SUBJECT: ECP (ESSENTIAL OF COMPUTER AND

PROGRAMMING)
Unit 3: Introduction to Internet and Concept of Network
What Is the Internet?
The internet is a global network of interconnected computers, servers, phones, and smart
appliances that communicate with each other using the transmission control protocol (TCP)
standard to enable a fast exchange of information and files, along with other types of services.

History of the Internet

The Internet came in the year 1960 with the creation of the first working model
called ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency). It allowed multiple computers to work
on a single network which was their biggest achievement at that time. ARPANET uses packet
switching to communicate multiple computer systems under a single network. In October 1969,
using ARPANET first message was transferred from one computer to another. After that
technology continues to grow.

How Does the Internet Work?

The process of transferring information over the internet from one device to another relies on
packet switching. The internet is a packet-routing network that uses IP and TCP protocols for
communication. When a person visits a website, their computer or mobile device sends a request
to the server over one of these protocols.
The actual working of the internet takes place with the help of clients and servers. Here the client
is a laptop that is directly connected to the internet and servers are the computers connected
indirectly to the Internet and they are having all the websites stored in those large computers. These
servers are connected to the internet with the help of ISP (Internet Service Providers) and will be
identified with the IP address.
Each website has its Domain name as it is difficult for any person to always remember the long
numbers or strings. So, whenever you search for any domain name in the search bar of the browser
the request will be sent to the server and that server will try to find the IP address from the Domain
name because it cannot understand the domain name. After getting the IP address the server will
try to search the IP address of the Domain name in a Huge phone directory that in networking is
known as a DNS server (Domain Name Server). For example, if we have the name of a person and
we can easily find the Aadhaar number of him/her from the long directory as simple as that.
So after getting the IP address, the browser will pass on the further request to the respective server
and now the server will process the request to display the content of the website which the client
wants. If you are using a wireless medium of Internet like 3G and 4G or other mobile data then the
data will start flowing from the optical cables and will first reach towers from there the signals
will reach your cell phones and PCs through electromagnetic waves and if you are using routers
then optical fiber connecting to your router will help in connecting those light-induced signals to
electrical signals and with the help of ethernet cables internet reaches your computers and hence
the required information.

Uses of the Internet

Some of the important usages of the internet are:
• Online Businesses (E-commerce): Online shopping websites have made our life easier,
e-commerce sites like Amazon, Flipkart, and Myntra are providing very spectacular
services with just one click and this is a great use of the Internet.
• Cashless Transactions: All the merchandising companies are offering services to their
customers to pay the bills of the products online via various digital payment apps like
Paytm, Google Pay, etc. UPI payment gateway is also increasing day by day. Digital
payment industries are growing at a rate of 50% every year too because of the
INTERNET.
• Education: It is the internet facility that provides a whole bunch of educational material
to everyone through any server across the web. Those who are unable to attend physical
classes can choose any course from the internet and can have point-to-point knowledge of
it just by sitting at home. High-class faculties are teaching online on digital platforms and
providing quality education to students with the help of the Internet.
• Social Networking: The purpose of social networking sites and apps is to connect people
all over the world. With the help of social networking sites, we can talk, and share videos,
and images with our loved ones when they are far away from us. Also, we can create
groups for discussion or for meetings.
• Entertainment: The Internet is also used for entertainment. There are numerous
entertainment options available on the internet like watching movies, playing games,
listening to music, etc. You can also download movies, games, songs, TV Serial, etc.,
easily from the internet.

Advantages of the Internet

• Online Banking and Transaction: The Internet allows us to transfer money online
through the net banking system. Money can be credited or debited from one account to the
other.
• Education, Online Jobs, Freelancing: Through the Internet, we are able to get more jobs
via online platforms like Linkedin and to reach more job providers. Freelancing on the
other hand has helped the youth to earn a side income and the best part is all this can be
done via the INTERNET.
 • Entertainment: There are numerous options for entertainment online we can listen to
music, play games can watch movies, and web series, and listen to podcasts, youtube itself
is a hub of knowledge as well as entertainment.
• New Job Roles: The Internet has given us access to social media, and digital products so
we are having numerous new job opportunities like digital marketing and social media
marketing online businesses are earning huge amounts of money just because the Internet
is the medium to help us to do so.
• Best Communication Medium: The communication barrier has been removed from the
Internet. You can send messages via email, Whatsapp, and Facebook. Voice chatting and
video conferencing are also available to help you to do important meetings online.
• Comfort to humans: Without putting any physical effort you can do so many things like
shopping online it can be anything from stationeries to clothes, books to personal items,
etc. You can books train and plane tickets online.
• GPS Tracking and google maps: Yet another advantage of the internet is that you are able
to find any road in any direction, and areas with less traffic with the help of GPS on your
mobile.

