Elements of Mechanical Engineering 2025 - 26

Module 1: Energy and Energy Systems

1.1 Sources of Energy

Sources of energy are the different ways we get power to run machines, produce electricity, and fuel
transport. These sources are mainly divided into two types: renewable and non-renewable. Non-
renewable sources, like coal, oil, and natural gas, come from fossil fuels and take millions of years to
form. Renewable sources include solar, wind, hydro (water), and biomass energy. As technology
improves, renewable energy is becoming more efficient and widely used.

1.1.1 Classification of sources of energy

Energy sources are divided into two main types renewable and Non-renewable based on their ability to
regenerate over time.

i. Renewable Sources of Energy

Renewable energy comes from natural sources that are constantly replenished by the environment. This
means they will not run out, even if used regularly. These sources produce little or no pollution and are
considered sustainable for the long term. These are naturally replenished and more environmentally
friendly. Solar panels capture sunlight, wind turbines use wind, and hydroelectric plants generate power
from flowing water. As technology improves, renewable energy is becoming more efficient and widely
used.

˗ Solar Energy: Uses sunlight, captured by solar panels, to generate electricity or heat.
˗ Wind Energy: Uses wind turbines to convert moving air into electrical power.
˗ Hydropower: Uses the flow of water (like rivers or dams) to turn turbines and produce electricity.
˗ Biomass Energy: Uses organic materials (like wood, crop waste, or animal manure) that can be
burned or converted into fuel.
˗ Geothermal Energy: Earth's internal heat is used to generate electricity or provide direct heating.

ii. Non-Renewable Sources of Energy

Non-renewable energy comes from resources that take millions of years to form and exist in limited
quantities. Once used, they cannot be replaced in a short time. Burning these fuels releases greenhouse
gases, which contribute to air pollution and global warming. They release carbon dioxide when burned,
which contributes to pollution and climate change.

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˗ Coal: A black rock burned in power plants to generate electricity.

˗ Petroleum (Oil): A liquid fossil fuel used mainly in transportation and making products like
plastic.
˗ Natural Gas: A gas used for cooking, heating, and electricity; cleaner than coal but still
polluting.
˗ Nuclear Energy: Uses uranium in nuclear reactors to create heat and electricity; does not
produce carbon emissions, but generates radioactive waste.

1.1.2 Comparison of Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy

Feature Renewable Energy Non-Renewable Energy

Availability Comes from nature, never runs out Limited, can run out in the future

Pollution Very little or no pollution Causes a lot of pollution

Investment Expensive to set up at first Cheaper to set up at first

Can be costly over time because of fuel

Cost to Use Cheaper to use after setup
prices

Weather Depends on sun, wind, or water – may

Works all the time, not affected by weather
Dependence not work all the time

Efficiency Getting better with new technology Usually gives steady and strong energy

Needs more space (e.g., solar panels,

Space Needed Needs less space
wind turbines)

Creates many new jobs in green Jobs mostly in mining, drilling, or power
Job Opportunities
technology plants

Technology New inventions and improvements

Technology is older and not changing much
Growth happening fast

Resource
Will never run out Will run out one day
Depletion Risk

Energy Often depends on buying from other

Can be produced locally
Independence countries

Waste Produced Little or no waste Makes harmful gases and toxic waste

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1.2 Steam
Steam is the gaseous form of water. It is created when water is heated to its boiling point and changes
from a liquid to a gas. Steam is also known as water vapor.

1.2.1 Steam formation at a constant pressure

When water is heated at constant pressure, it first warms up from its starting temperature to its boiling
point—this stage is called sensible heating, where the temperature of water increases. Once the water
reaches its boiling point (like 100°C at normal pressure), it begins to change into steam. During this stage,
called latent heating, the temperature stays the same, but the water absorbs more heat energy to change
from liquid to gas. After all the water has turned into steam, if we keep heating it, the temperature of the
steam starts to rise—this is called superheating. The steam produced now is known as superheated steam,
which is hotter and contains more energy than regular steam.

Figure. Formation of steam at constant pressure

Steam formation from water happens in the following steps.

(a) On heating, the water temperature rises until it reaches its boiling point or saturation point, indicated
as point B. At a given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance begins to boil is called the
saturation temperature (Ts). Likewise, at a given temperature, the pressure at which boiling begins is
called the saturation pressure (ps). Saturation temperature and pressure are dependent on each other. At
atmospheric pressure, the boiling point of water is 100°C. The amount of heat added during heating of
water from 0°C to its saturation temperature of 100°C is called sensible heat, denoted by ‘hf’.

