2 Cells

What are livingorganismsmade of?

Annawoke up the night.She had a horrible
in pain around her middle
and was very sick.She triedreally hard to go back to sleep.but the pain
kept her awake and she was sick again. I n the morning, her mum took her
to hospitalto see what was wrong. The doctor who examined her said she
had appendicitisand would need an operationstraightaway to remove
her appendix.Severalhours Anna feltmuch better.
later, When her
her,he answered some of her questions.
Surgeon visited
'Whatis an appendix?Why did you have to takeit out? Where is it now?'
asked Anna one afterthe other.The surgeonsmiled and answered, Your
system.It had become infectedand
appendixis an organ in your digestive
That is why you were in so much pain.So we decidedto remove
inflamed.
it.And here it is!'.

That's
one of my
organs!

Organs
YOur bodycontains many differentparts.These partsare calledorgans
Plants and animals,are made up of differentorgans.Usually,each of3a
has a particular
taskor functionthatit carries
out.The appendiXIS
unusualbecauseit is of no use to us.It does not have a function.
The diagramsopposite you
show some organs in plant and a human. Do
a
know what they all
are?

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 2 Cells

A E

D
appendix

1 Copythistableand add anotherfiverows.Then fillin

the name and functionof eachorgan.The firstone has
been done foryou.

Organ Name Function

A flower helpswithreproduction
B This means
C thejobthat
theorgan
does.

What are organsmade of?

If animalsand plantsare made up of organs,

then
what do you thinkorgans might be made of?

No-one knew the answerto thisquestionuntilmagnifyinglensesand

microscopeswere invented.This happened in the seventeenthcentury.

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 Soon, many peoplewho were interested
in the world around them had bought a
lensor a microscope. RobertHooke, an
Englishscientist, was one of thesepeople.
In 1665, he cut some thin slices from a
piece of cork.He looked at the cork slices
throughhis microscope.
Hooke saw thatthe cork was made up of
lotsof tinyboxes.He calledtheseboxes
cells. He wrote book aboutthethings
a

he had seen with his microscope.The

book included thisdrawing of what he RobertHooke'sdrawingof
saw. cork cells.

As timewent on,the designof microscopesgotbetterand better. Peonle Yo

could see smallthings more and more clearly. Today.we have microscones TO

I
that allow us to see reallytiny things
very clearly.

Wo
'Us
These photographsshow some differentparts of differentorganisms.
seen

MICH
througha microscope.Can you see what they allhave in common?

Partof a pondweed leaf. Partof a sunflowerleaf.

You
TO

D
Wor
'Loc
CELL'

'Loc
ANIN

HUAWEI P30 Pro kidney.

LEICA QUADTCAMERA Part of a
 Calls

2
You can probablysee that allof these partsare made up of 'boxes'- like
Hooke'spieceof cork. Throughout the seventeenth many
century,
different lookedat many different
scientists partsof plantsand animals.
No matterwhat theylooked at.they alwayssaw that it was made of tiny
boxes'.BecauseHooke had called theseboxes cells,everyone else used
thatword too.

by 1839,two German scientists,

Eventually. Schleiden and Schwann.
decidedthatalllivingthings must be made up of cells.This is sometimes
called
the celltheory.

Using microscopeto lookat cells

a

YoU MAY BE ABLE

are very small,
Cells so ifyou want to see them you have to use a

TO DO
microscope.
WORKSHEET B1,

"USING A

MICROSCOPE'.

eyepiece
objectivelenses

glass slide
stage

focusingknobs mirror

The partsof a microscope.

YoU MAY BE ABLE The piece of animalor plant that you want tolook at is calledthe
TO DO specimen. You willneed to put it on a smallpiece of glasscalleda slide.
WORKSHEETS B3
Usually,an even smallerpiece of glass,calleda coverslip. is put on top of
"LoOKING AT PLANT
the specimen, to hold it in place.The slideis then put onto the stageof
CELLS' AND B4
themicroscope.
'LoOKING AT
ANIMAL CELLS'. Light from lamp is reflectedby the mirror throughthe slideand then
a

throughthe microscope's lenses.When you look down the microscope. you

see a magnifiedimage of part of the specimen.

specimenthat you want

Why does a tolook at through
a microscopeneed to be verythin?

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 The photographsand drawingsshow what some of thesecellsmight
look like.

Photographof onion cells. Photographof cheek cells.

Drawing of onion cells.

Drawing of cheek cells.

The structureof cells

These diagramsshowwhat an animal cell and a plant cell
look like.
The
first
diagramof each pair shows what thewhole cellmight look
like.

Theseconddiagramshows what itwould look like if you slicedit in

halr
throughthemiddle. This is called
a cross-section.
We usuallydraw
diagramsof cellsIikethis,becausethenwe can show allthethingsinsiae
them much more clearly.

An animal cellas seenfromthe outside. seenfrom the outside.

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 2 Cells
cell
membrane
cellmembrane
cellwal|
chloroplast

cytoplasm nucleus cytoplasm largevacuole nucleus

An animal as a
cell cross-section. A plantcellas a cross-section.