Disadvantages of the Internet

• Time Wastage: Wasting too much time on the internet surfing social media apps and doing
nothing decreases your productivity rather than wasting time on scrolling social media apps
one should utilize that time in doing something skillful and even more productive.
• Bad Impacts on Health: Spending too much time on the internet causes bad impacts on
your health physical body needs some outdoor games exercise and many more things.
Looking at the screen for a longer duration causes serious impacts on the eyes.
• Cyber Crimes: Cyberbullying, spam, viruses, hacking, and stealing data are some of the
crimes which are on the verge these days. Your system which contains all the confidential
data can be easily hacked by cybercriminals.
• Effects on Children: Small children are heavily addicted to the Internet watching movies,
and games all the time is not good for their overall personality as well as social
development.
• Bullying and Spreading Negativity: The Internet has given a free tool in the form of
social media apps to all those people who always try to spread negativity with very
revolting and shameful messages and try to bully each other which is wrong.
Application of the Internet
1. Communication
• Email: Facilitates quick, cost-effective communication worldwide.
• Social Media: Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and LinkedIn allow people to
connect, share, and interact.
• Messaging: Instant messaging platforms like WhatsApp, Telegram, and Slack enable real-
time communication.
• Video Conferencing: Services like Zoom, Skype, and Microsoft Teams allow virtual face-
to-face meetings and collaboration.
2. Education
• Online Learning: Platforms like Coursera, Khan Academy, and edX provide courses and
certifications on a variety of topics.
• E-books and Research: Students and professionals access vast amounts of digital
resources, including journals, books, and articles.
• Virtual Classrooms: Tools such as Google Classroom and Moodle enable educators and
students to interact, share materials, and conduct assessments remotely.
3. E-commerce
• Online Shopping: Websites like Amazon, eBay, and Alibaba offer products and services,
changing the way people shop.
• Online Payment Systems: Platforms like PayPal, Stripe, and mobile wallets like Apple
Pay facilitate digital transactions.
4. Entertainment
• Streaming Services: Platforms such as Netflix, YouTube, and Spotify provide on-demand
movies, TV shows, music, and podcasts.
• Online Gaming: Multiplayer games and platforms such as Steam and Epic Games connect
gamers globally.
5. Information Retrieval
• Search Engines: Google, Bing, and Yahoo! help people find information on virtually any
topic.
• News and Blogs: People can access the latest news from sites like BBC, CNN, or personal
blogs for diverse perspectives.
6. Cloud Computing
 • Storage and Data Management: Services like Google Drive, Dropbox, and iCloud allow
users to store, back up, and access files remotely.
• Cloud-Based Software: Tools like Google Docs and Microsoft 365 offer web-based
applications for productivity and collaboration.
7. Social and Political Activism
• Advocacy and Awareness Campaigns: The internet facilitates the spread of social,
environmental, and political movements, helping organize protests, petitions, and
awareness campaigns.
• Petitions and Crowdfunding: Platforms like Change.org and GoFundMe allow people to
raise funds or support causes.
8. Remote Work and Telecommuting
• Work-from-home Tools: Virtual private networks (VPNs), project management tools like
Trello, and cloud-based services allow professionals to work remotely from anywhere in
the world.
• Freelancing Platforms: Websites like Upwork and Fiverr provide a marketplace for
freelance work, connecting employers with skilled workers globally.
9. Healthcare
• Telemedicine: Doctors can consult with patients remotely, providing medical advice and
prescriptions without in-person visits.
• Health Monitoring: Internet-enabled devices like wearables and mobile apps allow users
to track their health metrics and share data with healthcare providers.
10. Banking and Finance
• Online Banking: Banks offer mobile apps and websites for managing accounts,
transferring money, and paying bills.
• Cryptocurrencies: Blockchain technology allows decentralized financial transactions and
digital assets like Bitcoin and Ethereum.
11. Research and Development
• Collaboration: Researchers and institutions use the internet to share findings, collaborate
across borders, and access global knowledge.
• Open Source Projects: Platforms like GitHub allow developers to share and collaborate
on software projects.
What is a Computer Network?
Definition – A group of computers which are connected to each other and follow similar usage
protocols for the purpose of sharing information and having communications provided by the
networking nodes is called a Computer Network.

Introduction to Computer Network:

A computer network is a group of devices connected with each other through a transmission
medium such as wires, cables etc. These devices can be computers, printers, scanners, Fax
machines etc.
The purpose of having computer network is to send and receive data stored in other devices over
the network. These devices are often referred as nodes.
There are five basic components of a computer network:

Message: It is the data or information which needs to be transferred from one device to another
device over a computer network.
Sender: Sender is the device that has the data and needs to send the data to other device connected
to
the network.
Receiver: A receiver is the device which is expecting the data from other device on the network.
Transmission media: In order to transfer data from one device to another device we need a
transmission media such as wires, cables, radio waves etc.
Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that are agreed by both sender and receiver, without a protocol
two devices can be connected to each other but they cannot communicate. In order to establish a
reliable communication or data sharing between two different devices we need set of rules that are
called protocol. For example, http and https are the two protocols used by web browsers to get and
post the data to internet; similarly SMTP protocol is used by email services connected to the
internet.

How Does a Computer Network Work?

