Chapter 15

Alternating Current

15.1.1 describe sinusoidal waves.

A sinusoidal wave is a smooth, wavy pattern that repeats over time, like the
ripples on water or the up-and-down motion of a swinging pendulum. It
has a regular shape, moving up and down in a steady rhythm.

Some key points about sinusoidal waves:

They look like smooth hills and valleys.

They repeat at regular intervals.
They are found in sound waves, electricity (AC current), and
light waves.
The highest point is called the peak, and the lowest is the
trough.

15.1.2 define alternating current and alternating voltage. Alternating

Current (AC): Alternating current is the flow of electric charge that

periodically reverses
direction. Imagine the electricity flowing back and forth in a circuit, like a
wave. This happens repeatedly at a specific frequency, such as 50 or 60
times per second (measured in Hertz, Hz). Household outlets use AC
because it’s efficient for transmitting power over long distances.

Alternating Voltage:
Alternating voltage, also known as AC voltage, is a type of electrical voltage
where the polarity changes direction periodically. This means that the
positive and negative terminals of the voltage source switch places at
regular intervals. This contrasts with direct voltage (DC voltage), where the
polarity remains constant.

Key Points:

Both AC and alternating voltage follow a rhythmic pattern, often

shaped like a sine wave.
Common examples: Wall outlets (AC) vs. batteries (DC, which flows in
one direction).
Frequency (e.g., 50 Hz or 60 Hz) tells you how many times the
current/voltage completes a full cycle per second.

Simple Analogy:
Think of AC like a tide flowing in and out of a beach, while alternating
voltage is the force of the moon’s gravity causing those tides to shift
rhythmically.

15.1.3 describe the following terms:

a. time period,
b. frequency,
c. peak value.

a. Time Period (T)

The time period of a wave is the time it takes to complete one full cycle. It
is measured in seconds (s).

Example: If a wave takes 0.02 seconds to complete one cycle, its time
period is 0.02s.
Formula:

where f is the frequency.

b. Frequency (f)
The frequency of a wave is the number of cycles it completes in one
second. It is measured in Hertz (Hz).

Example: If a wave completes 50 cycles per second, its frequency is 50

Hz.
Formula:

where T is the time period.

c. Peak Value
The peak value of a wave is the maximum value it reaches from the
centerline (zero level). In electrical waves, it represents the highest voltage
or current.

Example: In an AC voltage of 230V RMS, the peak value is √2 × 230V ≈

325V.

15.1.4 calculate the rms value of alternate current and alternate voltage.
What is RMS?

RMS is the "effective value" of AC. It tells you the equivalent DC value that would produce the
same power (e.g., heat in a toaster) as the AC. For example, a 230V RMS AC voltage works the
same as 230V DC.
Formula (for sine waves):

This works for both voltage (Vrms) and current (Irms).

Steps to Calculate:

1. Find the Peak Value (maximum height of the AC wave).

Example: If AC voltage swings from +325V to -325V, the peak is 325V.

2. Divide by √2 (≈1.414) or multiply by 0.707.

Examples:
1. Voltage:
Peak = 170V → Vrms=170×0.707≈120V (common in some countries).

2. Current:
 Peak = 14.14A → Irms=14.14×0.707≈10A.

Key Notes:

Only for sine waves: Household AC is a sine wave, so this formula works.
Peak vs. RMS:
Peak = Maximum value.
RMS = "Useful average" (≈70.7% of peak).
Frequency doesn’t matter: The calculation is the same whether it’s 50Hz or 60Hz.

Why Bother?
Your wall socket says "230V" – that’s the RMS value, not the peak. RMS helps engineers
compare AC and DC power easily! ⚡

15.2.1 explain the flow of AC through resister, capacitor and inductor.

How Alternating Current (AC) Flows Through a Resistor, Capacitor, and Inductor
1. Resistor (R)

Behavior:
Resistors oppose current flow in both AC and DC circuits.
Voltage and current are in phase (they rise and fall together).

