving heat pumps for distillation. seawater into freshwater.
Gasifier: A gasifier is a device that converts solid or liquid biomass into a 4.Hybrid Systems: Ocean and tidal energy can be integrated with other renewable
combustible gas known as syngas (synthesis gas). The syngas produced consists energy sources, such as wind and solar, to create hybrid energy systems for more
Geothermal Energy: Basic Working Principle: The basic working principle of
primarily of carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2), and other trace gases. Gasifiers consistent power supply.
are a type of bio-chemical process used for biomass conversion and have several geothermal energy involves harnessing the heat stored within the Earth's crust to
applications in energy production and waste management. generate useful energy for various applications. The Earth's interior is heated due to Types of Energy Generation through Ocean and Tidal Systems: 1.Wave Energy
Digesters: Anaerobic digesters are bio-chemical systems that break down organic the natural radioactive decay of elements, as well as residual heat from its formation Conversion, 2.Ocean Current Energy Conversion , 3.Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
matter, such as agricultural waste, food scraps, or animal manure, in the absence of billions of years ago. Geothermal energy can be found in the form of hot water, (OTEC), 4.Tidal Stream Energy Conversion 5.Tidal Barrages.
oxygen. The main product of anaerobic digestion is biogas, primarily composed of steam, or rocks with high temperatures deep within the Earth's crust. The key
methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2). Anaerobic digestion is widely used for components of the geothermal energy working principle are as follows: ★The main sources of soil pollution are
waste treatment and biogas production. 1.Geothermal Reservoirs: Geothermal energy is typically found in geothermal • Disposal of human and animal excreta (Solid and Liquid Waste).
reservoirs, which are natural underground areas with hot water and/or steam • Application of chemicals like fertilizers and pesticides to plants and oil,
5.6 Hydro energy systems: small and micro hydro systems and its basic trapped in permeable rock formations. These reservoirs exist at varying depths • Disposal of domestic refuse and industrial waste
working: below the Earth's surface. 2.Geothermal Wells: To access the geothermal energy, • Dumping of wastes from mineral and coal mining land
Hydro Energy Systems: Hydro energy systems harness the power of flowing water wells are drilled into the Earth's crust to reach the geothermal reservoirs. • Discharge of radioactive wastes from hospitals, industrial and research
to generate electricity. Small and micro hydro systems refer to hydroelectric power centers
Geothermal wells can be several hundred to thousands of meters deep, depending
systems designed for lower power output and are typically used in rural or off-grid • Soil erosion due to deforestation, unplanned irrigation and defective
areas. These systems are often simpler and more cost-effective than large-scale on the location of the reservoir. 3.Heat Extraction: Once the geothermal well
reaches the geothermal reservoir, hot water or steam is brought to the surface agricultural
hydroelectric plants, making them suitable for decentralized energy generation. practices.
Basic Working of Small and Micro Hydro Systems: 1.Water Source: A water through the well. The heat energy stored within the geothermal fluids is extracted to
• Exhaust gases from chemical industries and
source, such as a river, stream, or irrigation canal, is required for the hydro system. produce useful energy.
• Fly ash from thermal power plants.
The potential energy of the flowing water is utilized to generate electricity.
2. Intake Structure: The water is diverted from the water source through an intake
structure. This can be a weir, dam, or diversion channel that controls the flow of
★FOOD WEB: The interconnected, interlocking pattern of food chain is known as ★EFFECTS OF SOIL POLLUTION:
water to the hydro system. 3.Penstock: The diverted water is channeled through a food web. •Under natural condition of the linear arrangement of food chain hardly ➔ Industrial waste consists of a variety of chemical elements, which are
penstock, a pipeline or a conduit, which directs the water from the intake to the occurs and they remain interconnected with each other through different types of extremely
turbine. 4.Turbine: The penstock delivers the pressurized water to the turbine. The organisms at different levels Such a interconnected and interlocking pattern of food toxic to living organisms.
turbine is the primary component that converts the energy of flowing water into chain is known as food web.. ➔ Metallic contaminants destroy bacteria, beneficial micro – organisms in the
mechanical energy. 5.Generator: The turbine is connected to a generator. As the soil.
turbine spins due to the pressure and flow of water, it drives the generator, ➔ Effluents containing acids and bases make the water corrosive.
converting the mechanical energy into electrical energy. 6.Electrical Output: The ★FOOD CHAIN: In food chain each organism eats the smaller organisms and is ➔ Sewage is an excellent medium for the growth of pathogenic bacteria, which
electricity generated by the generator is in the form of alternating current (AC). In eaten by the larger one. All those organisms which are interlinked with each other causes water born diseases.
off-grid or remote areas, it may be converted to direct current (DC) for immediate through food to gather constitute the ecosystem. The different levels in a food chain ➔ If soil consists of high concentration of Lead results in weakness, Anaemia,
use or stored in batteries for later use. 7.Distribution: The generated electricity is are called tropic levels, Each food chain has three main tropic levels:- Producer level, Abdominal pain, Vomiting, Weight loss, Headache and finally leads Death.
either used locally to power nearby homes, farms, or businesses or fed into the local Consumer level, and decomposer level. If any of the intermediate stage of the food ➔ Excessive nitrogen fertilizers use makes the plants less resistant to diseases.
electrical grid. chain is removed, the succeeding links of the food chain will be affected.