Most of a cell is made up of a watery.jelly-like

substancecalled
cytoplasm.
Cytoplasmisn't
usuallycoloured.so it can be difficult
to see.If
you worked throughWorksheetB4 and lookedat some of your cheek cells,
you probablyadded a bluestainto them.The cytoplasmsoaked up this
stain,so it lookedblue.The cytoplasmis whereallthe reactions
happen
that keep thecellalive.
Youmay have been abletosee a darkishspot insidethe cellsthatyou
looked at under a microscope.This is calledthe nucleus of the cell.Almost
cellshave a nucleus.The nucleuscontrolswhat the celldoes.
all

Allcellshave acellmembrane. This is an extremelythinlayerall around

the outsideof the cell. and flexible,
It is very delicate ratherlikethe skin
on a soap bubble. The cell membrane has a very importantfunction it -
controlswhat is allowed togo in and out of the cell.

Plantcellshave something which no animal cellever has.They have strong

a
cellwall allaround them.The cell wallis made of millionsof tiny,criss
crossedfibresof a substancecalledcellulose. The cell wallhelpsto hold the
of water seeps into the cell.
cellin shape,and stopsit burstingif a lot
vacuole.
Many plant cellshave a largespaceinsidethe cytoplasmcalleda
calledsap. The sap containssubstances
The vacuoleis filledwitha liquid,
thatthe plant cellmay need to survive,such as sugars.
calledchloroplasts. Chloroplasts
Some plant cellscontaingreen structures
green substance calledchlorophyll.
lookgreen becausethey contain a

T his energy is used by the plant

absorbsenergy from sunlight.
Chlorophyll
to make food.Thisprocessis called
cell photosynthesis.

cellin a
once said thata plant cellis likean animal
scientist
A

box.Do youthinkthatis a good description

?

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 2 Why do you thinkthe onioncellsthatyou lookedat
don'thave
chloroplasts?
3 Copy thistable.
Then fill
in allthespacesto make comparison
a

between animalcellsand plantcells.

Part of cell Do animalcells Do plantcells What is itsfunction?

have it? have it?
cytoplasm yes yes Thisis where
nucleus reactionshappen.
cell
membrane
cell wall
vacuole
chloroplast
Sperm
functi
4 Which of thesephotographsshow animalcells,
and whichshow plant Head
cells?How can you tell
the difference? nucle
join w
A B

Palisa
surface
of sunli
making

Many
captu
and u

A palis

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 2 Cells

Special
kinds of cells
Youhave already seen many different
kindsof cells.
Imagine how many
different
sorts there must be in allthe different
kindsof livingorganisms in
the world!

You know thatall animal cellshave a nucleus.cytoplasmand a cell

membrane.Even so, they can stillbe very different
from one another.

In a human, there are many differentkinds of cells,

each with a particular
functionto carryout.Each kind of cellis saidto be specialisedfor its
function.Here are some examples.

Their
Sperm cellsarevery small. Whiteblood cellsattack and destroybacteriain thebody.
functionis tofertilise
an egg.
Tiny granulesin Cytoplasmis
ableto flow
Head containing the thecytoplasm
nucleus, which will contain chemicals around a
bacteriumand
joinwith theegg called enzymes,
which destroy trapit inside
Long tail,
to help the thebacteria. the cell.

toSwim
sperm cell
towardstheegg

sperm cell. white blood cell.

A
A

Root hair cellsabsorbwater

Palisadecellsare found near theupper
wheretheyget plenty and minerals from thesoil.
surfaceof a leaf,
They photosynthesise,
of sunlight.
making glucoseand starch. No chloroplastsas
thereis no sunlight
below ground.

root gives
Long, thin extension
hairs the a large surface area.
cell
This speeds up therateat
Many chloroplasts,which
which waterand minerals
captureenergy from sunlight roottip
can enter thecell.
and use it forphotosynthesis

root haircellfrom a plantroot.

A
palisadecellfrom a plantleaf.
A
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 Do you thinkan elephant
has biggercellsthan a
human? Or,
do you thinkelephantcellsare thesame sizeas human cells,
butthereare more of them? How couldyou findout?
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CAMERA
Cells,
tissues
and organs
A plant leafis an exampleof an organ,and it is
look at a leafedge on, made up of cells.If you
you might think thereis onlyroom
of cells.However,the forone layer
cellsare so tiny that
severallayers.
thereis actuallyroom for

The yellow
patch on
has burrowedthisholly leafis vwhere a tinyinsectlarva,called
a leaf
miner,
betweenthe top and bottomlayers of theleaf. It has

eatenthecellsinside.
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 2 Cells