Why?

Resistors do not store energy; they simply convert electrical energy into heat.
🔹 Example:
A 120V AC source connected to a resistor produces a current that instantly matches the
voltage changes.

2. Capacitor (C)

Behavior:
Capacitors block DC but allow AC to "flow" by charging and discharging.
Current leads voltage by 90° (current reaches its peak before voltage does).

Why?

Capacitors store energy in an electric field.

To charge or discharge, current must flow first before voltage builds up.
 🔹Frequency Dependence:
High frequency: Capacitors act like short circuits (easy for AC to pass).
Low frequency: Capacitors act like open circuits (block low-frequency AC).
DC (0 Hz): Capacitors act like open circuits (no continuous current flow).

🔹 Example:
In lamp dimmers, capacitors control how much current flows by delaying voltage buildup.

3. Inductor (L)
Behavior:

Inductors resist sudden changes in current. Voltage leads current by 90°

(voltage reaches its peak before current does).

Why?

Inductors store energy in a magnetic field.

When current tries to change, the inductor creates an opposing voltage to resist the
change.

🔹 Frequency Dependence:

High frequency: Inductors act like open circuits (block AC).

Low frequency: Inductors act like short circuits (allow AC to
pass).
DC (0 Hz): Inductors act like a wire (perfect short circuit).

🔹 Example:
In power supplies, inductors help smooth out sudden current spikes.
Key Differences
 Component Phase Frequency Energy Storage
Relationship Behavior

Resistor No phase shift Same for all None (converts

frequencies to heat)

Capacitor Current leads Blocks low Stores energy

voltage (90° frequencies, in an electric
ahead) passes high field
frequencies

Inductor Voltage leads Blocks high Stores energy

current (90° frequencies, in a magnetic
ahead) passes low field
frequencies

15.2.2 explain ‘phase lag’ and ‘phase lead’ in a circuit through a

vector diagram.
Phase Lag and Phase Lead in a Circuit (with Vector Diagram Explanation)
In AC circuits, voltage and current may not always be in phase (i.e., they may not peak at the
same time). The difference in phase between voltage and current is called phase shift, which
can be either:

Phase Lag: Current lags behind voltage.

Phase Lead: Current leads voltage.

1. Phase Lag (Inductive Circuit)

In an inductive circuit (with an inductor L), the current lags behind the voltage by 90°.

Why? The inductor opposes changes in current, so voltage builds up first before current
starts flowing.
Vector Diagram:
The voltage vector (V) is ahead of the current vector (I) by 90°.

📌 Example: In an AC circuit with a coil (inductor), voltage peaks first, and current peaks later.
Vector Diagram for Inductive Circuit (Current Lags Voltage by 90°):

Voltage (V)
 ↑

| _ _ _ _ _ _ → C u r r e n t ( I )

(90° phase lag)

2. Phase Lead (Capacitive Circuit)
In a capacitive circuit (with a capacitor C), the current leads the voltage by 90°.

Why? A capacitor stores charge and allows current to flow first before voltage builds up.
Vector Diagram:
The current vector (I) is ahead of the voltage vector (V) by 90°.

📌 Example: In an AC circuit with a capacitor, current flows before voltage reaches its peak.
Vector Diagram for Capacitive Circuit (Current Leads Voltage by 90°):

Current (I)

| _ _ _ _ _ _ → V o l t a g e ( V )

(90° phase lead)

Key Takeaways:

Circuit Type Phase Relationship Vector Diagram

Resistor (R) No phase shift 📏 Aligned together

(Voltage & Current in
phase)

Inductor (L) Current lags Voltage 🔄 Voltage vector

(by 90°) leads

Capacitor (C) Current leads Voltage 🔄 Current vector

(by 90°) leads
📌 In real-world circuits, the phase shift may be between 0° and 90° depending on the mix of
resistance, capacitance, and inductance.
15.3.1 derive the expression of impedance as vector summation of
resistance in series (R-C and R-L) circuits.