Mathematically, hf = m Cp (Ts - T0)

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Figure. Formation of steam at constant pressure (Atmospheric pressure = 1.01325 bar)

(b) With continued heating beyond point B, the water starts converting into steam while the temperature
remains constant. At this stage, the steam is not completely formed and still contains suspended water
droplets; this is known as wet steam. The process continues until all the water is converted into steam.
This transformation is shown by line B–C in Figure. The heat added during this stage is known as the
latent heat of vaporization, enthalpy of vaporization, or latent heat of steam, denoted by 'hfg'.

(c) If heating continues, all suspended water particles are fully converted into steam. This steam, without
any water content, is called dry steam or dry saturated steam, indicated as point C.

Mathematically, hg = hf + hfg

(d) When dry steam is further heated, its temperature increases. This process is known as superheating,
and the resulting steam is called superheated steam.

Types of steams

 Wet Steam: It is a mixture of steam and tiny water droplets. It forms when water starts boiling but
hasn't completely turned into vapor.

 Dry Saturated Steam:It is steam that contains no water droplets—just pure vapor. It is formed when
all the water has just finished boiling at a given pressure and temperature, but the steam hasn’t been
heated any further.

 Superheated Steam: It is created by heating dry saturated steam beyond its boiling point without
increasing the pressure. It has no moisture at all and contains more energy.

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1.2.1.1 Properties of steam

i. Sensible heat of water, hf : Sensible heat is the heat added to water to raise its temperature without
changing it into steam. For example, heating water from room temperature to 100°C is adding sensible
heat. This heat increases the temperature of the water but does not cause it to boil or change its state.

Sensible heat of water or enthalpy of saturated water, hf = Cp (Ts - T0) kJ/kg

ii. Latent Heat of evaporation, hfg : Latent heat of evaporation is the heat needed to change water into
steam at its boiling point, without increasing the temperature. Even though the temperature stays the same
during boiling, this hidden heat breaks the bonds between water molecules to turn liquid into vapor.

iii. Enthalpy of Dry Saturated Steam, hg : The enthalpy of dry saturated steam is the total heat energy in
steam that contains no water droplets. It includes both the sensible heat (to heat the water) and the latent
heat (to turn it into steam). This is the energy steam carries when it is fully formed but not yet
superheated.

Enthalpy of Dry Saturated Steam, hg = hf + hfg kJ/kg

iv. Enthalpy of Superheated Steam, hu : The enthalpy of superheated steam is the total heat in steam that
has been heated beyond the boiling point. After steam is fully formed, more heat is added to raise its
temperature further.

Enthalpy of Superheated Steam, hu = hf + hfg + Cp (Tu - Ts) = hg + Cp (Tu - Ts) kJ/kg

v. Dryness fraction, x: The dryness fraction is a measure of how "dry" or vaporized wet steam is. It tells
you the proportion of steam (vapor) in a mixture of steam and water. The value of x always lies between
0 and 1, with 0 representing saturated liquid and 1 representing saturated vapor. For wet steam 0 < x < 1.
If x= 0.85, it means the steam is 85% vapor and 15% liquid water by mass.

Dryness fraction, x = Mass of dry steam in the mixture / Mass of the mixture

Enthalpy of wet steam, h = hf + x hfg kJ/kg

vi. Specific volume of steam, v : Specific volume of steam is the space (volume) occupied by 1 kg of
steam. In otherwords, it means how much space 1 kg of steam takes up. It is usually measured in m³/kg.

a) Specific volume of dry saturated steam, vg: Dry saturated steam is pure steam with no water
droplets. It has a fixed specific volume at a given pressure and temperature.

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b) Specific volume of wet steam, v = vf + x (vg − vf) ,

Where:

v: specific volume of wet steam

vf: specific volume of saturated water

vg: specific volume of dry saturated steam

x: dryness fraction

The value of vf is very small at low pressures, hence it is neglected. Therefore, specific volume of
wet steam is given by, v = x vg

c) Specific volume of superheated steam, vu: Superheated steam is steam heated above the boiling
point. It behaves like an ideal gas, so its volume increases with temperature.

vu = P R / T ​

v. Density of steam, ρ: Density is the amount of mass in a given volume. For steam, it tells us how heavy
the steam is per cubic meter. It is the opposite of specific volume.