Basics building blocks of a Computer network are Nodes and Links. A Network Node can be
illustrated as Equipment for Data Communication like a Modem, Router, etc., or Equipment of a
Data Terminal like connecting two computers or more. Link in Computer Networks can be defined
as wires or cables or free space of wireless networks.
The working of Computer Networks can be simply defined as rules or protocols which help in
sending and receiving data via the links which allow Computer networks to communicate. Each
device has an IP Address that helps in identifying a device
Basic Terminologies of Computer Networks:
Network: A network is a collection of computers and devices that are connected together
toenable communication and data exchange.
Nodes: Nodes are devices that are connected to a network. These can include computers,
Servers, Printers, Routers, Switches and other devices.
Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules and standards that govern how data is transmitted over a
network. Examples of protocols include TCP/IP, HTTP and FTP.
Topology: Network topology refers to the physical and logical arrangement of nodes on a
network. The common network topologies include bus, star, ring, mesh and tree.
Service Provider Networks: These types of Networks give permission to take Network
Capacity and Functionality on lease from the Provider. Service Provider Networks include
Wireless Communications, Data Carriers, etc.
IP Address: An IP address is a unique numerical identifier that is assigned to every device on a
network. IP addresses are used to identify devices and enable communication between them.
DNS: The Domain Name System (DNS) is a protocol that is used to translate human-readable
domain names (such as www.google.com) into IP addresses that computers can understand.
Firewall: A firewall is a security device that is used to monitor and control incoming and
outgoing network traffic. Firewalls are used to protect networks from unauthorized access and
other security threats.
Features of a Computer Network:

A computer network has following features:

Performance: Performance of a computer network is measured in terms of response time. The
response time of sending and receiving data from one node (computer in a computer network are
often referred as node) to another should be minimal.
Data Sharing: One of the reason, why we use a computer network is to share the data between
different systems connected with each other through a transmission media.
Backup: A computer network must have a central server that keeps the backup of all the data that
is to be shared over a network so that in case of a failure it should be able to recover the data faster.
Software and hardware compatibility: A computer network must not limit all the computers in a
computer network to use same software and hardware; instead it should allow the better
compatibility between the different software and hardware configuration.
Reliability: There should not be any failure in the network or if it occurs the recovery from a
failure should be fast.
Security: A computer network should be secure so that the data transmitting over a network
should
be safe from unauthorized access. Also, the sent data should be received as it is at the receiving
node,
which means there should not be any loss of data during transmission.
Scalability: A computer network should be scalable which means it should always allow adding
new
computers (or nodes) to the already existing computer network. For example, a company runs 100
computers over a computer network for their 100 employees, let’s say they hire another 100
employees and want to add new 100 computers to the already existing LAN then in that case the
local area computer network should allow this.
The sharing of data can occur through the two feasible ways:
1. Physical cable media, such as fiber-optical cable, twisted pair etc.
2. Wireless methods such as Wi-Fi, radio communication and microwave transmission. An
example of a network is the tern LAPLINK, which allows you to copy files from one device to
another device over a specific parallel port to be considered a computer network. Another example
specified here is that we all may use it in our daily lives, i.e., the internet.
Some various types of networks are LAN, MAN, WAN etc.
There are various types of networks that can be used for different functions:
LAN: Local area networks are mainly used to connect personal devices within a few
kilometers of a limited area. These networks are used in offices, companies and factories to
exchange data and Information.
MAN: Metropolitan area networks are used to connect the devices over an entire city under
the range of up to 50 km. These networks are used in the telephone company network and cable
TV network.
WAN: Wide Area Networks are used in the wide geological range over a country and
continent. These networks are used in military services, mobile operators, railways and airlines
reservations.
PAN: Personal area networks appropriate to personal or separate workspace under the range
of 10 meters. These networks are mostly used to connect tablets, smartphones and laptops.
 CAN: Campus area networks are used to connect limited geographic areas. CAN interconnect
multiple local area networks (LAN) within Colleges, Universities, Corporates buildings, etc.
Application of computer networks:
1. Resource Sharing:
Resource sharing is an application of a computer network. Resource sharing means you can share
one Hardware and Software among multiple users. Hardware includes printers, Disks, Fax
Machines,
etc. Computing devices. And Software includes Atom, Oracle VM Virtual Box, Postman, Android
Studio, etc.
2. Information Sharing:
Using a Computer network, we can share Information over the network, and it provides Search
capabilities such as WWW. Over the network, single information can be shared among the many
users over the internet.
3. Communication:
Communication includes email, calls, message broadcast, electronic funds transfer system etc.
4. Entertainment Industry:
In Entertainment industry also uses computer networks widely. Some of the Entertainment
industries are Video on demand, Multiperson real-time simulation games, movie/TV programs,
etc.
5. Access to Remote Databases: Computer networks allow us to access the Remote Database of
the various applications by the end-users. Some applications are Reservation for Hotels, Airplane
Booking, Home Banking, Automated Newspaper, Automated Library etc.
6. Home applications:
There are many common uses of the computer network are as home applications. For example,
you can consider user-to-user communication, access to remote instruction, electronic commerce
and entertainment. Another way is managing bank accounts, transferring money to some other
banks, paying bills electronically. A computer network arranges a robust connection mechanism
between users.
7. Business applications:
The result of business application here is resource sharing. And the purpose of resource sharing is
that without moving to the physical location of the resource, all the data, plans and tools can be
shared to any network user. Most of the companies are doing business electronically with other
companies and with other clients worldwide with the help of a computer network.
8. Mobile users:
The rapidly growing sectors in computer applications are mobile devices like notebook computers
and PDAs (personal digital assistants). Here mobile users/device means portable device. The
computer network is widely used in new-age technology like smartwatches, wearable devices,
tablets,online transactions, purchasing or selling products online, etc.
9. Social media:
Social media is also a great example of a computer network application. It helps people to share
and
receive any information related to political, ethical and social issues.