Small Hydro Systems: Small hydro systems are designed to generate up to a few ★Functions of an Eco – System:
megawatts (MW) of electricity and are often associated with low head and moderate ★Ecological Succession is the phenomenon or process by which a community The important functions of an eco – system are
flow conditions. These systems are commonly used in rural areas to provide progressively transforms itself until a stable community is formed. It is a ▪ Transfer of Energy
electricity for community needs, agricultural applications, and small industries. They fundamental concept in ecology, refers to more or less predictable and orderly ▪ Transfer of Nutrients
may also be used to electrify off-grid or remote locations. changes in the composition or structure of an ecological community. Succession may ▪ Food Chain
▪ Food Web
be initiated either by formation of new, unoccupied habitat (e.g., a lava flow or a
Micro Hydro Systems: Micro hydro systems are smaller than small hydro systems, ▪ Eco – System Development
severe landslide) or by some form of disturbance (e.g. fire, severe wind throw ,
generally generating up to a few hundred kilowatts (kW) of electricity. These
logging) of an existing community. Succession that begins in areas where no soil is
systems are suitable for individual households, small villages, or remote locations
initially present is called primary succession, whereas succession that begins in ★Energy Flow in an Eco – System or Flow of Energy:
with limited power requirements. Micro hydro systems can be set up in places with Flow of energy in an eco – system takes place through food chain. The most
natural water sources like streams or small rivers. areas where soil is already present is called secondary succession.
important feature of this energy flow is that it is uni directional (or) one way flow.
Unlike carbon,, nitrogen and phosphorus which move in a cycle manner and are
★Smog is a type of air pollution that occurs when certain pollutants, primarily from ★How Solar Power Works: The sun's energy can be captured to generate reused by the producers after flowing through the food chain, energy is not reused in
human activities, react with sunlight and atmospheric conditions. The word "smog" electricity or heat through a system of panels or mirrors.• Solar, or photovoltaic, cells the food chain. The sun is the source of energy. The movement of solar energy through
is a combination of "smoke" and "fog," as it often appears as a dense, hazy, or convert sunlight directly into electricity. Most photovoltaic cells are made primarily and eco –system called as ‘Energy Flow’.
brownish layer in the atmosphere. Smog is a serious environmental and public The flow of energy through the eco – systems is governed by the laws of
of silicon, the material used in computer semiconductor chips, and arranged on
health concern in many urban areas around the world. thermodynamics. The laws state that:
rectangular panels. When sunlight hits a cell, the energy knocks electrons free of a) Energy is neither created nor destroyed but may be transferred from one from to
their atoms, allowing them to flow through the material. The resulting DC (direct another.
★ENVIRONMENT characteristics and interactions: current) electricity is then sent to a power inverter for conversion to AC (alternating b) During energy transfer, there is degradation of energy from a concentrated to a
1.Atmosphere: The layer of gases surrounding the Earth, including oxygen, current).• Solar thermal collectors use heat-absorbing panels and a series of more dispersed form.
nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and trace gases. It is essential for supporting life and attached circulation tubes to heat water or buildings.• Solar concentration systems
regulating climate.
use mirrors -- usually arranged in a series of long, parabolic troughs, a large round ★Impact of Human Activities on Eco – Systems:
2.Hydrosphere: The total water on Earth, including oceans, rivers, lakes, dish, or a circle surrounding a "power tower" -- to focus the sun's reflected rays on a The major environmental problems which continue t incite human concern are varied.
glaciers, and groundwater. Water is crucial for all forms of life. heat-collecting element. The concentrated sunlight heats water or a a) Over population
heattransferring fluid such as molten salt to generate steam, which is then used b) Soil Erosion
3.Geosphere: The solid part of the Earth, including the lithosphere (outermost conventionally to spin turbines and generate electricity.• Passive solar design is the c) Depletion of Natural Resources
layer of the Earth's crust) and the underlying mantle and core. creative use of windows, skylights and sunrooms, building site and orientation, and d) Poverty
thermal construction materials to heat and light buildings, or to heat water, the e) Loss of Bio – Diversity
4.Biosphere: The zone on Earth where life exists, including all living organisms natural way. f) Environmental Pollution
and their interactions with the other spheres.
★Different types of ecosystem of biosphere artificially categorized as follows:
5.Anthroposphere: The part of the environment influenced by human I) Natural Ecosystems: These ecosystems operate by themselves under natural
activities, encompassing human settlements, cities, industries, and conditions without any major interference by man. Based upon the particular kind of
infrastructure. habitat, these are further divided as: •Terrestrial as forest, grassland, desert etc.
Aquatic which may be further distinguished as Freshwater which may be lotic
(running water as springs, stream, river) or lentic (standing water
as lake, pond, pools, ditch, swamps, etc.)
•Marine Ecosystems: as an ocean or shallow ones like sea or estuary etc.
II) Artificial Ecosystems: These are maintained by man where, by addition of energy
& planned manipulations natural balance is disturbed regularly.
For eg : croplands like maize, wheat, rice-fields etc., where man tries to control the
biotic community as well as physico-chemical environment are artificial ecosystems.