Density = 1 / Specific Volume, or ρ = 1 / v

vi. Entropy of steam, s : The entropy of steam refers to the measure of disorder or randomness in a system
of steam. Steam, being in a gaseous phase, inherently has a higher degree of disorder compared to liquid
water, resulting in a higher entropy. It's a thermodynamic property, quantifying the amount of energy in a
system that is not available to do useful work

1.2.1.2 Numericals using steam tables

Steam tables are used to determine the physical properties of steam and water at various temperatures and
pressures.

Example 1: Determine the dryness fraction of steam if 1.8 kg of water is in suspension with 90 kg of
dry steam.

Solution: Given, mf = 1.8 kg , mg = 90 kg

Total mass, m = mf + mg = 1.8 + 90 = 91.8

Dryness fraction, x = mg / m = 90 / 91.8 = 0.9804 (Ans)

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Example 2: Find the enthalpy of 6 kg of steam at a pressure of 10 bar absolute, if it is i) Wet with a
dryness fraction of 0.9, ii) Dry saturated and iii) Superheated at a temperature of 200 ℃. Assume
specific heat as 2.3 kJ/kg K.

Solution: Given, m = 6 kg, p = 10 bar, x = 0.9, Tu = 200 ℃ and Cp = 2.3 kJ/kg K

From steam tables, at 10 bar absolute pressure

Saturation temperature Ts = 179.88 ℃

Specific enthalpy of water hf = 762.61 kJ/kg

Specific enthalpy of saturated steam hg = 2776.2 kJ/kg

Latent heat of evaporation hfg = hg - hf = 2776.2 - 762.61 = 2013.59 kJ/kg

(The value of hfg can also be obtained directly from certain steam tables)

i. Enthalpy of 1 kg of wet steam hw = hf + x hfg = 762.61 + 0.9 × 2013.59 = 2574.84 kJ/kg

Enthalpy of 6 kg of wet steam = Hw = 6 × 2574.84 = 15449.05 kJ (Ans)

ii. Enthalpy of 1 kg of dry saturated steam = hg = 2776.2 kJ/kg

Enthalpy of 6 kg of dry saturated steam = Hg = 6 × 2776.2 = 16657.2 kJ (Ans)

iii. Enthalpy of 1 kg of superheated steam, hu = hg + Cp (Tu -Ts) = 2776.2 + 2.3 (200 - 179.88)

= 2822.476 kJ/kg

Enthalpy of 6 kg of superheated steam = Hu = 6 × 2822.476 = 16934.86 kJ (Ans)

Example 3: Determine the dryness fraction, specific volume and density of steam at 8 bar absolute
pressure, if its enthalpy is 2400 kJ/kg.
Solution: Given, p = 8 bar, h = 2400 kJ/kg

From steam tables, at 8 bar absolute pressure

Saturation temperature Ts = 170.41 ℃

Specific volume of steam vg = 0.2403 m3/kg

Specific enthalpy of water hf = 720.94 kJ/kg

Specific enthalpy of saturated steam hg = 2767.5 kJ/kg

Latent heat of evaporation hfg = hg - hf = 2767.5 - 720.94 = 2046.56 kJ/kg

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Enthalpy of wet steam, h = hf + x hfg

2400 = 720.94 + x 2046.56

Dryness fraction x = 0.82 (Ans)

Specific volume of wet steam, v = x vg = 0.82 × 0.2403 = 0.19705 m3/kg (Ans)

Density of wet steam, ρ = 1 / v = 1/ 0.19705 = 5.0748 kg/m3 (Ans)

Example 4: Determine the conditions of steam from the following data:

i) Pressure is 10 bar absolute and temperature 200 ℃
ii) Pressure is 8 bar absolute and specific volume of 0.22 m3/kg, and
iii) Pressure is 12 bar absolute and enthalpy of 2600 kJ/kg
Solution:

i) p = 10 bar, T = 200 ℃

From steam tables, at 10 bar absolute pressure

Saturation temperature Ts = 179.88 ℃

Since the saturation temperature 179.88 ℃ is less than given steam temperature of 200 ℃, the steam is
superheated. (Ans)