❖ Types of Computer Networks:

1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)

1. Local Area Network (LAN)

As the name suggests, the local area network is a computer network that operates in a small area,
i.e., it connects computers in a small geographical area like within an office, company, school or
any other organization. So, it exists within a specific area, e.g. home network, office network,
school network etc. A local area network may be a wired or wireless network or a combination of
both. The devices in a LAN are generally connected using an Ethernet cable, which offers an
interface to connect multiple devices like router, switches, and computers. For example, using a single
router, few Ethernet cables, and computers, you can create a LAN at your home, office, etc. In
this network, one computer may act as a server and other computers, which are part of the
network, may serve as clients.

Features of LAN:
o The network size is small, which consists of only a few kilometres.
o The data transmission rate is high, ranging from 100 Mbps to 1000 Mbps.
o LAN is included in bus, ring, mesh and star topologies.
o Some network devices connected to the LAN will be limited.
o If more devices are added than prescribed network may fail.

Benefits of LAN:
o It offers a higher operating speed than WAN and MAN.
o It is less expensive and easy to install and maintain.
o It perfectly fulfills the requirement of a specific organization, such as an office, school, etc.
o It can be wired or wireless or a combination of both.
o It is more secure than other networks as it is a small set up that can be easily taken care of.

Functions of LAN:
o Sharing of files: It allows you to share or transfer files from one computer to another
computer within the LAN. For example, in a bank, it can be used to send a file with the details
of transactions of a customer from the server to clients.
o Sharing of printers: It also allows shared access to a printer, file servers, etc. For example,
ten computers that are connected through LAN can use a single printer, file server, fax
machine, etc.
o Sharing of Computational capabilities: It allows the clients to access to the computational
power of a server, e.g., an application server as some applications which run on clients in a
LAN may require higher computational capabilities.
o Mail and message related services: It allows sending and receiving mails between
computers of a LAN. You are required to have a mail server for this.
o Database services: It also allows storing and retrieving data with the help of a database server.

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):

MAN is a high-speed network that spreads over a large geographical area such as a metro city or
town. It is set up by connecting lines. It can be operated by a private company local telephone
company.
MAN is ideal for the people of a relatively large area who want to share data o r
information. It provides fast communication via high-speed carriers or transmission media
such as copper, fiber optics and microwaves.

Examples of MAN:
o Cable TV Network
o Telephone service provides that provide high
o IEEE 802.16 or WiMAX
o Connected fire stations in a city
o Connected branches of a school in a city

Features of MAN:
o The size of the MAN is in the range of 5km to 50km.
o The MAN ranges from the campus to the entire city the local area networks using routers and
local telephone exchange or it may be a service provided by a company such as a want to share
data or information. It high-speed carriers or transmission media such as copper,fiber
Digital Subscriber Line), ISDN (Integrated Services Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line) and
more.es high-speed DSL lines nt gital The area covered byo The MAN is maintained and managed
by Users can achieve the sharing of regional resources by using MAN.
o The data transmission rates can be medium to high

Advantages of MAN:
o Less Expensive: It is less expensive to set up a MAN and to connect it to
o High Speed: The speed of data transfer is more than WAN.
o Local Emails: It can send local emails fast.
o Access to the Internet: users can have access to high
o Easy to set up: You can easily set up a MAN by connecting multiple LANs.
o High Security: It is more secure than WAN.

3.Wide Area Network (WAN):

WAN extends over a large geographical area. It is not confined and is mainly set up by telephone
lines, fiber optic, or satellite links. It is mostly used by big organizations like banks and
multinational companies to communicate with their branches and customers across the world.
Although it is structurally terms of its range, e.g., MAN covers up to 50 Kms, whereas WAM
covers distances larger than 50 Km, e.g., 1000km or more.
A WAN works by using TCP/IP protocol in combination with networking devices such as switches
routers, firewalls, and modems. It does not connect individual computers; rather, they are designed
to link small networks like LANs and MANs to create a large network. The internet is considered
the largest WAN in the world as it connects various LANs and MANs through ISPs.
The computers are connected to the wide area network through public networks, such as
telephone systems, leased lines or satellites. The users of a WAN do not own the network
as it is a large setup connecting the remote computer systems. However, they are required
to subscribe to a service provided by a telecommunication provider to use this network.

