Topic 1: introduction to computer

DEFINITION OF TERMS
• COMPUTER
- A Computer is an electronic device that processes data (user’s input) to information
(desired output)
- It is said to be electronic because it utilizes electric signals to process data
- The processing is made possible by a set of instructions called programs
- Therefore, three key terms in the definition of computer are:
• Input
• Process
• Output

Input Output
process
(data) (information)

- Below is a diagram showing a Personal Computer (PC) called desktop computers which
are mostly used in offices, business premises and at home.

- A typical desktop computer is made up of a system unit and peripheral devices such as
monitor (also known as screen), keyboard and mouse.
- A system unit houses the brain of the computer called Central Processing Unit (CPU) ad
also drivers
- Drivers are used to store, record and read data
• Data and Information
- Data is defined as raw facts that do not have much meaning to the user.
- It may include numbers, letters and symbols.
- Information is the processed data that is meaningful to the user.
- In other ways, information is the product of data and process.
• Information Technology (IT)
- Information Technology (IT) refers to the use of hardware, software and their technology
to collect, process, secure, store, exchange or disseminate information.
- Examples of hardware include: computers, PDAs, Smartphones and printers.
- Information may be in a form of text, graphics, sound or video.

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 • Communication Technology (CT)
- Communication Technology (CT) refers to the use of devices and communication
channels to transmit information correctly, efficiently and cost-effectively.
- Such devices include radio transmitter and receiver, telephones, satellites, fax
machines etc.
- Communication channels include telephone lines and radio waves
• Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
- ICT refers to the integration of communication technologies and information
technologies for the purpose pf acquiring, processing, storing, standardizing and
disseminating information for public consumption.
• Information Systems (IS)
- Information Systems refers to the set of components namely persons, procedures
or hardware and software resources that collect, process and deliver information
in a given organization.
- Information technology and Information system are somehow similar, but the
major difference between them is that Information system may not necessarily rely
on technological devices, pen, paper and manual files may be used while IT is
purely electronic and it tries to automate IS processes.
• Garbage in garbage Out (GIGO)
- This is a phrase which implies that if incorrect data is entered in a computer and
the command to process it is given, the computer will output incorrect result.
- This means that a computer is just a machine, it cannot do things on its own.

HISTORY OF COMPUTER
- Before computers were introduce, people were using non-computing devices.
- Non-computing devices are tools that were used to perform arithmetic
computations manually or mathematically.
- These computing devices are:
• Sticks
• Stones
• Abacus
• Napier bones
• La Pascaline machine
Abacus
- An abacus was a Chinese counting instrument which dates back to 300 BC.
- Abacus has bead-like parts that move along rods.
- Each bead above the middle bar stands for five units while each bead below
stands for one unit.

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Napier bones
- Napier bones was developed by John Napier, a Scottish mathematician in the 17 th
Century.
- It was used for performing multiplication and division.

La Pascaline machine
- La Pascaline is accounting machine that was made by Blaise Pascal in the 17 th
Century.
- It was used for addition and subtraction

The Analytical Engine

- The analytical engine was designed by an English mathematician, Charles Babbage
in 1832
- The engine is recognized as the first real computer and Babbage as the father of
computing.
- However, due to technological limitations, Babbage never implemented it.
- Below is the prototype of analytical engine

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 Analytical engine prototype
ELECTRONIC COMPUTERS AND THEIR GENERATIONS
- It took several years after Charles Babbage designed analytical engine to come up
with an electronic computer.
- Computers are generally classified into five generations depending on the
technology used to develop them.
• First generation computers (1940’s to 1958)
- First generation computers were very large physically and used thousands of
gadgets called vacuum tube or thermionic valve.

The disadvantages of these computers were

• They consumed a lot of power

• They emitted a lot of heat
• They constantly broke down
Examples of 1st Generation computers are
- Electronic Numeric Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC)
- Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC)
Uses of 1st Generation computers
- ENIAC was developed during first world war to make certain calculations for
construction of hydrogen bomb

• Second Generation Computers (1958-1964)

- Computers in this generation used a tiny solid-state electronic device called
transistors that were smaller than vacuum tubes.

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 Transistor

The characteristics of these computers are that

- They produced less heat than 1st Generation
- Were much fasters than 1st Generation
- Were smaller in size than 1st Generation
- More reliable than 1st Generations
Examples of second generation computers are:
- IBM 1401 AND IBM 7070
- UNIVAC 1107
- ATLAS LEO Mark III
- Honeywell 200
Uses of second generation computers
- They were used mainly for scientific, business applications and computer games

• Third Generation computers (1964-1970)

- The third generation computers used electronic device called Integrated Circuit
(IC)
- An Integrated Circuit consists of thousands of small transistor circuits packed on a
semiconductor called silicon chip

Characteristics of third generation computers

- Third generation computers emitted less heat, were smaller in size, were easier to
program, use and maintain than 1st and 2nd Generation computers
Examples of third generation computers are
- IBM 360
- ICL 19000 series
Uses of third generation computers
- They allow processing more than one task (multitasking)

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 - Had most applications such as word processor for typing, calculators and business
applications

• Fourth Generation computers (1970 to present)

- The gadget used in this generation was Large Scale Integrated Circuit (LSI) and
Very Large Scale Integrated Circuit (VLSI)

Fourth generation computers were characterized by

- Very low emission of heat
- Are small in size
- Easier to use and maintain
Examples of fourth generation computers are
- IBM 370
- IBM 4300
- Honeywell DPS-88
- Burroughs 7700
Uses of fourth generation computers
- Use of most applications
- Used to design financial applications
- Use of internet became common

• Fifth generation computers

- These are todays computers that have high processing power and speed
- These computers have special program that mimic human intelligence referred to
as Artificial Intelligence

These computers are characterized by:

- Use of artificial intelligence

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- Connectivity to internet
- Have superior hardware and software
- Very small in size
- Uses of fifth generation computers
- Used in expert system that is used in decision making

TOPIC 2: COMPUTERS AND THEIR USES

- In our day to day activities, computers are used in almost every field because they
are more efficient and accurate.
- Some of the areas where computers are used are:
▪ Supermarket
- In supermarket, computers are used management of daily activities like stock
control.
- They keep records of what is in stock, what is out of stock and provide alert when
a particular item is running out of stock
▪ Offices
- Computers are used in offices for sending and receiving information
- Document processing e.g. writing memos.
▪ Banks
In banks, computers are used in the following ways:
- In Automated Teller Machine (ATM) for cash withdraw and deposits.
- Keeping customer records
- Chaque processing
- Document processing
▪ Industries
- Computers are used to monitor and control industrial processes
- Computers are also used in industries as robots
- A robot is a machine that works like a human being but performs tasks that are
too unpleasant, dangerous or complex and tedious to human being
▪ Hospitals
- Computers are used to keep patient’s records
- Computers are also used to diagnose patient’s body in X-ray
- Computers are also used in hospital as life support machine in Intensive Care Unit
(ICT)
▪ Transport
In transport, computers are used in the following ways
- To monitor vehicle traffic in busy town
- In aircraft navigation
- In making reservation
▪ Communication

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 - Used in sending and receiving messages using internet, social media etc
▪ Law enforcement agencies
- Computers help law enforcers to carry out criminal investigation using
information stored in computers such as fingerprint, images etc
▪ Education
- Computers are used in teaching and learning processes referred to as Computer
Aided Learning (CAL) and Computer Aided Instruction (CAI)
- Computers are also used in online learning (e-learning)
- They are also used to demonstrate experiments in science subject, a process called
simulation
- They are use in processing examination
▪ Domestic and entertainment
- Computers are used at home for recreation activities such as watching movies,
playing music and computer games.
- They are also used in storing personal information
- Calculation and keeping home budget and research
▪ Library
- In library, computers are used in stock control i.e. keep details of books and other
materials that are available in the library
- They are also used by library users to search for a reading material
- They are also used to manage lending and returning of books
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
- Computers are classified into three classification
1. According to data it processes
2. According to size
3. According purpose
Classification according to data it processes
- There are three types of computer according to data it processes and these are
1. Digital computers
- Digital computers processes data that is discrete in nature.
- Discrete data or digital data is represented by using two-state square waveform as
shown below:

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Examples of digital computers are PC’s, home appliance such as digital TV, microwaves,
wall clocks etc.
2. Analog computers
- These are computers that process data that is continuous in nature.
- Continuous data or analog data is represented using continuous waveform ads
shown below:

Uses of analog computers

- Used in manufacturing process control like monitoring and regulating furnace
temperature and pressure
- Used in other applications like weather stations to record and process physical
quantities e.g. wind, cloud speed and temperature
3. Hybrid computers
- Hybrid computers are designed to process both analog and digital data.
- Example of hybrid computers are thermometer used to measure body
temperature in hospitals, a pump used in filling stations to record price and litres
of fuel
Comparison of digital and analog computers
i Digital computers are simpler to develop than analog computers
ii Digital computers are more reliable than analog computers
iii Digital computers are smaller in size than analog computers of the same
functionality
iv Digital computers consume less power compared to analog computers
Classification according to size
- Based on physical size, computers can be classified into four main categories
namely: Supper computers, Mainframe computers, Minicomputers and
Microcomputers.
1. Super computers
- These computers are characterized by
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• Fastest
• Largest
• Most expensive
• Most powerful
- They are able to perform many operations in a second
- Because of weight, they are just kept in a special room
- Because of their huge processing power, they generate a lot of heat, therefore
special cooling system is required. It is sometimes immersed in aquarium –like tank
containing liquid fluocarbon to provide cooling.
- Super computers are mainly used for scientific research which requires enormous
calculations
- Applications that requires use of super computers are aerodynamic design and
simulation, petroleum research, defense and weapon analysis etc.
- Super computers are found in developed countries such as USA and Japan
2. Mainframe computers
- Mainframe are less powerful and less expensive than supercomputers
- While supercomputers are described as giant computers, mainframe computers are
described as big in size
- Mainframe computers are used for processing data and performing complex
mathematical calculations.
- They have large storage capacity and support many variety of peripherals.
- They handle all kind of problems: scientific or commercial
- They are mostly found in government agencies, big organizations and companies
such as banks, hospitals and airports which have large information processing need
3. Minicomputers
- They resemble mainframe but they are slightly smaller. They are referred to as
small-scale mainframe computers
- They support fewer peripheral devices and are not powerful ad fast as mainframe
- They are used mainly in scientific laboratories, research institution, engineering
plants and places where processing automation is required.
- They have functions like accounting, word processing, database management and
specific industry applications.
4. Microcomputers
- microcomputer is the smallest, cheapest and less powerful
- it is called microcomputer because its CPU is called microprocessor which is very
small compared to minicomputer, mainframe computer and supercomputer.
- They are commonly used in training and learning institutions, small business
enterprise, communication centres etc.
- The following are the examples of microcomputers used today
a. Desktop computers: Designed to be placed on top of an office desk

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 b. Notebook or laptop computers: Is portable PC hence convenient for mobile
user
c. Palmnote or Personal Digital Assistant (PDA): Is small enough to fit the pocket
Classification according to purpose
- Computers can be classified according to tasks they perform. There are two types:
1. General purpose computers
- General purpose computers are designed to variety of tasks when loaded with
application programs.
- They are most type of computer in use today
- They perform tasks like word processing, calculations, accounting, information
management etc.
2. Special computers
- Special computers are designed to serve a specific purpose or accomplish one task.
- Example of such computers are robot used in manufacturing industries, basic
phone for voice communication only, electronic calculators
- Since special computers are dedicated to a single task, they perform task very
quickly and very efficient.
Units of data representation
- Human beings communicate with one another using a special language made up
of speech, vision, touch and written symbol
- However, this language is too complex for computers to understand
- In order for human being to communicate with computers, human language need
to be changed into simpler language known as machine language which computer
can understand
- Computers understand machine language which is represented by 0 and 1
- All data that is processed by the computer is represented in a form of binary
numbers (0s and 1s).
- This number system is referred to as binary number system
- However, due to need to increase processing speed and reduce amount of space
taken by data storage devices, other systems are used such as:
1. Octal (made up numbers of 0-7)
2. Hexadecimal (made up of number 0-15)
Data storage units
- Computer data can be measured and stored in various units. The basic unit is
binary digit (bit)
- The following are definition for the various size
❖ Bits: a bit is a binary digit which can either be 0 or 1. It is the smallest element
of data in a computer

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 ❖ Byte: a byte is a group of 8 bits used to represent a single character in a
computer
❖ Nibble: a nibble is half a byte which is group of 4 bits
❖ Word: is two or more bytes. It has 16bits, 32bits, 64bits etc
❖ Kilobyte: a kilobyte is exactly 210 bytes =1024. A kilobyte is approximately
1000 bytes
❖ Megabyte: a megabyte is exactly 220 bytes=1,048,576 bytes. A megabyte is
approximately 1,000,000 byte or 1000 kilobyte
❖ Gigabyte: a gigabyte is exactly 230 = 1,073,741,824 byte. A gigabyte is
approximately 1000 megabyte or 1 billion bytes.
❖ Terabyte: a terabyte is exactly 240 bytes = 1,099,511,627,776 bytes. A terabyte
is approximately 1 trillion bytes or 1 thousand gigabyte
Converting between data units
➢ 1 byte = 8bits = 1 byte
➢ 1 kilobyte = 1000 byte = 1 thousand bytes
➢ 1 megabyte = 1000 kilobyte = 1 million bytes
➢ 1 gigabyte = 1000 megabyte = 1 billion bytes
➢ 1 terabyte = 1000 gigabyte = 1 trillion bytes
Character sets
- Data is entered in a computer in a form of character which can be numbers,
alphabet or symbol.
- When you press a character e.g. A on the keyboard, the keyboard sends a signal
made up of binary number to the computer e.g. 01110011
- To avoid confusion about what every unique sequence means in a world of
computing, character set are developed to give universal meaning to the binary
sequence.
- A character set converts a binary number/code to human readable form and vice
versa
- It is character set that maps binary code to letter e.g. A on the keyboard
- The two character sets developed are:
1. American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII): It uses 7 bits to
encode character in computer, communication equipment and other devices. It is
mainly used to encode text character
2. Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC): It uses 8 bit to
encode characters mainly in IB computers.

TOPIC 3: COMPUTER HARDWARE

TYPES OF COMPUTER COMPONENTS

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 - A computer is made up of two main components:
1. Hardware
2. Software
- Hardware is the physical or tangible component that make up a computer system.
- Software refers to set of instructions that direct a computer on what to do. Two
types of software are system software and application software

Computer hardware
- A computer hardware is made up of the following components:
1. Input devices
2. Output devices
3. Storage devices
4. Communication devices
5. The Central Processing Unit (CPU)
6. System unit

• INPUT DEVICES
- Input devices convert user input which is in human readable form to machine
language that a computer can process.
- Input devices are classified into four categories according to the method used to
enter data as follows:
1. Keying devices
2. Pointing devices
3. Scanning devices
4. Other technologies used to capture data
▪ Keying devices
- Keying devices are used to enter data into a computer. They convert typed
numbers, letters and special characters into machine readable form before
processing takes place.
- The following are types of keying devices
a. Traditional keyboard: It is a full sized rigid keyboard

b. Flexible keyboard: It is more portable keyboard that can be folded and packed
into a bag

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c. Ergonomic keyboard: It is designed to provide comfort and alleviate wrist strain

d. Keypad: It is miniature keyboard used on portable devices such as PDA, laptops

and mobile phones.

e. Braille keyboard: It is a keyboard designed for use by the blind. It consists of keys
identified by raised dots

▪ Pointing devices
- Pointing devices are used for controlling a pointer cursor on the screen.
- Examples of pointing devices are
1. Mouse
2. Trackball
3. Joystick
4. Light pen and stylus
a. Mouse
- A mouse is a pointing device that enable the user to execute commands.
- It is used to control an arrow displayed on the screen
- It has two buttons: left and right button and optional scroll button
- The following are three types of mice
i Standard mouse/traditional mouse
- It has a ball underneath, two buttons and optional scroll buttons.
- The ball controls the movement of the curser when the mouse is rolled

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 ii optical mouse
- It used light technology to control movement of the cursor on the screen.
- It uses a tiny digital camera to take 1,500 pictures every second.

iii Cordless mouse/wireless mouse

- Is a battery powered mouse that used radio or infrared waves instead of being
physically connected to the system unit.
- It does not have a cord

b. Trackball
- A trackball works just like a mouse only that its ball is located at the top.
- The user rotates the ball using finger to move the cursor

Difference between mouse and trackball

1. The mouse has a ball underneath while a trackball has a mouse on top
2. To move the cursor using a mouse, you move the whole mouse on a flat surface
while to move the cursor using the trackball, you rotate the ball using finger
c. Joystick
- A joystick is an input device that looks like lever and is used to control a pointer
on the screen
- It is purposely used for playing computer games.
- The user controls the game action by varying pressure, speed and direction of the
joystick

d. Light pen and stylus

- Light pen operates by detecting the command or item being illuminated by it

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- A stylus is used on devices such as PDAs that recognize commands or handwritten
data

▪ Scanning devices
- Scanning means capturing data from an object and converting it into digital
format.
- Scanning devices are classified into two according to technology used to capture
data as
1. Optical scanner
2. Magnetic scanner

1. Optical scanner
- Optical scanners capture data using optical or light technology
- A light beam passes over an object and the image is analyzed by specialist
software
- Three examples of optical scanners are
1. Optical mark recognition scanner (OMR)
- Is used to detect marks made on a piece of paper using ink or soft pencil by
passing infrared beam over them.
- OMR are used to mark multiple choice question, analyse responses to structured
questionnaire and select correct number combination from lottery tickets.