Degree of superheat = T - Ts = 200 - 179.88 = 20.12 ℃

ii) p = 8 bar, v = 0.22 m3/kg

From steam tables, at 8 bar absolute pressure

Specific volume of steam vg = 0.2403 m3/kg

Since the value of vg is greater than given volume of steam, the steam is wet. (Ans)

Dryness fraction = x = v / vg = 0.22 / 0.2403 = 0.9155

iii) p = 12 bar , h = 2600 kJ/kg

From steam tables, at 12 bar absolute pressure

Specific enthalpy of water hf = 798.43 kJ/kg

Specific enthalpy of saturated steam hg = 2782.7 kJ/kg

Since the value of specific enthalpy of dry saturated steam hg is greater than the given enthaly of 2600
kJ/kg, the steam is wet. (Ans)

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Latent heat of evaporation hfg = hg - hf = 2782.7 - 798.43 = 1984.27 kJ/kg

Enthalpy of wet steam h = hf + x hfg

2600 = 798.43 + x 1984.27

Dryness fraction x = 0.908

Example 5: Steam at a pressure of 8 bar has a temperature 200 ℃. What is the condition of steam?
What is its specific enthalphy? and What is its specific volume?. Assume the specific heat of steam
to be 2.25 kJ/kg K. The properties of steam at 8 bar are given below.

p (bar) Ts (℃) vf (m3/kg) vg (m3/kg) hf (kJ/kg) hf g (kJ/kg) hg (kJ/kg)

8.0 170.4 0.001115 0.24026 720.9 2046.5 2767.4

Solution:

Since the saturation temperature 170.4 ℃ is less than the given steam temperature of 200 ℃, the steam is
superheated.

Enthalpy of superheated steam hu = hg + Cp (Tu -Ts) = 2767.4 + 2.25 (200 - 170.4)

= 2834 kJ/kg (Ans)

Specific volume of super heated steam, vu = (Tu / Ts) × vg = (200 + 273/ 170.4 + 273) × 0.24026

(273 is added to temperatures to convert their unit from ℃ to K)

= 0.25623 m3/kg (Ans)

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1.3 Power generating systems

A power generating system is a setup or process used to produce electricity from various energy sources.
It converts energy—such as thermal, mechanical, or chemical energy—into electrical energy that can be
used to power homes, industries, and transportation.

1.3.1 Steam turbines

A steam turbine is a device that converts the energy of high-pressure steam into mechanical energy,
which is then used to generate electricity. When steam passes through the turbine, it spins a set of blades
connected to a shaft. This rotating shaft is connected to a generator, which produces electricity. Steam
turbines are widely used in power plants.

1.3.1.1 Impulse steam turbine

An impulse steam turbine is a type of turbine where steam expands

through fixed nozzles, converting pressure energy into kinetic energy.
This high-velocity steam jet then strikes moving blades, transferring its
momentum to the blades, causing the turbine shaft to rotate. The pressure
of the steam remains constant as it passes through the moving blades; only
its velocity changes. This design is efficient for applications requiring
high-speed rotation and is commonly used in power generation.

The key components of an impulse steam turbine include:

Nozzles: Fixed blades that convert steam pressure into high-velocity

jets.

Moving Blades (Rotor Blades): Blades mounted on a rotating shaft

that capture the kinetic energy from the steam jets.

Casing: The outer shell that houses the turbine components and directs the steam flow.

Shaft: The central axis connected to the moving blades, transferring mechanical energy to the
generator.

Working Principle

˗ High-pressure steam enters the turbine and is directed through fixed nozzles
˗ The nozzles convert pressure energy into kinetic energy, producing a high-velocity steam jet.
˗ This high-speed steam jet strikes the moving blades of the turbine, which are attached to a
rotating shaft.

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˗ The momentum of the steam is transferred to the blades, causing the shaft to rotate.
˗ As steam passes over the moving blades, its velocity decreases, but its pressure remains nearly
constant.
˗ The rotating shaft can then be connected to a generator to produce electricity or to perform
mechanical work.Reaction steam turbine

1.3.1.2 Reaction steam turbine

A reaction steam turbine is a type of turbine where steam expands

partly in the fixed blades (nozzles) and partly in the moving blades. In
this design, both the fixed and moving blades act like nozzles and
contribute to the expansion of steam. As steam passes through the
moving blades, it not only transfers momentum but also continues to
expand, causing both a change in pressure and velocity. The force that
turns the turbine shaft comes from both the reaction force due to
expansion in the moving blades and the impulse force from the steam
velocity. Reaction turbines are commonly used in large power plants
and are known for their smooth operation and higher efficiency at
lower steam velocities.

