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Pragmatics 02

The document discusses implicature, presupposition, and entailment as types of implicit information in communication, emphasizing how speakers often convey more than what is explicitly stated. It outlines Grice's cooperative principle and conversational maxims, which guide effective communication by assuming speakers are cooperative and adhering to principles of quality, quantity, relevance, and manner. Additionally, it explores the concept of flouting maxims, where speakers intentionally do not follow these guidelines to imply deeper meanings or create conversational implicatures.

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2 views

Pragmatics 02

The document discusses implicature, presupposition, and entailment as types of implicit information in communication, emphasizing how speakers often convey more than what is explicitly stated. It outlines Grice's cooperative principle and conversational maxims, which guide effective communication by assuming speakers are cooperative and adhering to principles of quality, quantity, relevance, and manner. Additionally, it explores the concept of flouting maxims, where speakers intentionally do not follow these guidelines to imply deeper meanings or create conversational implicatures.

Uploaded by

kafmenn
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Implicature, the cooperative principles,

conversational maxims 03

Implicit information
Leech – speakers often mean more than they say

Types of implicit information (what the hearer assumes, based on what is


said)
- Presupposition
- Entailment
- Implicature
Presupposition
- Something must be true in order for a statement / question / request
to make sense
- Foundation for a statement / question / request
- The King of France was guillotined by the revolutionaries.
- (presupposition = the King of France existed at the time of the
revolution)

Entailment
- Conclusion drawn from something that is said
- logical consequences
- If A is true, then B also must be true (B = entailment)
- The King of France was guillotined by the revolutionaries.
- (entailment = the King of France is dead)´
- "Mary has three children" entails that Mary has at least one child
and that the number of children Mary has is exactly three.

Implicature
- the information that is suggested (but not expressed explicitly)
• conventional implicature
- Word / Phrase conventionally suggests an implicit meaning
- Agreed meaning of a word / phrase
- Even Ken knows it’s unethical.
- Ken was in Chicago last week too.
- Some people have a baby and get married, others get married and
have a baby.
- Don’t drink and drive.
- Ken missed the meeting after his car broke down.
o conventional implicature = Ken missed the meeting because
his car broke down.
o entailments = Ken’s car was immobile. He did not attend the
meeting.
o presuppositions = There was a meeting. Ken had a car.
• conversational implicature
- how we imply things
- how we infer things (how we interpret what others imply)
- not due to the conventional (“agreed”) meanings of a word/phrase, but
through other mechanisms
- In an office. Two colleagues, one phone. The phone starts ringing.
- Colleague 1: The phone’s ringing.
- Colleague 2: I’ll get it.
- conversational implicature can be ambiguous …

The cooperative principle and conversational maxims

Grice - theory of conversational implicature

- how we imply and interpret implied meanings


- Cooperative principle
o People assume that a speaker is being “cooperative”
- Conversational Maxims
o Quality
 Do not say what you believe to be false.
 Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence
o Quantity
 Make your contribution as informative as is required for the
current purposes of the exchange.
 Do not make your contribution more informative than is
required.
o Relevance
 Make your contribution relevant.
o Manner
 Avoid obscurity of expression.
 Avoid ambiguity.
 Be brief.
 Be orderly
- Maxims are not normative but descriptive (what people assume to be
happening when they are communicating with others)
- Cooperative communication simply means behaving in such a way that
people will understand us
- Not obeying the maxims does not mean communication will fail

- Cooperative behaviour: John and Mary are at a party.


- John: It’s getting late, Mary.
- Mary: - Do you want to go home?
- - Are you really that bored?
- - Do you think so?
- - So what?
- - Am I meant to be interested in your observations?
- - Fuck off, John.

- What is ‘uncooperative’ behaviour?

- Why don’t you look behind Volume 6 of Dostoyevsky’s Collected Works?

Flouting maxims
- deliberate non-observance of one or more maxims
- we assume that the cooperative principle is being followed
- this causes us to look for other meanings > those meanings are
conversational implicatures

- A: Where’s the roast beef? I left it here on the table.


- B: The dog looks very happy.
- - B flouts the maxim of relevance (by not giving a direct answer)
- - but we assume that B is behaving cooperatively
- - so we seek an implied meaning
Flouting the maxim of quality
- saying something that is obviously false (not the same as lying!)
- what is being implied?
- flouting the maxim of quality is the driving force behind irony
(sarcasm)
- we have to somehow signal to the hearer that we are flouting the
maxim and being ironic
- Doorman: I need to see your ID, it’s the rule.
- Woman: But I left it back at the hotel.
- Doorman: Sorry ma’am, then I can’t let you in.
- Woman: But I’m twenty-nine years old and the mother of two
children!
- Doorman: Yes, and I’m the pope’s grandfather and I have twenty-
nine kids.
- A: I’m going to buy a lottery ticket – you never know, I might win!
- B: Yeah right, just like you win the lottery every time you buy a
ticket.
Flouting the maxim of quantity
- saying too little or too much
- we seek interpretations (why is the speaker saying too little or too
much? what is being implied by this behaviour?)
Interviewer: So, Sir Alex, Manchester United gave a truly outstanding
performance here
today – scoring six goals against their main rivals for the title, and keeping
it
very tight in defence. And playing some of the best football we’ve seen
in the Premier League this season. So, were you satisfied with the game?
- Manager: Yes.
Flouting the maxim of relevance
A: Do you fancy a game of tennis?
B: It’s raining.
- Issue with this maxim -> can it be even flouted ?
- Relevance theory (Sperber and Wilson)
o Simplification of the maxims (minimalist theory)
o Only 1 principle – relevance
o The principle of relevance applies without exceptions
o But: Does the principle of relevance apply “without exception”
even in the following conversational exchanges?
 A Do you fancy coming for a beer tonight?
 B: My aunt has just bought a bicycle.
 A: Do you fancy coming for a beer tonight?
 B: The capital city of Zambia is Lusaka.
o Flouting the maxim of relevance by changing the subject
o - What is the implicature?
o - Is the maxim actually flouted?
 A: That Mrs. Johnson really is a silly old cow, isn’t she?
 B: The weather really has been lovely this week, hasn’t
it?
 A: Do you love me?
 B: I think we need to get some more petrol.
Flouting the maxim of manner
- being deliberately ambiguous or confusing
- we seek interpretations (why is the speaker being ambiguous or
confusing? what is being implied through this behaviour?)
- (a student speaking to a teacher)
- student: Did you get the assignment I left for you?
- teacher: I received two pieces of paper covered in rows of black
squiggles.
- (two parents speaking to each other)
- A: Let’s get the kids something.
- B: OK, but not I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.

Other types of non-observance of the maxims


1. Flouting
2. Violating a maxim
a. lying = consciously misleading the hearer
b. (after returning from the hairdresser)
c. Woman: How do you like my hair?
d. Man: Oh wow, you look stunning!
e. vs.
f. I preferred it the way you had it before. Now it just makes you
look older, and
g. it makes your face look a bit fatter too.
3. Infringing a maxim
a. unconscious non-observance
4. Opting out of a maxim
a. indicating that one is unwilling to cooperate in the way
required by the maxim
b. (i.e. non-cooperative behaviour)
c. Excuse me, do you know where the nearest post office is?
d. - Yes. (walks away)
5. Suspending a maxim¨
a. there is no expectation that the maxim will be observed
b.

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