There are severaldifferent

kinds of cellsin a leaf.
If you cut a very
sliceoutof a leafand thin
lookedat it under a
likethis. microscope, it would look
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upper
epidermis

palisade
mesophyll

spongy
mesophyll

lower
epidermis

Thisdrawingshows
thedifferent in theleaf.
tissues

5 How many different kinds of cellscan you see in theleaf?

6 Which cellscan make food by photosynthesis? How can you tell?
Youcan see that thedifferent
inds of cellsare not just scatteredanywhere.
They are arrangedinlayers.withsimilarcellstogether.
Forexample,all of the cells
on the surfaceof the leafare quitethin,and
they don't
have chloroplasts.Just beneaththem is a layerof tall,
thin cells
withchloroplasts.And underneaththoseis a layerof more rounded cells
with big spacesbetween them.
Each of thesegroupsof cellsis calleda tissue. A tissueis a group of similar
cellswhichare all carryingout the same function. Each organ in a plantor
a human is made up of different tissues,al containingspecialised cells
example, the skin, the brain and the liver.
grouped together, for

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 Where come from?
do new cells
New cellscome from fullygrown cellsandare made when oldercells
divideinto two.

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This diagramshows how a celldividesintotwo.

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An animalcell The nucleus has The cellis beginning The cellhas divided.
CAMERA
abouttodivide. divided. to divide.

How an animal celldivides.

E2 7 Which partof thecelldividesfirst?

8 What do you thinkhas to happen tothetwo new cellsbeforethey
willbe abletodivide
again?

You MAY BE ABLE Whenever a cell divides,

it is alwaysthenucleus thatdivides You
first.
TO DO know thatthenucleus controls what the celldoes.The nucleus contains
WORKSHEET B10, informationthattellsthe cellwhat to grow into andwhat to do.So it is
'INVESTIGATING
absolutely for each new celltoget a completeset of this
essential
CELLS IN
information.
FILAMENTOUS

ALGAE'. Just beforethe celldivides,

theinformation
in the nucleus is copied.So
now thereare two fullsetsof this information.
When the nucleusdivides.
one completeset of information goes into each new nucleus.So, when the
whole celldivides into two new cells,
eachone gets all the information it

needs to tell
it togrow and behave in therightway.

30
 2 Cells

New skin forburns victims

Jackwas badly burned when he was nine years old.This is what he said
about how it happened.
LEICA

"Well,
I was playingwithmatches. Iwas sittingon a 250 litretank of fuel.
HLAWEI
The next thing |knew I was engulfed
in flames.'

QUAD
Jack'slegs were very badlyburned.Therewas not much skin lefton them.
P3O Apart from beingvery painful,this is verydangerous.
Withoutskin,thereis
nothingto stopthecellsunderneath from drying outand dying.
Also.itis
Pro easyforbacteriatoget in and cause infections.
Usually. theskin cellsaroundthe wound
if you cut or grazeyour skin,
CAMERA
divideto form new ones.The new cellsspreadout over the wound and
together
stick toform new skin tissue. But.iftheburn is very deep and
very widespread, thentheskin cellsthatare leftcan'tcope with this.Even
when theydo manage to make new skin,it takes a very long time. So
peoplewith bad burns are oftengiven skin grafts.Small piecesof skin are
taken from other partsof theirbody,and put onto the wound.

Now a new way of producingnew skin is being used. A few of the

patient'sown skin cellsare removed. They are put into a warm solution
containingallthenutrientstheyneed.They grow and divide, grow and
divide,
forming a newsheetof skin.They can produce a piece of skin
200 timesthesizeof thesample taken from the patientin aboutthreeor
fourweeks.This skin is sometimesknown as tissue-engineered skin.It can
thenbe placed over theburned areas.where it formsa new layerof
skin.
protective
Jack'sburns were treatedwithtissue-engineered skin.He does have scars,
but he says,'Atleast I still even if they aren'tpretty.
have my legs,

a Explain why deep and widespread burns may threatena person's life.

b Suggest why skingraftingis oftenimpossibleif a person has widespread

burns.
to be
c Why do youthink theskin produced by thenew technique is said
engineered'?
tosavemore lives
d Suggest two reasonswhy the new technique
is likely

thantheold skin graftingmethod.

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 Key ideas

Now thatyou have completedthischapter,

you shouldknow:

•thatplants and animalsare made of organs,thatorgansare made

up of tissues
and thattissues
are made up of cells

LEICA • how to use a microscope.

how to
prepare slidesforviewingwitha
microscope,and how to make cleardrawingsof what you can see
HUAWEI
usinga microscope
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P30
•how RobertHooke and other scientistshelpedto increaseour
knowledgeaboutcells

Pro
• andthe important
what plantand animalcellslook like, similarities
betweenthem
and differences

•thefunctionsof thecellmembrane, cytoplasm,nucleus,

CAMERA
cellwall
and vacuoles
chloroplasts in a cell

about how thestructureof some specialised -

cells Such as sperm
whiteblood cells,
cells, root hair cellsand palisadecells- adapts
them for their
functions
• that new cellsare formed by the division
of fully-growncells
• that cell alwaysbeginswiththe divisionof the nucleus.
division

Key words
cell nucleus
cellmembrane
organ
celltheory photosynthesis
wall
cell
sap
cellulose slide

chlorophyll specialise
chloroplast specimen
coverslip tissue
cytoplasm vacuole
function

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