Key Components of a Reaction Steam Turbine:

Fixed Blades (stators): Direct the steam flow and begin the expansion process.

Moving Blades: Mounted on the rotating shaft; further expand the steam and produce both impulse
and reaction forces.

Casing: Encloses the blades and controls steam flow through the turbine.

Shaft: The rotating part connected to the moving blades and generator.

Working Principle

˗ High-pressure steam enters the turbine and passes through fixed blades, where partial expansion
begins.

˗ The steam then enters the moving blades, where it continues to expand.

˗ Both velocity and pressure drop as steam moves through the moving blades.

˗ The force on the blades is due to both:

 Impulse effect from steam velocity, and

 Reaction effect from the pressure drop and expansion in the moving blades.

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˗ The combined force causes the turbine shaft to rotate.

˗ The rotating shaft is connected to a generator to produce electricity.

1.3.1.3 Comparison between inpulse and reaction turbine

Feature Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine

Steam Expansion Occurs only in the nozzles Occurs in both fixed and moving blades

Only in nozzles; pressure remains

Pressure Drop Occurs in both fixed and moving blades
constant in moving blades

Velocity increases gradually through both

Velocity Change High velocity steam strikes blades
blade rows

Moving blades are asymmetrical and shaped

Blade Design Moving blades are symmetrical
like nozzles

Works mainly on impulse force

Force Type Works on both impulse and reaction forces
(change in momentum)

High efficiency at high steam More efficient at lower velocities and

Efficiency
velocities pressures

Larger clearance between blades and Smaller clearance needed to maintain

Blade Clearance
casing pressure

More complex blade design and

Construction Mechanically simpler
construction

Wear and Tear Less due to dry steam use More due to possible moisture in steam

Often used in small to medium power Common in large thermal and nuclear
Applications
plants power plants

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1.3.2 Gas turbines

A gas turbine is a mechanical device that converts the energy of high-temperature, high-pressure gases
into mechanical energy, which can then be used to generate electricity or drive machines. It works by
drawing in air, compressing it, mixing it with fuel, and then burning the mixture to produce hot gases.
These gases expand rapidly and spin the turbine blades, which turn a shaft connected to a generator or
other machinery. Gas turbines are widely used in power plants, aircraft engines, and industrial
applications.

1.3.2.1 Open cygle gas turbine

An Open Cycle Gas Turbine (OCGT) is a type of gas

turbine where air and combustion gases flow through
the system only once before being released into the
atmosphere. It operates on the Brayton cycle and is
widely used for power generation. In this system,
ambient air is drawn in, compressed, mixed with fuel,
and ignited. The high-temperature combustion gases expand through the turbine, producing mechanical
work, and are then exhausted without recirculation.

OCGTs are known for their simple design, fast response times, and suitability for standalone or
emergency power generation, though they are generally less efficient than closed cycle systems.

Key Components of an Open Cycle Gas Turbine:

Air Compressor: Draws in and compresses ambient air to increase pressure before combustion.

Combustion Chamber (Combustor): Mixes compressed air with fuel and ignites the mixture to
produce high-energy gases.

Turbine: Expands the hot gases, converting thermal energy into mechanical energy to drive the
shaft.

Exhaust System: Releases the spent gases into the atmosphere after energy has been extracted.

Shaft: Connects the turbine to a generator or mechanical load to produce power.

Working Principle

˗ Ambient air enters the compressor, where its pressure and temperature are increased.
˗ The compressed air is then mixed with fuel in the combustion chamber and ignited,
significantly raising the temperature and volume of the gases.

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˗ These high-pressure, high-temperature gases expand rapidly through the turbine, spinning
the blades and producing mechanical energy.
˗ The turbine drives both the compressor (to sustain the cycle) and the generator (to produce
electricity).
˗ The exhaust gases exit the system directly into the atmosphere, completing the open cycle.