Features of WAN:
o Has a much larger capacity.
o We can share the regional resources by using WAN.
o They have more bit-rate errors.
o The transmission delay is, and hence they need more communication speed.
Advantages of a WAN:
o Large Network Range: It spans a large geographical area of 2000 km or more, e.g.,
from one country to another countries.
o Centralized data: It allows your different office branches to use your head office
server for retrieving and sharing data. Thus, you don’t need to buy email servers,
files server and back up servers, etc.
o Get updated files and data: It provides an ideal platform for companies who need
a live server for their employees to exchange updated files within seconds.
o High bandwidth: It offers high bandwidth than a normal broadband connection.
Thus, it can increase the productivity of your company by offering uninterrupted
data transfer and communication.
o Workload Distribution: It helps distribute your workload to other locations. You
can hire employees in different countries and assign them to work from your office.
Examples of WAN:
1. Internet
2. US defense department
3. Stock exchanges network
 4. Railway reservation system
5. Big Banks' cash dispensers' network

The computers are connected to the wide area network through public networks, such as telephone
systems, leased lines or satellites. The users of a WAN do not own the network as it is a large setup
connecting the remote computer systems. However, they are required to subscribe to a service
provided by a telecommunication provider to use this network.

Features of WAN:
o Has a much larger capacity.

o We can share the regional resources by using WAN.

o They have more bit-rate errors.
o The transmission delay is, and hence they need more communication speed.

Advantages of a WAN:
o Large Network Range: It spans a large geographical area of 2000 km or more, e.g., from one
country to another countries.
o Centralized data: It allows your different office branches to use your head office server for
retrieving and sharing data. Thus, you don’t need to buy email servers, files server and back
up servers, etc.
o Get updated files and data: It provides an ideal platform for companies who need a live
server for their employees to exchange updated files within seconds.
o High bandwidth: It offers high bandwidth than a normal broadband connection. Thus, it can
increase the productivity of your company by offering uninterrupted data transfer and
communication.
o Workload Distribution: It helps distribute your workload to other locations. You can hire
employees in different countries and assign them to work from your office.

Examples of WAN:
1. Internet
2. US defense department
3. Stock exchanges network
4. Railway reservation system
5. Big Banks' cash dispensers' network
6. Satellite systems

4.Personal Area Network (PAN)

Personal Area Network (PAN) is the computer network that connects computers/devices within
the range of an individual person. As PAN provides a network range within a person’s range
typically within a range of 10 meters(33 feet) it is called a Personal Area Network. A Personal
Area Network typically involves a computer, phone, tablet, printer, PDA (Personal Digital
Assistant) and other and other entertainment devices like speakers, video game consoles, etc.
Types of Personal Area Network (PAN) :
Personal Area Network can be of 2 types depending upon its connection i.e., Wireless PAN, and
Wired PAN.
These are explained as following below.
Wireless PAN –
Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) is connected through signals such as
infrared, ZigBee, Bluetooth and ultrawideband, etc.
Wired PAN –
Wired PAN is connected through cables/wires such as Firewire or USB (Universal Serial Bus).

Advantages and disadvantages of PAN –

These are some of the Advantages of PAN :

• PAN is relatively flexible and provides high efficiency for short network ranges.
• It needs easy setup and relatively low cost.
• It does not require frequent installations and maintenance
• It is easy and portable.
• Needs fewer technical skills to use.

These are some of the disadvantages of PAN :

• Low network coverage area/range.

• Limited to relatively low data rates.
• Devices are not compatible with each other.
• Inbuilt WPAN devices are a little bit costly.
Applications of PAN –
• Home and Offices
• Organizations and the Business sector
• Medical and Hospital
• School and College Education
• Military and Defense.

❖ Topology
What is Network Topology?
Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are interconnected
other. There are two types of topology: physical and logical topology.
Types of Network Topology:
Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network. There are six
types of network topology which are Bus Topology, Ring Topology and Hybrid Topology.
1)Bus Topology:

The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected through a single
cable known as a backbone cable.
Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly connected to the
backbone cable.
When a node wants to send a message
u over the network, it puts a message over the network.
All the stations available in the network will receive the message. whether it has been
addressed or not. The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (Ethernet) and 802.4 standard
networks. The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other
topologies. The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the message is
broadcast to all the stations. The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA
(Carrier Sense Multiple Access).
CSMA: It is a media access control used to control the data flow so that data integrity is
maintained, i.e., the packets do not get lost. There are two alternative ways of handling the
problems that occur when two nodes send the messages simultaneously.
o CSMA CD: CSMA CD (Collision detection) is an access method used to detect the
collision. Once the collision is detected, the sender will stop transmitting the data.
Therefore, it works on "recovery after the collision".
o CSMA CA: CSMA CA (Collision Avoidance) is an access method used to avoid the
collision by checking whether the transmission media is busy or not. If busy, then
 the sender waits until the media becomes idle. This technique effectively reduces the
possibility of the collision. It does not work on "recovery after the collision".
Advantages of Bus topology:
o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable without
passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
o Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based
networks that support upto 10 Mbps.
o Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation
and troubleshooting techniques are well known and hardware components are easily
available.
o Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.