R-L Series AC Circuit

R-C Series AC Circuit

15.4.1 describe three phase AC supply.
What is Three-Phase AC Supply?

Three-phase AC supply is a type of electrical power system that uses three alternating
currents (instead of just one, like in single-phase systems).

The three currents are separated by 120° in phase.

This means they do not reach peak voltage at the same time, making power flow
smoother and more efficient.

How Does It Work?

Imagine a bicycle with three pedals instead of two:

Each pedal moves at a different position but keeps the motion smooth.
Similarly, in a three-phase system, each phase helps carry the load, reducing power
fluctuations.

Each wave is shifted by 120°, ensuring continuous power delivery.

Why Use Three-Phase Power?

✅ More Efficient: Delivers constant power with less fluctuation.

✅ Smaller Wires: Uses less copper or aluminum than single-phase for the same power
output .
✅ Better for Motors: Provides smoother rotation in industrial machines.
✅ Higher Power Transmission: Used in factories, power grids, and big buildings.
Three-Phase vs. Single-Phase

Feature Single-Phase ⚡ Three-Phase ⚡⚡⚡

Power Flow Pulsating (up & down) Continuous & smooth

Efficiency Less efficient More efficient

Usage Homes & small Factories, industries,

devices power grids

Wire Requirement Thicker wires Thinner wires for the

same power

Connection Types
Star (Y) Connection – Has a neutral wire and is commonly used for low voltage applications.
Delta (Δ) Connection – No neutral wire, used for high-power loads like industrial motors.

Key Takeaway:
🌍 Three-phase power is like a teamwork system—it delivers continuous energy with greater
efficiency, making it perfect for large-scale power distribution and industrial applications!

15.5.1 explain electromagnetic waves and spectrum (ranging from radio

waves to gamma rays).
What are Electromagnetic Waves?

Electromagnetic (EM) waves are waves of energy that travel through space without needing a
medium (they can move through a vacuum).
✅ They consist of:
Electric field (E)
Magnetic field (B)
These two fields are perpendicular to each other and also to the direction of wave travel.

✅ They all travel at the speed of light (3 × 10^8 m/s in a vacuum).

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

The EM spectrum includes all types of EM waves, arranged by frequency & wavelength.

🔹 Low frequency, long wavelength → Less energy (e.g., radio waves).

🔹 High frequency, short wavelength → More energy (e.g., gamma rays).
Here’s the spectrum from lowest to highest energy:
Key Points About the Spectrum

✅ Radio Waves – Lowest energy, used for communication (TV, radio, Wi-Fi).
✅ Microwaves – Used in cooking, mobile phones, and radar.
✅ Infrared (IR) – Heat radiation, used in night vision cameras and remotes.
✅ Visible Light – The only part we can see (ROYGBIV: Red to Violet).
✅ Ultraviolet (UV) – Can cause sunburn, but also helps make Vitamin D.
✅ X-Rays – Used for scanning bones in hospitals.
✅ Gamma Rays – Most energetic, can kill cancer cells but are dangerous in high doses.
Analogy for Easy Understanding
Think of EM waves like water waves on a beach:
🌊 Radio waves = slow, gentle waves.
🌊 Gamma rays = rapid, powerful waves.

The shorter the wavelength, the higher the energy and greater the danger.

Final Takeaway
🔹 All EM waves travel at the speed of light but differ in frequency and wavelength.
🔹 Lower energy waves (radio, microwaves) are safe.
🔹 Higher energy waves (UV, X-rays, gamma rays) can be harmful in large doses.
🔹 The visible spectrum is the tiny part we can actually see!
15.5.2 describe production, transmission and receptions of
electromagnetic (EM) waves.

Production, Transmission, and Reception of Electromagnetic (EM) Waves

Electromagnetic (EM) waves are generated, travel through space, and are received by
different devices. Let’s break it down step by step.