2. Optical Barcode Recognition (OBR)

- These scanners are used to capture data coded as lines known as barcode or
Universal Product Code (UPC)
- Barcode holds manufacturer’s details and product code

OBR reader Barcode

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 3. Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
- Is used to read typewritten, computer printed or handwritten characters and
transforms the image into softcopy that can be manipulated using word processor
- Some advanced OCR called flat-bed scanners capture pictures and real objects

Flat-bed scanner with integrated OCR

2. Magnetic scanners
- Magnetic scanners are used to capture data written using magnetic ink or coded
onto magnetic strip.
- Examples of magnetic scanners are:
1. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
- Are used to read characters written using magnetic ink. An example is cheque
reader used in banks

2. Digitizers
- Also known as graphic tablet allow a user to draw image using stylus

▪ Other technology
1. Digital cameras
- Digital cameras capture data the same way other cameras do only that image is
stored in digital form.
- Pictures are stored in memory card instead of a film.
- The stored image can them be edited, printed or uploaded on the internet

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 2. Touch screen
- Touch screen technology lets the user to touch the screen using finger or a stylus in
order to write or select an item
- The scree consists of infrared light crisscrossing behind it. When the user touches
the location on the screen, the finger interrupts the infrared light and the output is
displayed on the screen
- Touch screen is mostly used in retail stores, airports, on smartphones and PDAs

3. Microphones
- A microphone is used to enter data in form of voice into the computer.
- This method is suitable for physically challenged users.
- However, it has disadvantage that it does not fully support speech related aspects
such as tones unless it is trained to support this.

Head phone

microphone headset
4. Interactive whiteboard
- It is also called smartboard is a large interactive display that connect to a
computer.
- The computer display is projected onto the board’s surface where users control
the computer and write using a pen or a finger.
- The board is mounted on wall or on floor stand
- Smartboards are used in places such as classrooms, corporate board rooms,
seminars and broadcasting studios

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 • OUTPUT DEVICES
- Output devices are peripheral devices that a computer uses to display information
after the processing operations.
- Output devices are classified into two
1. Softcopy
2. Hardcopy

Softcopy output devices

- Soft copy refers to intangible output that can be seen or heard
- Examples of soft copy output devices are
i Visual display unit(VDU)
ii Sound output devices
iii Data projectors
iv Light Emitting Diodes (LED)

• Visual display unit/Monitor

- Visual display unit also known as monitor or screen is used to display information
in form of text, pictures and video.
- It is called a monitor because it enables the user to monitor or see what is going
on in the computer
- There are three types of monitors:
a. Cathode Ray Tube monitors (CRT)
- Consist of a long glass tube with an electron gun on one end and a screen on the
other.
- The electron gun shoots electrons to illuminate the screen and is coated tiny
phosphorus dots
- The dots consist of three primary colours: red, green and blue to make a pixel

b. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) monitor

- LCD is made of special liquid crystals
Advantage of LCD over CRT monitors
➢ LCD are less bulky than CRT
➢ They consume less power than CRT
➢ They have little strain effect of eyes than CRT

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 - Two technologies used to make LCD are
1. Passive matrix
2. Active matrix
- In passive matrix, LCD creates images by scanning the entire screen. This type of
LCD requires little power but have poor clarity
- Active matrix display is made using thin film transistor technology, hence the
name TFTs. These displays consume more energy than passive matrix but offer
better clarity.
- Therefore, passive matrix consumes less power but have poor clarity while active
matrix consumes more power but offers better clarity.

c. Gas plasma display

- Gas plasma display resembles LCD only that they make use of gas instead of liquid
crystals
- They contain millions of pixels that are illuminated by charged neon gas
- Advantage of Gas plasma display over LCD is that images displayed on it do not
suffer from angle distortion
- It is mainly used to produce high definition TV (HDTVs) and wall display screen

NOTE: Gas plasma display and LCD are generally referred to as flat-panel display
Monitor display terminologies

• Pixel: stand for picture element. Pixels are tiny dots which are used to form the
image displayed on the screen. In colour monitor, pixels have red, green and blue
colours
• Colour depth: refers to number of colours which can be displayed by a pixel. It is
measured in bits
• Resolution: This is number of pixel per inch on the screen. It is given in dots per
inch(dpi) or bits. The higher the resolution, the more the number of pixels per
square inch hence the clear the picture.
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 • Refresh rates: Since CTRs cannot hold image for a long time, image in the video
RAM is used to refresh the one on the screen. If the screen has low refresh rate,
the image tends to flicker hence causing eyestrain.
• Display size: Is measured in inches as the diagonal length of the screen measured
from top to bottom.
Video graphic adapters
- For monitor to display information, it must be connected through video port to a
video adapter plugged on a motherboard.
- A video adapter determines the resolution and clarity of the monitors
- Examples of video adapters include:
a. Colour graphic adapter (CGA): Is oldest type of adapter that displays text and
images up to 16 colours
b. Enhanced Graphic Adapter (EGA): Was an improvement of CGA but also displays
in 16 colours
c. Video Graphic Array (VGA): Displays text, graphics and video using 256 colours
d. Super Video Graphic Array (SVGA): Display text and graphics using more than 16
million colours and has minimum resolution of 800 × 600 pixels
e. Extended Graphic Array (XGA): Has resolution of up to 1024 × 768 pixels and is
popular with 17 and 19 inch monitors
f. Super Extended Graphic Array (SXGA): Has resolution of 1280 × 1024 pixels and
is popular with 19 and 21 inch monitors
g. Ultra Extended Graphic Array (UXGA): Is the latest and highest standard

• Sound output devices

- Sound output devices produces sounds such as beeps, audio or digital
- Some computers come with inbuilt speakers while some computers need external
speakers which are connected to a sound card through the jacks on the system
unit.

• Data projector
- Data projector are used to display output from a computer onto a plain white
screen like a wall or whiteboard.

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 • Light emitting diodes
- Light Emitting Diode (LED) are indicators that display light when an electric
current is passed through them.
- An example is light displayed on CPU when computer is powered on.
- LEDs are used to give warnings the same way motorists use signals to indicate
whether he/she is overtaking or taking a turn.

HARDCOPY OUTPUT
- Hard copy refers to tangible output that can be felt such as paper.
- Two examples of hard copy output devices are:
1. Printers
2. Plotter
• Printers
- Printers are used to produce information on a piece of paper.
- Printers are classified according to different printing mechanisms
- The two categories of printers are:
1. Impact printer
2. Non-impact printer

Impact printer
- Impact printers print using striking mechanism.
- This means that they strike on a paper in order to form an imprint on it.
- Two example of impact printers are:
a. Dot matrix printers
- Has a set of pins on printer’s head which strike on an ink ribbon placed over the
paper.

b. Daisy wheel printers

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- Has removable flower-like wheel consisting of spokes with embossed characters.
When printing, the wheel rotates to align the required character and then
character is hit with a hammer.

Advantage
• Cheaper to run
• Print for a long time without breaking
Disadvantage

• They produce low quality printout

Non-impact printer
- Non-impact printers are faster and more quite that impact printers
- They print using ink, thermal or laser mechanisms.
- The four types of non-impact printers are:
a. Inkjet printers
- It prints by spraying tiny ink droplets onto a paper to create an image.
- A colour inkjet printer has black and tricolor cartilage that contains cyan, meganta
and yellow (CMY) compartments.
- The cartilage has nozzle that spray ink on the paper

Advantages

• Cheaper to purchase
• Produce better quality printout
Disadvantages

• Expensive to run due to high cost of replacing the cartilage

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 b. Thermal printers
- It uses thermal technology to heat ink which is normally in wax or resin form to
melting point before fusing it onto the paper
- It is used in point of sale terminals (shops) to prints receipts and barcodes

Advantages:

• Produce high quality printout

Disadvantages

• Expensive to purchase and run

c. Laser printers
- Laser printer operate by shining a laser beam to create an image on a rotating
drum
- As the beam hit the drum, it ionizes some regions which attract ink toner particles
- The toner is then fused onto a piece of paper through heating.