1.3.2.2 Closed cycle gas turbine

A Closed Cycle Gas Turbine (CCGT) is a type of gas turbine

system where the working fluid—often a gas like helium,
hydrogen, or air—circulates in a closed loop. Unlike an open
cycle, the gas does not mix with combustion products or get
released into the atmosphere. Instead, it is continuously reused
after being cooled and recompressed. Heat is supplied to the
system externally, often by a heat exchanger or a nuclear, solar,
or fossil fuel source, rather than by direct combustion in the working fluid. This design allows for greater
control over the working conditions and is particularly suitable for applications requiring high efficiency,
low emissions, or operation in environments where air contamination must be avoided. ˗Closed cycle gas
turbines are often used in nuclear power plants, space applications, or industrial processes requiring high
thermal efficiency and environmental isolation.

Key Components of a Closed Cycle Gas Turbine:

Compressor: Increases the pressure of the working gas after it has been cooled.
Air heater (Heat Exchanger): Transfers heat from an external source to the working fluid without
mixing.
Turbine: Expands the heated, high-pressure gas to produce mechanical energy.
Cooler (Heat Sink): Reduces the temperature of the working gas before recompression.
Shaft: Connects the turbine to a generator or mechanical system.

Working Principle

˗ The working fluid is first compressed in the compressor, increasing its pressure and temperature.
˗ It then passes through a heat exchanger, where it receives heat from an external source, raising
its temperature further without direct combustion.
˗ The hot, high-pressure gas expands through the turbine, converting thermal energy into
mechanical work.

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˗ After expansion, the gas flows into a cooler, where its temperature is reduced before entering the
compressor again.
˗ The working fluid is continually recirculated in a closed loop, making the system clean,
controlled, and efficient.

1.3.2.3 Comparison between open and closed cycle gas turbine

Aspect Open Cycle Gas Turbine Closed Cycle Gas Turbine

Atmospheric air (used once and then Enclosed gas (e.g., helium, hydrogen, air;
Working Fluid
expelled) recirculated in a closed loop)

Internal combustion (fuel burned External heat source via a heat exchanger; no
Combustion
inside the turbine) combustion in working fluid

Hot gases released directly into the No atmospheric exhaust; working fluid is
Exhaust
atmosphere cooled and reused

Lower (due to single-pass operation Higher (due to continuous reuse and

Efficiency
and heat losses) optimized heat exchange)

Quick start; ideal for peak power Slower due to heat exchanger warm-up and
Startup Time
demands system complexity

Easier; simpler design and fewer More complex; requires sealed system and
Maintenance
components precise controls

Aircraft engines, emergency and Nuclear power, solar thermal systems, space
Applications
peak-load power generation and industrial heat recovery

Environmental Produces combustion emissions and Environmentally cleaner; no direct emissions

Impact heat pollution into atmosphere

Higher due to added components and

Cost Lower initial and operational cost
complexity

System More complex with heat exchangers, cooling

Simpler design; fewer moving parts
Complexity systems, and closed-loop control

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1.5 Harnessing of renewable energy

Harnessing renewable energy involves using natural sources like sunlight, wind, water, and biomass to
produce electricity or heat. These energy sources are sustainable, meaning they do not run out and cause
less harm to the environment compared to fossil fuels. Solar panels, wind turbines, and hydroelectric
dams are common technologies used to capture and convert renewable energy. By using renewable
energy, we can reduce pollution, lower greenhouse gas emissions, and create a cleaner, healthier planet
for future generations.

1.5.1 Wind energy

Wind energy is a form of renewable energy generated by converting the kinetic energy of moving air
(wind) into electrical power. This is typically done using wind turbines placed in windy areas such as
hilltops, open plains, or offshore locations. As wind is naturally available and free, it is considered one of
the cleanest and most sustainable energy sources.

Parts of wind turbine

Blades; Capture the wind's energy. Most turbines have 3 blades that rotate when wind blows.

Rotor; The hub and blades together form the rotor. It spins as the wind moves the blades.

Nacelle; The housing on top of the tower that contains components like the gearbox and generator.

Gearbox; Increases the rotation speed from the rotor to a speed suitable for the generator.

Generator; Converts mechanical energy from the spinning shaft into electrical energy.

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Main Shaft (Low and High-Speed); Transfers rotation from the rotor to the gearbox and generator.

Tower; Supports the nacelle and rotor. Taller towers can capture stronger, steadier winds.

Yaw Mechanism; Rotates the nacelle so that the rotor faces the wind direction.

Anemometer; Measures wind speed and sends data to control systems.

Wind Vane; Detects wind direction to help the yaw mechanism position the rotor properly.

Brake System; Stops the rotor in emergencies or during maintenance.