Disadvantages of Bus topology:

o Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of cabling.
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the
cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication
for all the nodes.
o Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the
signals of both the nodes collide with each other.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow
down the network.
o Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues.
Repeaters are used to regenerate the signal.
2) Ring Topology:

o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.

o The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit
to the next node.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having no
termination point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
o The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
o Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed
from one node to another node.
o Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

Working of Token passing:

A token move around the network and it is passed from computer to computer until it reaches the
destination. The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data. The data is
passed from one device to another device until the destination address matches. Once the token
received by the destination device, then it sends the acknowledgment to the sender. In a ring
topology, a token is used as a carrier.
Advantages of Ring topology:
Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network work without bringing
the network down.
Product availability :Many hardware and software tools for network operation and
monitoring are available.
Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the installation cost is
very low.
Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not dependent
on the single host computer.
Disadvantages of Ring topology:
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the
cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication
for all the nodes.
o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow
down the network.
o Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes. Adding
new devices increases the communication delay.
 3)Star Topology:

Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected to the
central hub, switch or a central computer The central computer is known as a server and the
peripheral devices attached to the server are known as clients. Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are
used to connect the computers. Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a
physical star topology. Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.
Advantages of Star topology:
Efficient Troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star topology as compared
to bus topology. In a bus topology, the manager has to inspect the kil meters of cable. In a
star topology, all the stations are connected to the centralized network. Therefore, the network
administrator has to go the single station to troubleshoot the problem.
Network control: Complex network control features can be easily implemented in the star
topology. Any changes made in the star topology are automatically accommodated.
Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own cable, therefore
failure in one cable will affect the entire network.
Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are cost-effective.
Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the open ports on
the hub.
Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
High data speeds: It support a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet 100BaseT is one of
the most popular Star topology networks.

Disadvantages of Star topology

o A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then all the
 connected nodes will not be able to communicate with each other.
o Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant amount of
routing is required.

4)Tree topology:

o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.
o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected with
each other in hierarchical fashion. The top-most node in tree topology is known
as a root node, and all other nodes are the descendants of the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission. Thus,
it forms a parent-child hierarchy.

Advantages of Tree topology:

Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to provide broadband
transmission
o Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments
known as star networks which can be easily managed and maintained.
o Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
o Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
o Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
Disadvantages of Tree topology:

Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult to
troubleshoot the problem.
o Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult to
reconfigure.
o High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
o Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus
cable will damage the overall network.

5)Mesh topology:

o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are

interconnected with each other through various redundant connections. There are
multiple paths from one computer to another computer. It does not contain the
switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central point of
communication.
o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication
failures are a critical concern.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
o Mesh topology can be formed by using formula.
 Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;

Advantages of mesh topology

High Reliability − Mesh topology offers a high level of reliability, which is one of its biggest
advantages. There is no single point of failure, if one node fails, the network still functions as long
as there are other paths available. This redundancy ensures that the network stays up and running
even if some nodes are down. This makes mesh topology an ideal choice for critical applications that
require, the availability of the network all the time.
• Scalability − Mesh structure is very trustworthy. By connecting new nodes to the current
nodes, mesh networks can be easily expanded. Due to this, it is a great option for big sales
networks that must support a lot of devices. Small networks can also use mesh topology, but
because so many links are needed, it might not be as cost-effective.
• Security − High-security levels are provided by mesh structure. There are numerous paths
for data to move because every node is connected to every other node. Because of this, it is
challenging for attackers to intercept or eavesdrop on network data. To further improve the
security of the network, mesh topology also enables the use of numerous security measures
like encryption and identification.
• Fault Isolation − Mesh topology facilitates fault separation. If one of the nodes fails, the
remaining nodes of the network can continue functioning consistently. And the not working
node can be identified and replaced.
This makes it easier to maintain the network and ensures that it remains trusty and available.
Furthermore, the fault isolation feature is particularly useful in applications where network downtime
is unacceptable, such as in critical infrastructure, healthcare, or financial services. The ability to
quickly identify and replace a failed node makes sure that the network remains available and
functional, which is essential for these missions.
• High Performance − High speed is provided by mesh topology. Data can be transmitted
effortlessly and quickly because every node in the network can communicate directly with
each other. Because of this, a mesh topology is a great option for apps like multiplayer
gaming and viewing videos that demand fast data transfer rates.

Disadvantages
• Complexity − Mesh topology is complex because every node is having a connection with
all other nodes which consumes a lot of time. In a small network, it’s okay to maintain, but
as the network size grows, the number of devices connected to it or router connected to it
grows then it would be very difficult to maintain. And keep up to date. That’s why this
method of connecting networks is comparatively complex concerning other topologies.
• High Cost − This is a measure issue of mesh topology because it costs more because it takes
all way wires one node is connected to (n-1) other nodes. An n-1 connection is required so
for n nodes n_(C_2 ) connections. This is the reason for the high cost.
• Limited scalability − Such topologies are difficult to scale when a big setup with mesh
topology is created then, to add one node we have to connect all the available nodes which
means n connections we have to make. And this cost a lot with so much effort as the network
grows.
• Redundancy − While redundancy is a key advantage of mesh topology, it can also be a
disadvantage. Mesh topology requires a larger number of connections between nodes. Which
can result in a high level of redundancy.
• Bandwidth Issues − Mesh topology can suffer from bandwidth issues. This is because data
must go through multiple nodes to reach its destination. this can result in slower network
speeds and increased congestion. However, this can be mitigated by using speed connections
between nodes and implementing quality-of-service measures to prioritize network traffic.
• One line advantages of mesh topology
Advantages of Mesh Topology
• In case of failure of a single device, the entire network didn’t break.
• There is no traffic problem as there is a dedicated point to point links for every device.
• Mesh Topology provides high privacy and security.
• Data transmission is more consistent because failure doesn’t disrupt its processes.
• Adding new devices won’t disrupt transmission of data.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
• Mesh Topology is costly as compared to the other network topologies i.e. star, bus, point to
point topology.
• Installation of nodes are difficult in mesh topology.
• Power requirement is higher as all the nodes will need to remain active all the time and
share the load.
• Each node requires a extra utility cost.
• More maintenance is required in mesh topology.
6)Hybrid Topology:

o The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.