1. Production of EM Waves
EM waves are created when charged particles (like electrons) accelerate. This
movement produces oscillating electric and magnetic fields, forming an EM wave.
Methods of EM Wave Production:
✅ Antenna Oscillation – In radio and TV broadcasting, an antenna creates EM waves by
making electrons move back and forth.
✅ Thermal Radiation – The Sun, fire, and heated objects emit infrared and visible light.
✅ Electronic Circuits – Microwaves and radio waves are generated using oscillating
circuits.
✅ Nuclear Reactions – X-rays and gamma rays are produced in nuclear reactions and
stars.
2. Transmission of EM Waves
Once produced, EM waves travel through space or mediums like air, fiber optics, or cables.
Types of Transmission:
✅ Through Space (Wireless) – EM waves do not need a medium, so they can travel in a
vacuum (e.g., radio waves from space, satellite communication).
✅ Through Cables (Guided Transmission) – Some EM waves (like visible light) travel through
fiber optics for high-speed data transmission.
Example:
Radio signals are transmitted via antennas and travel as radio waves.
Optical fibers transmit light-based signals for the internet.
TV broadcasts use high-frequency waves to send video and audio.

3. Reception of EM Waves
Once EM waves reach their destination, they are received and converted into useful
information (sound, images, or data).
How Are EM Waves Received?
✅ Antenna Reception – Radio and TV antennas capture incoming EM waves and convert
them into electrical signals.
✅ Optical Sensors – Cameras, eyes, and solar panels receive light and process it.
✅ Detectors in Medical Devices – X-ray machines detect high-frequency waves to produce
images.

Example:
📡 A radio receiver picks up radio waves, processes them, and turns them into sound.
📡 A satellite dish captures TV signals and converts them into images and audio.
📡 The human eye receives visible light, allowing us to see objects.

Final Takeaway
🔹Production – EM waves are created by moving charges, nuclear reactions, or oscillating
circuits.
🔹Transmission – They travel through space or mediums like fiber optics.
🔹 Reception – Devices like antennas, cameras, and sensors detect and convert them into
information.
15.5.3 describe the amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation
(FM).
Amplitude Modulation (AM) vs. Frequency Modulation (FM)

AM and FM are two types of modulation techniques used to transmit information (like voice
or music) using radio waves.
✅ Modulation = Changing a wave to carry information.
✅ Carrier Wave = A high-frequency wave that carries the signal.
1. Amplitude Modulation (AM)
In AM, the amplitude (strength) of the carrier wave changes based on the input signal, while
the frequency remains constant.
How AM Works:
The louder the sound, the higher the amplitude of the wave.
The softer the sound, the lower the amplitude of the wave.

Advantages of AM:

✅ Simple and cheap to produce

✅ Can travel long distances (good for talk radio, news)
Disadvantages of AM:

❌ More prone to noise and interference (from electrical devices, storms)

❌ Lower sound quality
Example:

📻 AM radio stations (e.g., news, talk shows) use AM modulation.

2. Frequency Modulation (FM)
In FM, the frequency of the carrier wave changes based on the input signal, while the
amplitude remains constant.
How FM Works:

Higher pitch sounds increase the frequency of the wave.

Lower pitch sounds decrease the frequency.

Advantages of FM:
✅ Better sound quality (clear and static-free)
✅ Less a ected by interference and noise
Disadvantages of FM:

❌ Shorter transmission range than AM

❌ Requires more bandwidth
Example:

🎵 FM radio stations (e.g., music, high-quality audio) use FM modulation.

Key Differences Between AM and FM

Feature AM (Amplitude FM (Frequency

Modulation) Modulation)
Amplitude of wave Frequency of wave
Modifies

Sound Quality Lower (more noise) Higher (clearer

sound)

Interference More affected Less affected

Range Longer (can travel far) Shorter (better for

cities)
Music, high-quality
Used For News, talk radio
sound

Final Takeaway

🔹 AM = Varies amplitude, longer range, but lower quality (used for talk radio).
🔹 FM = Varies frequency, shorter range, but better quality (used for music).

by Muhammad
Uzair