Advantages

• Very fast compared to the others

• Cheaper to run
• Produce high quality printouts
Disadvantages

• Expensive to purchase

d. Photo printer
- Photo printers are used to print photos

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 Factors to consider when purchasing a printer
1. Print quality: dot matrix printer is good for bulk printing of draft documents; laser
is good for official documents while thermal printer is good checkout counter
receipts
2. Initial cost: Laser and thermal printers are expensive than inkjet
3. Running cost: The cost of maintaining inkjet printer is higher than that of
maintaining laser printers
4. Speed: The speed of a printer is measured in terms of the number of pages it can
print per minute
5. Colour printing: Most printers support black and colour printing. However,
colour printers are expensive.
• Plotters
- A plotter is a large type of hard copy output device.
- They are mostly used for printing geographical, architectural and engineering
drawings such as maps, advertisements posters to be placed on billboards,
machine parts etc

SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES

- Secondary devices also called auxiliary storage are devices that provide long-term
storage for programs, data and information.
- They are called secondary devices because they are not directly accessible by the
CPU.
- Secondary devices can be classified according to:
1. Portable/removable and fixed
2. Technology used to store and retrieve data such as magnetic, optical, magneto-
optical and solid state
Removable storage devices
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 - Removable storage devices are those that are not housed inside the computer.
- Data is read and written using drive
- Examples of removable storage include
1. Magnetic tapes
2. Floppy disks
3. Optical disks
4. Solid state
Magnetic tapes
- Magnetic storage is made using a thin ribbon of Mylar, coated with a thin layer of
magnetic materials composed of iron oxide.
- The tape is housed inside plastic cartilage
- Data is read and written using tape drive
- Examples of magnetic tape are: reel to reel tapes, cassette tapes and cartilage tape

Disadvantages of using magnetic tapes

• They are slow because of the linear storage data records on the tape
• There is a space between a successive data records called Inter-record Gap (IRG)
which result in wastage of storage space
Floppy disks
- A floppy disk of diskette is made of a small flexible round disk coated with
magnetic iron oxide
- The disk is covered with a plastic protective case.
- It is now becoming unpopular sue to presence of flash disks

Reading/writing to a floppy diskette

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 - Reading from a disk means converting magnetic sports of data from the diskette
into signals for retrieval
- Writing to a floppy means converting signals into magnetic sports and storing
them onto the available space on the diskette
- Floppy drives are used to read data from the floppy
Structure of a disk platter
- The surface of the disk is divided into tiny invisible concentric circles called tracks
that store data
- The tracks are further divided into units called sectors as shown below:

Zip disks
- A zip disk is high capacity magnetic disk that resembles a floppy disk.
- A zip disk has higher storage capacity and is physically thicker compared to floppy
disk
- Zip disk can hold data up to 250MB of data

Jaz disks
- Jaz disks resembles zip disks only that they can hold as much data as 2GB.
- Data is read and written using external or internal jaz drive
High capacity floppy
- Simply known as HiFD are high capacity diskette that can store data up to 200MB
of data
Laser Servo 120 superDisks
- Laser Servo 120 SuperDisk technology (LS-120) is diskette that resembles the 3.5
inch diskette but uses optical technology.
- It has greater storage capacity and speed of data retrieval

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 - The LS-120 drive read and write both 3.5 inch floppy and 120 MB superdisk
Care of magnetic storage media
- To avoid accidental loss of data or information held on magnetic media, the
following rules must be observed:
1. Do not expose magnetic media to strong magnetic field
2. Do not expose magnetic media to excessive heat. Heat energy lead to loss of
magnetic strength hence data loss
3. Do not drop magnetic media on the ground because it weakens magnetism
4. Do not bend or fold magnetic media or out heavy weight on it to avoid breaking
or damaging it
5. Do not touch the magnetic surface
6. Do not remove a media from the drive when it is being accessed by the compute
because it may result in data loss
Optical storage media
- They are called optical storage media because data is read and written from them
using a laser beam.
- There are two reasons why optical storage are used:
1. They store every large volume of data
2. Data stored in them is more stable and more permanent than magnetic media
Compact disks (CD)
- Compact disks hold large quantity of data and information of 700 MB
- Compact disks are available in three form:
1. Compact disk-read only memory (CD-ROM)
- Contains data that can only be read but not written
- To record data, the recording surface is made into pits and lands (bumps)
- When laser beam falls on the land, this is interpreted as 1, otherwise a zero is
recorded.
2. Compact disk-recordable (CD-R)
- CD-R is coated with a special dye which change colour to represent data when
burned using laser beam.
- Once data is burned in CD-R, it becomes read only
NOTE: CD-ROM and CD-R are referred to as Write Once Read Many (WORM)
because data is recorded once and read many times
3. Compact disk-rewritable (CD-RW)
- CD-RW allows the user to record and rewrite new information

Digital Versatile Disks (DVD)

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 - It is also called Digital Video Disk
- It resembles the CD only that DVD have higher storage capacity of up to 17GB
- They are suitable for recording motion pictures and video because they offer
better sound and picture quality than CD
Optical cards
- An optical cards resembles a MICR card but data is read and written optically on a
stripe
- These types of cards are used in banking and other business organizations to
record customer details
Solid state storage media
- Is a non-volatile storage that employs integrated circuit rather than mechanical,
magnetic or optical technology.
- They are referred to as solid state because they do not have movable parts
- Examples of solid state devices are memory sticks and flash disks

Hard disk
- A hard disk is mounted inside the computer. As a result, it is referred as fixed disk
- However, some hard disks are removable and are called external hard drive
- A hard disk is also called hard drive
- Most hard disks are connected to a motherboard via a channel called controller.
- Some of these controllers are Integrated Drive Electronic (IDE), Enhanced IDE
(EIDE) or AT attachment (ATA)

Structure of hard disk platters

- A hard disk contains one or more metallic platters, stack on top of each other but
not touching one another
- The stack of platters is attached to a rotating pole called spindle

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 - It has more than one platter, they are stacked on top of one another to form a
cylinder

- As the disk rotate, the read/write head move in and out over the surface to record
or read data.
- Hard disk provides efficient data transfer and large storage capacity

THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

- The Central Processing Unit (CPU) also known as processor is the most important
component of the computer
- It is regarded as the brain of the computer because all processing activities are
carried out inside the processor.
- In microcomputer, the CPU is housed inside the system unit. It is mounted on the
motherboard
Components of CPU
- The CPU consists of three functional elements namely
1. The control unit
2. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
3. Main memory
Figure below illustrate the functional elements of a CPU
Main Memory

ALU
Control Unit

Cache and registers

▪ Control unit
- Control unit coordinates all processing activities in the CPU as well as input and
output operations

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- It determines which operation or instruction is to be executed next
- To coordinates these activities, the control unit uses system clock
- The system clock sends electric signal as means of communication
- The number of pulses per second determine the speed of the microprocessor
- The faster the clock pulses, the faster the CPU, hence the faster the computer can
process data.
▪ Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
- ALU is unit of CPU where all arithmetic and logical operations are carried out
- The basic arithmetic operations are addition, subtraction, division, multiplication
- Logical operations are computer’s capacity to compare two or more values e.g.
greater than, less than etc
- In order for the ALU to be able to process data, it has special temporary storage
called registers which holds data before and after processing
▪ Main memory
- Main memory also known as primary storage is a type of storage that is directly
accessible by the CPU
- Two types of main memory are
A. Random Access Memory (RAM)
B. Read Only Memory (ROM)

1. Read Only Memory (ROM)

- ROM is used to store programmed instructions and data permanently or semi-
permanently.
- Data and instructions stored in ROM are those which remain unchanged fpr a
long period of time like POST instructions, special purpose computers and
computerize fuel pumps

- Depending on permanence of the instructions or data written on it, there are four
types of ROM namely
a. Mask Read Only Memory (MROM): Once the content is written on it by the
manufacturer, it cannot be changed.
b. Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM): This allows the user to change
the data only once after content is written on it
c. Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM): Its content can be
erased by exposing it to ultra violet (UV) light and then reprogrammed for
another use

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 d. Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM): This type
of ROM can be erased and reprogrammed using electricity. An example is
memory that stores BIOS
Characteristics of Read Only Memory

• One can only read its content but cannot write on it unless is special type of
ROM
• It is non-volatile, i.e. its content is not lost when computer is switched off
• It stores permanent or semi-permanent instruction from the manufacturer
called
firmware
• Its content is manufacturer defined f
2. Random Access Memory (RAM)
- Random Access memory also known as working storage is used to hold instruction
and data needed by the currently running application.
- The information in RAM is continuously read changed and removed
- It is referred to as random because its content can be read directly regardless of
sequence in which it was stored
- Content in Ram is temporary and is lost once the computer is turned off

RAM RAM R

Characteristics of RAM

• Data in RAM can be both read and written

• RAM is temporary/volatile storage because its content is lost once the computer is
turned off
• Its content is user defined i.e. the user dictates what is to be contained in RAM’
Types of RAM
- There are three types of RAM and these are
1. Static RAM (SRAM)
- Is faster type of memory located inside microprocessor
- For this reason, it is used on special purpose memory called cache memory
- Cache memory is used to enhance processing speed by holding data and
instructions that are instantly required by the processor