o A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer the data.
o When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as Hybrid
topology and if similar topologies are connected with each other will not result in
Hybrid topology. For example, if there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI
bank and bus topology in another branch of ICICI bank, connecting these two
topologies will result in Hybrid topology.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology:
o Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the functioning
of the rest of the network.
o Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new
devices without affecting the functionality of the existing network.
o Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the
requirements of the organization.
o Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a
way that the strength of the network is maximized and weakness of the network is
minimized.
Disadvantages of Hybrid topology:
o Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design of
 the Hybrid network. It is very difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid
network.
o Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as these
hubs are different from usual Hubs used in other topologies.
o Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network
requires a lot of cabling, network devices, etc.

Introduction to TCP/IP
TCP/IP Model:
1. The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
2. The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
3. The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer, network
layer, data link layer and physical layer.
4. The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface,
internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to the first four layers of the
OSI model and these four layers are represented in TCP/IP model by a single layer
called the application layer.
5. TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of them
provides specific functionality.
Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by two or more
lower-level protocols.
Network Access Layer:
A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in the OSI
reference model
It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
o This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices
on the same network.
o The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram
into frames transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical
addresses.
o The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.

Internet Layer:
▪ An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
▪ An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
▪ The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network
and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.

Following are the protocols used in this layer are:

IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer and it is the most significant part of the entire
TCP/IP suite.

Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:

➢ IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP

addresses. The IP addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to identify the
device and to provide internetwork routing.
➢ Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to
be transmitted.
➢ Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from the
transport layer protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and received
securely; it encapsulates the data into message known as IP datagram.
➢ Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram
by data link layer protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit (MTU). If the
size of IP datagram is greater than the MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the
datagram into smaller units so that they can travel over the local network.
Fragmentation can be done by the sender or intermediate router. At the receiver side,
all the fragments are reassembled to form an original message.
➢ Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN,
MAN, WAN, it is known as direct delivery. When source and destination are on the
distant network, then the IP datagram is sent indirectly. This can be accomplished
by routing the IP datagram through various devices such as routers.
ARP Protocol:

✓ ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.

✓ ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address
from the IP address.
✓ The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
o ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of the
device, it broadcasts the ARP request to the network.
o ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP
request and process the request, but only recipient recognize the IP address
and send back its physical address in the form of ARP reply. The recipient
 adds the physical address both to its cache memory and to the datagram
header

ICMP Protocol:

❖ ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

❖ It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding
datagram problems back to the sender.
❖ A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If a router is
unable to route the data because of some unusual conditions such as disabled links,
a device is on fire or network congestion, then the ICMP protocol is used to inform
the sender that the datagram is undeliverable.
❖ An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:

ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is reachable or not.
ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination
device is responding or not.

❖ The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems, not correct
them. The responsibility of the correction lies with the sender.
❖ ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the intermediate routers
because the IP datagram carries the addresses of the source and destination but not
of the router that it is passed to.

Transport Layer:

The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control and correction of data which is
being sent over the network.
The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and Transmission
control protocol.

User Datagram Protocol(UDP).

It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission
It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.
User Datagram Protocol discovers the error and ICMP protocol reports the error to the sender that
user datagram has been damaged UDP consists of the following fields
Source port address: The source port address is the address of the application program
that has created the message.
Destination port address: The destination port address is the address of the application
program that has created the massege.
Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user datagram in bytes
Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.
UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only checksum; it does not contain
any ID of a data segment.

➢ Transmission Control Protocol (TCP):

1)It provides a full transport layer services to applications.
2)It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for the
Duration the transmission.
3)TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged
frames.
Therefore, it ensures all the segments must be received and acknowledged before
the transmission is considered to be completed and a virtual circuit is discarded.
4). At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known as
segment, and each segment contains a sequence number which is required for
 reordering the frames to form an original message
5)At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based on
sequence numbers.
Application Layer:
➢ An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
➢ It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
➢ This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
➢ When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application
layer, it
➢ forwards its data to the transport layer.
➢ There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application cannot be
placed
➢ inside the application layer except those who interact with the communication system.
➢ For example: text editor cannot be considered in application layer while web browser
➢ using HTTP protocol to interact with the network where HTTP protocol is an
application
➢ layer protocol

Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:

HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access the
data over the World Wide Web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio, video. It
is known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a hypertext
environment where there are rapid jumps from one document to another.
SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework used for
managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that supports
the e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to send the data
to another e-mail address.
DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the
connection
of a host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names instead of addresses.
Therefore, the system that maps the name to the address is known as Domain Name System.
TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection between
the local computer and remote computer in such a way that the local terminal appears to be a
terminal at the remote system.
FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for
transmitting the files from one computer to another computer.
OR

TCP/IP Layer

1. Network Access Layer

It is a group of applications requiring network communications. This layer is responsible for
generating the data and requesting connections. It acts on behalf of the sender and the Network
Access layer on the behalf of the receiver. During this article, we will be talking on the behalf of
the receiver.
The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is identified by network access layer.
Error prevention and “framing” are also provided by this layer. Point-to-Point Protocol
(PPP) framing and Ethernet IEEE 802.2 framing are two examples of data-link layer protocols.