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 2. Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
- DRAM is relatively slower compared to SRAM
- The term dynamic refers to the tendency for the stored charge to leak away, even
with constant power supply
- For this reason, DRAM requires periodic refreshing to maintain its data storage
3. Rambus RAM
- This is latest and fastest RAM in terms of response time
Special purpose memories
- The special memories are as follows;
1. Cache memory
- This is the fast type of memory
- Cache memory is used to enhance processing speed by holding data and
instructions that are instantly required by the processor
- The three types of cache memory are:
a. Level 1: also known as primary cache is located inside microprocessor
b. Level 2: also known as external cache may be inside microprocessor or
mounted on the motherboard
c. Level 3: Is the latest type of cache that works with level 2 cache to optimize
system performance
2. Buffers
- Buffers are special memories that are found in input/output devices
- Input data is held in the input buffers while processed output is held in output
buffers e.g. buffers that stores documents being printed
3. Registers
- As opposed to buffers, registers hold one piece of data at a time and are inside the
CPU.
- Examples of registers are:
a. Accumulator: This temporary holds the results of the last processing step of the
ALU
b. Instruction register: This temporarily hold an instruction just before it is
interpreted into a form that a CPU can understand
c. Address register: This temporarily holds the next piece of data waiting to be
processed
d. Storage register: This temporarily holds a piece of data that is on ots way to
and from the CPU and main memory
Memory capacity
- Memory and storage capacity is measured in special units called bytes.
- A byte is equivalent to single character. For example, 2345 has 4 bytes while the
word my home has 7 bytes and the sentence this is my name. has 16 bytes

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 - Memory quantities can be expressed in
• Kilobyte (KB) is approximately 1000 bytes
• Megabyte (MB) is approximately one million bytes
• Gigabyte (GB): Is approximately one billion bytes
• Terabytes (TB): Is approximately one trillion bytes
Overall functional organization of a CPU
Figure below summerises the overall functional organization of a CPU and how it
controls other computer components

Control unit

Controls all activities

ALU

Calculates and compare data

Main memory
Input unit Output unit
Stores data and instructions
temporary

Secondary storage device

Backing storage for data and

instructions

- The ALU, control unit and main memory use electrical pathways or links called
buses.
- There are three types of buses
1. Control bus: This is a pathway for all timing and controlling functions sent by
the control unit to other parts of the system
2. Address bus: This is the pathway used to locate the storage position I the
memory where the next instruction data to be processed is held
3. Data bus: This is the pathway where the actual data transfer takes place
NOTE: The difference between primary storage (main memory) and secondary storage
(auxiliary storage) is that

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1. Primary storage stores data temporarily while secondary storage stores data
permanent
2. Primary storage is directly accessible by the CPU while the secondary storage is not
directly accessible by the CPU
COMMUNICATION DEVICES
- These are devices that enables communication between two or more computers
- The three examples of communication devices are:
1. Network Interface Card (NIC)
- NIC provides physical connection between the computer and the transmission
media.
- It has port through which you connect cables from other computers
- Data moves through the NIC and the cable to other devices

2. MODEM (Modulator Demodulator)

- A modem is a device that convert computer signals from and to form that is
suitable for the transmission e.g. from digital to analog and vice versa.

3. Hubs
- A hub is a device that connects computers on a network
- It relays information from one computer to another on the same network\

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COMPONENTS OF A SYSTEM UNIT
- A system unit has many components; some are hidden inside the system unit.
- Below are the components
1. The power button 7. The LED lights
2. The motherboard 8. The hard disk
3. The data cables 9. The ports
4. Integrated circuit (IC) chips 10. Memory slots
5. The processor 11. Power box
6. The power cables

Ports and interface cables

- Peripheral devices are connected to the system unit through port using eother
cables or wireless connectivity
- Figure below shows the back of the CPU where peripheral devices are connected

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Types of interfaces/ports
1. Parallel interface
- Parallel cables transmit information simultaneously sing set of many
conductors(wires).
- The advantage of parallel cables is that it transmits data faster over a short
distance
- A parallel cable connects parallel ports referred to as Line Printer (LPT)
- Parallel cables are used to connect printers, optical scanners and other removable
storage devices such as zip drive.

2. Serial ports
- Serial port also referred to as COM or RS232 port transmit data one bit at a time
- Serial ports are slower than parallel port
- However, serial cables are more reliable than parallel port because they transmit
data over a long distance of 15m away
- Serial cables connect devices such as mouse and some printers

3. Universal Serial Bus (USB) interface

- USB is a new standard serial bus that is set to replace parallel and serial cables
- Although it transmits 1bit at a time, it provides high speed and quality data
transmission over a long distance of 5m
- There are wo types of USB namely: Low speed USB and High speed USB

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 4. Small computer system Interface (SCSI)
- SCSI interface cable transmit data in parallel but are faster than the parallel cables
- Another advantage of SCSI port is that it allows us to connect multiple devices
5. Personal system 2 (PS/2) interface
- It is used to connect mouse and keyboard using 5-pin

6. Video graphic array (VGA) interface

- VGA interface is used to connect monitor or a data projector
- It has 15 pins

7. Audio interface
- These are used to connect speakers and microphones
- The sound output is green while the sound input is pink
8. Firewire interface
- It has same features as USB but transfer data faster than USB
- It is mostly used for streaming video from a digital video camera
Table below shows list of ports and their corresponding symbols

Switching On and Off the computer

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Cold booting a computer
- Once you turn on a computer, it automatically goes through a process of self-test
and preparing for use. This process is called cold booting or bootup
- Once you turn on a computer, you may hear the sound of a cooler fan running.
After few seconds, lines of text start scrolling up on the screen. This process is
referred to as Power-On-Self-Test (POST)
- POST check the existing drive, basic input and output devices such as keyboard,
monitor and mouse. If the problem is encountered, the process is halted and an
error message is displaced on the screen
- POST is accomplished by a special firmware program called Basic Input/output
System (BIOS0 which is held in the ROM chip mounted on the motherboard
- After POST, the computer reads some instructions such as the current date and
time from a special memory known as Complementary Metal-Oxide
Semiconductor (CMOS)
- CMOS is powered by a dry cell that mostly resembles that of digital watch. If the
cell is depleted, the computer requires the user to enter the current date and time
- Lastly, a special type of computer program used to manage computers called
Operating System is loaded in the computer memory.

TOPIC 4: SAFE USE OF A COMPUTER

PROTECTION OF COMPUTERS AND USERS
- Computers are delicate devices that need to be handled carefully
Measures that protect hardware and software
1. Burglar proofing the room: This include fitting grills on doors, windows and the
roof to deter forceful entry into a computer room
2. Installing intrusion detection alarm system and employing security guards
3. Installing fire prevention and control equipment such as smoke detector, non-
liquid based and non-powder based fire extinguisher. The recommended
extinguisher is gaseous because liquid can cause rusting and corrosion of computer
components
4. Protect the computers from too high temperature and too low temperature. High
temperature affect proper functioning of the computer chips. Too low
temperature affects proper functioning of computer components
5. The room should be well laid out with enough space for movement. Computers
should be placed on a stable, wide desk to avoid accidentally knocking them
down.
6. Use proper procedure for switching off the computer to avoid losing data and
destroying software.

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 7. Protect computers from power surges and low voltage due to power instability by
connecting it to Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS). The UPS serves two
functions: Protecting computers from power surges and low voltage and provide
power to the computer when there is blackout to allow a user to save his/her
work

8. Dust and dump control: fitting the computer room with good window curtains
and air conditioning system. Cover the computers with dust cover when not in
use. Dampness or humidity is controlled by using humidifiers. Humidity causes
rusting of the computers parts
9. Insulating power cables: Cables and power sockets should be well insulated and
with correct power rating to avoid short circuit that can damage the computers
10. Avoid taking meals in the laboratory: Users should not eat or drink in the
laboratory. Food particles may fall in moving parts like keyboards and clog them
while liquid may pour into electrical circuit and cause short circuit

Measures that protect users from hazards

1. Protect against electric shock: All cables should be insulated to avoid electric
shock. Cables should be laid away from user path to avoid tripping on them
2. Use of standard furniture: Users should use standard furniture to avoid poor
posture which may lead to stain injury and limb fatigue. The table should be of
right height and the seat should have backrest and high so that the eye =es of the
user should be in good level with the screen
3. Light control: Wear antiglare screens (light filters) and adjust screen light to avoid
eye strain and fatigue caused by overbright CTR monitors. Or use LCD monitors
instead of CTR monitors
4. Ventilation: The room should be properly ventilated to avoid dizziness caused by
lack of enough oxygen and to allow the computers to cool
5. The walls of the room should not be painted with overbright reflective oil paints
and the screen should face away from the window to avoid glare caused by bright
background
6. Overcrowding: Avoid overcrowding in the computer lab to avoid suffocation or
spread of communicable diseases
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 7. Taking a regular break at least after every 40 min
Environmental hazards
- Always follow the right procedure when disposing the computer wastes to avoid
polluting the environment
- Use devices that have energy star policy that encourage minimal use of power by
electric device

Causes of software and data loss

- Data loss or software loss is the unexpected or accidental loss of data or software
stored in storage media.
- There are many causes of data or software loss and these are:
• Accidental deletion: This is when you accidentally delete a file or program from
your hard drive unintentionally
• Malicious deletion: This is when you delete a file intentionally and later on you
want the file back. You can recover it by restoring from the recycle bin. Use data
recovery software if you emptied the recycle bin
• Accidental media format: Users accidentally format their drive and this result in loss
of data or program. Get help from data recovery expert to recover it
• Accidental damage: If the drive or disk is mishandled or accidentally dropped, it
may cause data or program loss
• Natural disaster: Drive may be damaged due to fire, floods or some other
unforeseen disasters. Have an off-site backup to avoid this loss.
• Power failure: If you experience power failure before you save your work, you
may lose your data. Use UPS that gives you chance to save your data before the
computer shuts down
• Hardware failure: This may include complete computer failure or failure of
component such as hard drive. Use UPS to protect the computer.
• Software failure: When your application suddenly crashes or freezes while you are
working on it, may result in severe damage to your hard drive. This causes the
program to close suddenly and all unsaved work is lost. Regularly, save your data
• Vandalism: Data may be destroyed or stolen by professional hackers. Put strong
passwords enforce strong physical and data security.