2. Internet or Network Layer

This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which are
responsible for the logical transmission of data over the entire network. The main protocols
residing at this layer are as follows:
 • IP:IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the
source host to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP
has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most websites are using currently. But
IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4 addresses is limited in number when compared to
the number of users.
• ICMP:ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP
datagrams and is responsible for providing hosts with information about network
problems.
• ARP:ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware address
of a host from a known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP,
Gratuitous ARP, and Inverse ARP.
The Internet Layer is a layer in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, which is the set of protocols that
define the Internet. The Internet Layer is responsible for routing packets of data from one device
to another across a network. It does this by assigning each device a unique IP address, which is
used to identify the device and determine the route that packets should take to reach it.
Example: Imagine that you are using a computer to send an email to a friend. When you click
“send,” the email is broken down into smaller packets of data, which are then sent to the Internet
Layer for routing. The Internet Layer assigns an IP address to each packet and uses routing tables
to determine the best route for the packet to take to reach its destination. The packet is then
forwarded to the next hop on its route until it reaches its destination. When all of the packets
have been delivered, your friend’s computer can reassemble them into the original email
message.
In this example, the Internet Layer plays a crucial role in delivering the email from your
computer to your friend’s computer. It uses IP addresses and routing tables to determine the best
route for the packets to take, and it ensures that the packets are delivered to the correct
destination. Without the Internet Layer, it would not be possible to send data across the Internet.

3. Transport Layer
The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments and retransmit
missing packets to ensure that packets arrive in order and without error. End-to-end
communication is referred to as such. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram
Protocol are transport layer protocols at this level (UDP).
• TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as though they were
physically connected by a circuit. TCP transmits data in a way that resembles character-
by-character transmission rather than separate packets. A starting point that establishes
the connection, the whole transmission in byte order, and an ending point that closes the
connection make up this transmission.
• UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP , the other transport layer
protocol. Connections between receiving and sending hosts are not verified by UDP.
 Applications that transport little amounts of data use UDP rather than TCP because it
eliminates the processes of establishing and validating connections.

4. Application Layer
This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-to-end
communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications from the
complexities of data. The three main protocols present in this layer are:
• HTTP and HTTPS:HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the World
Wide Web to manage communications between web browsers and servers. HTTPS stands
for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is
efficient in cases where the browser needs to fill out forms, sign in, authenticate, and
carry out bank transactions.
• SSH:SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to Telnet.
The reason SSH is preferred is because of its ability to maintain the encrypted
connection. It sets up a secure session over a TCP/IP connection.
• NTP:NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks on our
computer to one standard time source. It is very useful in situations like bank
transactions. Assume the following situation without the presence of NTP. Suppose you
carry out a transaction, where your computer reads the time at 2:30 PM while the server
records it at 2:28 PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s out of sync.
The host-to-host layer is a layer in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model that is
responsible for providing communication between hosts (computers or other devices) on a
network. It is also known as the transport layer.
Some common use cases for the host-to-host layer include:
• Reliable Data Transfer: The host-to-host layer ensures that data is transferred reliably
between hosts by using techniques like error correction and flow control. For example, if
a packet of data is lost during transmission, the host-to-host layer can request that the
packet be retransmitted to ensure that all data is received correctly.
• Segmentation and Reassembly: The host-to-host layer is responsible for breaking up
large blocks of data into smaller segments that can be transmitted over the network, and
then reassembling the data at the destination. This allows data to be transmitted more
efficiently and helps to avoid overloading the network.
• Multiplexing and Demultiplexing: The host-to-host layer is responsible for
multiplexing data from multiple sources onto a single network connection, and then
demultiplexing the data at the destination. This allows multiple devices to share the same
network connection and helps to improve the utilization of the network.
 • End-to-End Communication: The host-to-host layer provides a connection-oriented
service that allows hosts to communicate with each other end-to-end, without the need for
intermediate devices to be involved in the communication.
Example: Consider a network with two hosts, A and B. Host A wants to send a file to host B.
The host-to-host layer in host A will break the file into smaller segments, add error correction
and flow control information, and then transmit the segments over the network to host B. The
host-to-host layer in host B will receive the segments, check for errors, and reassemble the file.
Once the file has been transferred successfully, the host-to-host layer in host B will acknowledge
receipt of the file to host A.
In this example, the host-to-host layer is responsible for providing a reliable connection between
host A and host B, breaking the file into smaller segments, and reassembling the segments at the
destination. It is also responsible for multiplexing and demultiplexing the data and providing
end-to-end communication between the two hosts.