Measures against loss of data and software

1. Install up-to-date antivirus in the computers
2. Make sure you scan all external storage media and email for virus before opening
3. Take regular backups of all the important data and software
4. Connect the computers to UPS to prevent data and software loss during power
surges
5. All the data must be properly saved and the computer must be safely shutdown
6. Enforce physical security to avoid theft of computers and computer components

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 7. Use trusted software to avoid corrupting the operating system.
8. Write protect the storage media so that only the trusted users can save content on
the storage media
9. Handle the storage devices and media with care to avoid damage due to
dropping, dust, heat or magnetic effect

COMPUTUTER VIRUSES
- A computer virus is a program that loads itself without permission onto the
computer and when executed replicates by making copies of itself into other files.
- Virus perform harmful activities on the computer such as
• Issuing unauthorized commands
• Deleting data
• Stealing information
• Making computer respond slowly to commands
• Taking up computer space
Types of viruses
- Computer viruses are categorized according to how they function or how they get
- access to computer such as
1. Trojan horse
- This virus appears to do useful desired function but does other harmful activities
like stealing data files and sending them to unauthorized parties
- It can be downloaded by the user or installed from removable media
2. Worms
- This virus replicates itself and moves from one computer to another through
communication links like Bluetooth, email attachment.
3. Boot sector virus
- It attaches itself to a boot strap of the hard disk and prevent the computer from
booting correctly.
- It is spread through storage media
4. Memory resident viruses
- This virus resides inside RAM (Random Access memory) making the computer not
respond correctly
5. Rootkit viruses
- These viruses try to open up a computer for access by external entities.
- They give unlimited access to unauthorized user. They are sometimes installed by
Trojan
6. Macro viruses
- These viruses attach themselves to another application macro-programming code.
- They infect other computer applications usually a word or excel program
7. Logic bomb/time bomb
- This type of virus is programmed to take a particular action on a particular date or
when a certain event takes place.

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 - The difference between Logic bomb and time bomb is that a Logic bomb is
programmed to take a particular action when a certain event takes place while
Time bomb is programmed to take place on a particular data and time
8. Back doors/trap doors
- These viruses are Trojan that open up a security vulnerability for unauthorized
users to access the computer without knowledge of the authorized user

How are viruses spread?

1. Sharing of removable storage devices like disks, flash and hard drive
2. Opening emails that are infected then the virus infects the host computer
3. Installing strange software on the computer without validating its sources
4. Accepting software updates from unvalidated sources
Measures to control/prevent viruses infection
1. Avoid sharing removable storage media. When sharing, scan the media for virus
infection before reading files from it
2. Avoid opening unsolicited for email offers or installing software from questionable
sources
3. Install a good antivirus software.
How antivirus works to clean viruses? It reads the digital signature of a virus,
recognize it and uses the information it has about the virus to clean it from the
computer. Some viruses are polymorphic and metamorphic that they keep on
changing their code and digital signature every time they replicate in order to hide
itself.

TOPIC 5: COMPUTER SOFTWARE

- Software is the set of instruction that guide a computer on what to do.
- Examples of software are:
• Microsoft windows
• Linx
• Unix
• Microsoft office
• Adobe Photoshop
• Adobe Illustrator
• QuickBooks
Classification of software
- Generally, software is classified into three classification
1. According to purpose
2. According to acquisition
3. According to End-User-License (EUL)

a. Classification of software according to purpose

- Computer software may be designed to manage hardware or to accomplish
specific task.
- Therefore, there are two types of software classified according to purpose

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 1. System software: Designed to manage hardware resources
2. Application software: Designed to accomplish specific task
• System software
- System software performs a variety of fundamental operations that avil computer
resources to the user.
- The functions of system software are:
1. Booting the computer and making sure that all the hardware elements are
working properly
2. Performing operations such as retrieving, loading, executing and storing
application programs
3. Storing and retrieving files
4. Performing a variety of system utility functions
Types of system software
- System software is divided into the following sub-categories
1. Operating system
2. Firmware
3. Utility programs
4. Language translator
Operating system
- An operating system controls execution of user programs and act as a go between
(interface) between the application, the user and the computer hardware.
- It manages input, output and storage operations in the computers.
- Examples of operating system are: Microsoft windows (XP, 2000, vista, 7,8,10),
UNIX, Linux and Macintosh (MacOS)
Firmware
- A firmware also called stored logic is combination of both hardware and software
recorded permanently of electronic chips.
- A firmware is a read-only memory chip that is mounted or plugged o=into a
motherboard
- Firmware holds the operating system, utility programs and language translator
Utility programs
- Utility program is a special program that performs commonly used services that
make certain aspects of computing go on smoothly.
- Such services include copying, sorting, file handling and disk management
- The two types of utility programs are:
a. System-level utility: These help the user work with the operating system and its
function. For example, it tells a user when he enters wrong command
b. Application –level utility: These make applications programs run more smoothly
and efficiently
Language translator
- This is s processor or a utility that translates a computer program Witten using a
programming language into a form that a computer can understand referred to as
machine language
- The three categories of language translators are: Assemblers, Interpreters and
compilers
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 • Application software
- Application software are programs that are designed to help user accomplish
specific task
- Examples of application software are
SOFTWARE USERS EXAMPLES
Word processors Typing documents like Word, Lotus, Wordpro,
letters OpenOffice Writer
Spreadsheet Calculating budget Ms excel, Lots 1-2-3
Desktop publishing Designing publications like Adobe PageMaker,
newspapers and books MsPublisher, Adobe
InDesign
Computer aided design Technical drawing AutoCAD
Database Keeping records and files Ms. Access, MySQL.
FoxBase, Paradox
Graphic design Designing and Corel draw, Photoshop
manipulating graphics

b. Classification according to acquisition

- There are two types of software classified according to acquisition and these are:
1. in-house developed software
- These are programs that are uniquely designed and tailored to meet a particular
user’s needs
- For example, a bank hires a programmer to develop system that help manage its
operations
- In-house developed programs are not available in shops and once developed for a
company or user, they may not address the needs of other users
2. Vendor off-the-shelf software
- These software are developed by engineers, packaged and made available in
shops through vendors
- A developer may bundle more than one software into one package to form suite
or integrated software e.g. Microsoft office suite, Lotus suite etc. or may sell as
single-purpose software e.g. QuickBooks, Opera, VLC media etc.
Advantages of standard software (vender off-the-shelf) over in-housed developed
software
1. They can easily be installed and run
2. They are cheap than in-house developed software
3. They are readily available for almost any task
4. They have minor or no errors since they are thoroughly tested
5. They can easily be modified to meet a user’ needs
However, some of the drawbacks of vendor off-the-shelf software are
1. They may have some features not needed by the user which may waste computer
space
2. They may require the user to change processes and hardware for compatibility
which may turn be expensive

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 3. They may lack some features required by the user

c. Classification according to End-User-License

- There are three types of software classified according to end user license and these
are:
1. Open source/non-proprietary software
- This is software whose source code is freely made available to users.
- The users can use, modify and distribute the modified product
- Examples of open source software are Linux operating system, OpenOffice
2. Proprietary software
- These are software whose source code are hidden from users
- Modification is only made by the manufacturer
- Examples of proprietary software is Microsoft Windows, Microsoft Office
3. Freeware software
- These are software that are made available freely to users on the internet
- Examples of these software are free antivirus. Beware when downloading these
because some may be malicious software

TOPIC 6: OPERATING SYSTEM

- Operating system is the main program that control execution of user application
and enables the user to access hardware and software resources of the computers
- The operating system is very important without which computers can do barely
nothing
- It acts as a mediator between the user and the computer hardware
- User applications do not communicate directly with hardware devices instead they
send messages via operating system which give instruction to the hardware to
perform a particular task
- Figure below shows the view of interaction of the user with the application
software and the hardware; with the operating system as a mediator

Types of Operating System

- Operating system is classified into three
1. According to number of tasks
2. According to number of users
3. According to user interface

▪ Classification according to number of tasks

1. Single program operating system
- Single program/single task operating system allows processing of one application
program in the main memory at a time.
- This means that the user can only one interactive program at a time. The user
must exit the program before loading and running another program
- An example of single program operating system is Ms DOS from Microsoft
Corporation

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 2. Multitasking operating system
- A multitask operating system allows a single CPU to execute what appears to be
more than one application program at the same time.
- Through processor scheduling, the operating system allocates time slice to each
ready task
-
▪ Classification according to number of users
1. Single-user operating system
- Single user operating system is designed for use by only one person at a time. It
cannot support more than one user and run only one application at a time.
- Example of single-user operating system are Palm OS and Ms-DOS.
2. Multi-user operating system
- Multi-user or multi-access operating system allows more than one user to
interactively use the computer
- An example is server operating system which is accessed by all employees at the
company. Other examples are UNIX, Novel, Windows NT/2000 and linux.

▪ Classification according to interface

- The term user interface refers to the interaction between the user and the
computer
- The interface needs to be user friendly. According to user interface, operating
system is classified into three types
1. Command-line operating system
- A command-line operating system lets the user type a command at a command
prompt
- The computer reads the typed command and execute it
- An example of command COPY C:\fruits.Dat A\ means copy a file called fruit.Dat
from hard disk C to floppy disk A
- Examples of command-line operating system are: early version of Ms DOS, PC
DOS, OS/2 and UNIX

Reasons why command-line operating system have become unpopular today

• It is difficult to remember the command they use
• They cannot process complex graphics
• They hardly make use of emerging hardware and software

2. Menu driven interface

- Menu driven interface provide user with a list of options to choose from.
- The interface is suitable for beginners who may have difficult in remembering the
commands
- Examples of menu driven are later version of DOS
3. The graphical user interface (GUI)
- This is the latest operating system that make the interface more user-friendly

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 - It provides with user menu to choose from just like menu driven and apart from
menu, it has a rectangular work area called windows, graphic objects called icon
and most commands are executed using pointing devices.
- The features are given acronym WIMP which sand for Windows, Icon, Menus and
Pointers
- Examples of GUI operating system are Microsoft windows version 2000, XP, 7, 8,
10, Apple Mac OS and Linux

FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM

- An operating system basically consist of two main parts namely: shell and kernel
- Shell is outer part of an operating system used to interact with the operating
system
- Kernel is the core of the operating system responsible for managing and
controlling computer resources such as processor, main memory, storage devices,
input devices, output devices and communication devices
- The following are the functions of operating system
1. Job/processor scheduling
- Processor scheduling refers to allocating each job, waiting for execution, a
processor time at each given interval
- Since computer may have many concurrent jobs waiting for execution, it is the
operating system that determine which task will be processed first. It schedules job
according to priorities, the higher the priority, the first to be allocated CPU time
2. Resource allocation
- Each resource in a computer has unique Interrupt Request (IRQ) number. The
operating system uses the IRQ number to identify the resource being requested
- Poor allocation of resource result in a condition called Deadlock
- Deadlock is a situation where a particular job holds a requested resources a fails to
release it, ye it is requesting for resources held by the other job.
3. Memory management
- Operating system manages the RAM by determining which task remains in
memory awaiting for execution and which one to be kicked back to the secondary
device.
- To manage RAM, the operating system organize the main memory (RAM) into
page frames. Processors are also divided into piece called pages. Then to manage
memory, the operating system swaps between the main memory and secondary
storage.
4. Input/output management
- Operating system coordinates between the various I/O and other peripheral
devise ensuring that data is transmitted securely. For example, when printing,
operating system searches for printer, choose the correct one and send the
document for printing
5. Communication control and management
- The operating system is responsible for managing the various communication
devices and provide an environment within which communication protocols
operates
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 - The term protocol refers to rules that govern communication between devices on
the network
6. Error handling
- The operating system alerts the user of error that occur out of illegal operations or
software or hardware failure. It expresses what the error is and give suggestions
on how to correct the error
- The operating system monitors the status of the computer in terms of performance
and checks on users, hardware and software.
7. Interrupt handling
- An interrupt is a break from normal sequential processing of instructions in a
program
- When a critical request causes the processor to stop executing the current program
and execute this request first. Operating system controls this.

Factors to consider when choosing an operating system

1. The hardware configuration of the computer such as memory capacity, processor
speed and hard disk size
2. The type of computer in terms of size and make.
3. The application software intended for the computer
4. User-friendliness of the operating system
5. The documentation available
6. The cost of the operating system
7. Reliability and security provided by the operating system
8. The number of processors and hardware it can support
9. The number of users it can support

How operating system organizes information?

- Most operating system organizes information in a three-tier hierarchy
o Drive
o Folders or directories
o Files

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Files
- A file is a collection of related data given a unique name for easy access,
manipulation and storage
- Every file has the following details
1. A unique name and optional extension. The name and the extension are
separated by a period eg JUNE.DOC
2. The size, date and time he file was created or modified
Types of files
- There are three types of files namely:
1. System file
2. Application file
3. Data file
- System file contain information that is critical for the operation of the computer
- Application file hold programs and are executable
- Data files contains user specific data
NB: system files has file extension .bat and .sys, application file has file extension .exe
only while the rest extensions are for data files e.g. .gped, .doc, .txt etc

Table below show some file extension and its type

Extension File type Description
.doc Data A Microsoft word document file
.txt Data A plain txt file created using notepad or DOS editor
.tif Data A graphic file created using application such as Adobe
Photoshop
.exe Application The file that launches a particular application
file
.bat System file File containing a series of command loaded during boot
up
.sys System file System file that perform fundamental operations in the
computer

Folders or directories
- A folder also known as a directory in some operating system is a named storage
location where related files and other folders can be stored
- All folders originate from a special directory called root directory or folder
- The root directory is represented by a slash (\)
- A folder may be inside another folder called sub-folder or sub-directory
Drive
- The operating system recognize storage media or device as drive.
- Drive may be given a label such as letters A-Z to identify them
- Table below gives summary of how Microsoft operating system identify drives

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Storage location Drive Remarks
Floppy drive A and B If computer has two floppy drives, one will be
assigned letter A the other B
Hard disk C, D, E, F If a computer has 4 hard drives, they will be assigned
letters A-F
Optical drive D, E, F, G If a computer has one hard disk and three or more
CD/DVD drives, they will take up any number
between D and Z
Other removable D, E,….., Z If a computer does not have an optical drive, any
storage removable drive attached to the computer ca take
any letter between D and Z
Network drive Logical Network drive takes D-Z depending on the number
of physical drive installed or attached

TOPIC 7: USING COMPUTERS

THE COMPUTER KEYBOARD
- A keyboard is a device made of keys that enable a person to communicate to the
computer by processing them.
- The keyboard converts human language into machine language.
- There are many types of computer keyboards categorized according to various
criteria including:
1. Classification by function of extra key: there are two types of keyboards in this
category i.e. standard keyboard and multimedia keyboard. The multimedia
keyboard has extra key that support multimedia such as multimedia application
launch, volume control etc. while standard keyboards do not have extra key that
support multimedia
2. Classification by arrangement of keys on the first row of alphabetical keys and
these are AZERTY, QWERTY, DVORAK ect.
3. Laser keyboard. This is the new version. The device project that keyboard on the
flat surface and the user type on the projected image
4. Flexible/roll up keyboard: It can be rolled up and fitted in bags easily for easier
portability
The keyboard layout
- The keys on the keyboard can be classified into five categories namely
1. Alphanumeric (typing) key
2. Function key
3. Cursor movement and editing key
4. Special key
5. Numeric keypad

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Alphanumeric key
- Alphanumeric key also known as typing keys and these are
• Alphabetic letters A-Z
• Numbers arranged 1, 2 …. 0
• Special symbols such as ?, ], %, $, * etc
• Caps lock key: Lets the user type uppercase letters
• Enter key (return key): Enter key has two functions: To move the text cursor to
the beginning of the next line and to instruct a computer to execute command
• Tab key: This key is used to move the text cursor at a set interval on the same line
• The spacebar: This key creates a space between words during typing
• The backspace key: This key deletes characters from right to left on the same line
Function key
- Function keys are usually located along the top of the keyboard. They are labelled
f1, f2 up to f12
- They are used for tasks that occur frequently in various programs
Cursor movement and editing keys
- Cursor movement keys are used to move the cursor on the screen. They include:
1. Arrow keys: There are 4 arrow keys left, right, upwards and downwards. They are
used to move the text cursor up, down, left and right.
2. Page Up (pg up) and page Down (pg dn): Pressing Page Up moves the cursor up
one page in case the document has many pages while pressing Page down moves
the cursor down one page.
3. Home and End key: Pressing Home key moves the cursor to the beginning of the
current line. Pressing End key moves the cursor to the end of the current line
- Editing keys are used to delete or insert characters in the document. They include:
1. Insert key: This key helps the user to insert or replace character at the cursor
position
2. Delete key: This key deletes characters at the cursor position from left to right
Special purpose keys
- Special purpose keys are used in combination with other keys o give certain
commands to a computer.
- For example, Ctrl +Esc is used to display start menu, Ctrl + Alt + Del is used to
display Task Manager

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 - Examples of special purpose keys are SHIFT, CTRL, ALT, and ESC
Numeric keypads
- The numeric keypads consist of set of numbers 0 to 9 and the arithmetic sign like
+, -, * and /
- They are located at the right hand side of the keyboard
- It is meant to help the user to rapidly enter numeric data.
- The numeric numbers can only be used when the Num Lock key is turned on
- When the Num lock key is turned off, the numeric keys are used as cursor
movement and editing keys

Typing and good typing posture

- in order to increase your typing speed and accuracy, typing software offers lessons
on how you can type. Some tying software comes as games to make typing more
interesting
- examples of typing software available are: Mavis Beacon Teaches Typing, Typing
Pal, TyingMaster, Touch Tutor among others

Good keyboarding posture

- when typing using typing tutor, observe the following
1. sit upright with both feet firmly on the ground maintaining an alert posture
2. rest both hands on the keyboard with fingers resting on the Home arrow key
3. always return the finger to the home row position after striking other keys
4. start typing slowly at first. Do not look at your fingers when typing

MOUSE SKILLS
- Moving a mouse on a flat surface makes the pointer on the screen to move in the
same direction as the mouse itself.
- To make a selection, the mouse must be on the object that is to be selected
- After selecting then press the mouse button
Good mouse use
1. Place the mouse on the flat smooth surface
2. Gently hold the mouse on with your right hand, using thumb and two fingers
3. The index finger should rest on the left button while the middle finger rest on the
right button
The four common mouse operations are
1. : This means pressing and releasing the left button once. A click selects an object
2. Double clicking: This means pressing and releasing the left button twice in a quick
succession. Double click open file or start program
3. Right clicking: This is pressing the right hand button once. Right click displays the
menu from which user can make selection
4. Drag and drop: This is where a user drags and item from one location to another.
The procedure to accomplish this is as follows:
i Point to the item you want to drag
ii Press the left button and hold it down

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 iii Slide the mouse until the pointer reaches the desired position on the screen
iv Finally release the mouse button and the item will be dropped in the new
location
Identifying the power button
- The power button is usually located somewhere on the front of system unit.
Pressing it switches on the computer.
Cold booting a computer
- Once you turn on a computer, it automatically goes through a process of Self-test..
This process is called cold booting or bootup
- Once you turn on a computer, you may hear the sound of a cooler fan running.
After few seconds, lines of text start scrolling up on the screen. This process is
referred to as Power-On-Self-Test (POST)
- POST check the existing drive, basic input and output devices such as keyboard,
monitor and mouse. If the problem is encountered, the process is halted and an
error message is displaced on the screen
- POST is accomplished by a special firmware program called Basic Input/output
System (BIOS0 which is held in the ROM chip mounted on the motherboard
- After POST, the computer reads some instructions such as the current date and
time from a special memory known as Complementary Metal-Oxide
Semiconductor (CMOS)
- CMOS is powered by a dry cell that mostly resembles that of digital watch. If the
cell is depleted, the computer requires the user to enter the current date and time
- Lastly, a special type of computer program used to manage computers called
Operating System is loaded in the computer memory
Logging on and off the computer
- When the operating system first loads, it requires the user to authenticate
him/herself by providing a user name and a password. This security feature helps
to ensure that only authorized users use the computer.
- This process is called login in the computer. The user may want to leave the
computer for a while without switching it off. This process is called log off and is
done by click start the Log off
Shutting down the computer
- It is important that the user follows the correct procedure of shutting down the
computer at all times.
- If the procedure is not followed, it may result in
1. Loss of data
2. Damage of programs
3. Damage of computer components
- To shut down a computer
• Ensure all the work has been properly saved
• Close all programs that may be currently running
• Click Start then click Turn Off Computer then click Turn off

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Introduction to Microsoft Windows
- Microsoft Windows is a graphical user interface operating system produced ny
Microsoft.
- Windows was first introduced as operating system in 1985
Windows desktop features
- Once you turn on the computer, the first window you see is called Desktop
- The desktop has three main features
1. Background
2. Icon
3. Taskbar
Background
- Background is the work area on the monitor on which in=cons and running tasks
are placed
- You can customize the background by applying theme and wallpapers
Icons
- Icons are manipulated using pointing device such as mouse. Examples of icons are
My computer, Recycle bin, My Document etc.
Taskbar
- Taskbar enable the user to easily switch between different programs and tasks that
are currently running
- The task bar has three
1. Start button: Is the left button on the taskbar that the user clicks to display start
menu.
2. Task manager: This is a band where the button of the currently running program s
are displayed
3. System tray: This is at the right part of the taskbar. It has tasks running at the
background but are not displayed on the screen. Examples are time and calendar,
volume control etc
The start menu items
- When you click start button, a list of choices appears called start menu. The menus
are as follows
1. Program menu: Programs or All Programs menu display a list of programs
installed in the computer
2. My recent documents: It lists the last fifteen recently accessed files
3. Control panel: It provides tools used to maintain and make changes to the
computer setup
4. Search: Helps the user to search for a file or folder
5. Help and support: The help command provides detailed information on how to
use operating system and solve some computer related problems incase computer
fails to function properly
6. Run: it enables us to:
• Install programs on hard disk
• Open files and folders on storage locations

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 • Run programs from removable media without necessarily installing it on
hard disk
7. Log off: To log off is to terminate the current user session
8. Turn Off/shut Computer: This options lets user shut down, restart, make computer
go on standby or hibernate
NB: Hibernate saves everything in memory to disk and turn off the computer while
standby makes the computer consume less power in idle mode but remain available
for immediate use.

MANAGING FILES AND FOLDERS USING WINDOWS

1. Creating a file or folder
• Right click where you want the file/folder to be
• Click New
• Click Folder or any type of file
• Type the name of the file/folder
• Press enter
2. Renaming a file/folder
• Right click the file/folder
• Click Rename
• Type the new name for the file/folder
• Press Enter
3. Deleting a file/folder
• Right click the file/folder
• Click delete
• Click Yes to confirm
NOTE: When a file/folder is deleted from hard drive, it is stored in the Recycle bin of the
computer. To delete permanently from the computer, delete from the Recycle n=bin or
Empty the recycle bin by
• Right click the Recycle bin
• Click Empty Recycle Bin
You may also decide to restore a file that has been deleted and it is in the recycle Bin by
restoring it. This is done by
• Open the Recycle Bin and locate where the file/folder is
• Right click the file/folder
• Click Restore

4. Copying and moving (cutting) files or folder

• Right click the file/folder to copy or cut
• Click Copy or Cut
• Right click where want the file/folder to be
• Click Paste
NB: Copy leaves the original file/folder on same location while taking the duplicate
while Cut takes with the original without leaving a copy of it.

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 5. Sorting files/folders
- Sorting means arranging files and folders in a particular order either alphabetically
or by size or date of last modification or creation.
• Open the folder where the contents to sort are
• Click View then point Arrange Icon By
• Click Name, Size, type or Modified

Manipulating files/folders using Drag and drop

Situations that requires Drag and drop
1. To copy a file/folder: just hold CTRL button key while you drag the file/folder to
a new location
2. To move file from one location to another: simply press the file using mouse nd
drag to a new location
3. To delete a file/folder: Just drag it to the Recycle bin
4. To copy a file/folder from one disk to another: simply drag the item to the
destination drive
5. To move an item: Hold down the shift key while you drag to the new location
To select multiple files
• Click the items while holding the SHIFT or CTRL button
To search for a file
• Click start
• Click search
• Type the name of the file/folder

Parts of an application window

1. Tile bar: This bar displays the name of the current application program or task and
is found on top. On the right of this bar, there are three tiny buttons namely
• Minimize button: It reduces the size of the window
• Restore or maximize button: It stretches the window to cover the entire
desktop or restore it to its original size
• The close button: Used to exit the application
2. Menu bar: Provide list of command that can be used to manipulates a task fo
3. Toolbars: These are buttons arranged in a row and are shortcut to menu
commands
4. Document window: Is a work area where you can create our document
5. Status bar: Is interactive strip at the bottom of the window that act as
communication link between the user and the application
6. Scroll button: Are horizontal and vertical buttons at the borders of the window
used to scroll through a long document.

ALL THE BEST AS YOU ARE STUDYING THIS COURSE. COMPUTER STUDIES IS THE
BEST AND SIMPLE SUBJECT TO PASS

REMEMBER FAILING TO PREPARE IS PREPARING TO FAIL

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