Controller; Starts and stops the turbine and monitors its performance.

Working principle

˗ Wind detection begins with the anemometer (measuring wind speed) and wind vane (measuring
wind direction).
˗ This information is sent to the controller, which manages the turbine’s operation.
˗ The yaw mechanism rotates the nacelle so the rotor blades face directly into the wind for maximum
efficiency.
˗ Wind energy turns the blades, which spin the rotor connected to a main shaft.
˗ The slow rotation of the shaft is passed into the gearbox, which increases the rotational speed.
˗ This high-speed rotation drives the generator, converting mechanical energy into electrical energy.
˗ The generated electricity is sent through a transformer and then to the power grid or used locally.
˗ The controller continuously monitors the system to ensure optimal operation.
˗ If wind speeds are too high or low, the brake system automatically stops the turbine to avoid damage.

Advantages

˗ Renewable and sustainable source of energy.

˗ No fuel cost or emissions once installed.
˗ Helps reduce dependence on fossil fuels.
˗ Can be installed on existing land (like farms) without disturbing primary land use.
˗ Low operational and maintenance costs after setup.
Disadvantages

˗ Initial installation cost is high.

˗ Wind is unpredictable and not constant.
˗ Can cause noise and may affect local wildlife, especially birds.
˗ Requires large open areas for maximum efficiency.
˗ Visual impact may not be acceptable in some locations.

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1.5.2 Geothermal energy

Geothermal energy is a form of renewable energy

generated by harnessing the heat stored beneath
the Earth’s surface. This natural heat originates
from the Earth’s core and can be used to produce
electricity or for direct heating applications.
Geothermal power plants are typically located in
geologically active areas like hot springs, volcanic
regions, or tectonic plate boundaries. Since it uses
the Earth's internal heat, geothermal energy is
reliable, sustainable, and produces minimal emissions, making it an environmentally friendly energy
source.

Parts of a Geothermal Power Plant

Production Wells: Deep wells drilled into the Earth to access hot water or steam from underground
reservoirs.

Injection Wells: Used to pump cooled water back into the Earth after energy extraction,
maintaining reservoir pressure.

Heat Exchanger: Transfers heat from the geothermal fluid to a secondary fluid (in binary cycle
plants) or to water for steam generation.

Turbine: The steam or vapor spins the turbine, converting thermal energy into mechanical energy.

Generator: Converts mechanical energy from the turbine into electrical energy.

Condenser: Cools the steam after it has passed through the turbine, turning it back into water.

Cooling Tower: Helps in dissipating excess heat and cooling the water before reinjection.

Control System: Manages the entire process, including temperature, pressure, and flow regulation.

Working Principle

˗ Heat from the Earth's interior is accessed through production wells that reach hot water or steam
reservoirs deep underground.

˗ The hot fluid (steam or hot water) rises to the surface due to pressure.

˗ This heat is transferred to a heat exchanger, which may directly produce steam or heat a secondary
fluid with a lower boiling point.

˗ The steam (or vaporized fluid) drives a turbine, converting thermal energy into mechanical energy.

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˗ The turbine spins a generator, producing electrical energy.

˗ After energy extraction, the steam is cooled in a condenser and converted back into water.

˗ This water is then re-injected into the Earth via injection wells to sustain the geothermal reservoir.

˗ A control system oversees the entire process to ensure safe and efficient operation.

Advantages

˗ Renewable and sustainable energy source with a constant supply of heat.

˗ Low greenhouse gas emissions and minimal environmental footprint.

˗ Provides stable and continuous power, unlike some other renewable sources.

˗ Small land footprint compared to wind or solar farms.

˗ Can be used for electricity generation and direct heating (greenhouses, buildings, etc.).

Disadvantages

˗ High upfront costs for drilling and plant installation.

˗ Limited to specific geographic areas with geothermal activity.

˗ Risk of ground subsidence or minor earthquakes due to drilling.

˗ Possibility of toxic gas emissions (e.g., hydrogen sulfide) if not properly managed.

˗ Resource may deplete over time if not carefully managed (especially in dry steam fields).

1.5.3 Tidal energy

Tidal energy is a form of renewable energy

generated by harnessing the movement of
ocean tides, caused primarily by the
gravitational pull of the moon and sun. As sea
levels rise and fall, large volumes of water
move in and out of coastal areas. This
movement can be captured and converted into
electrical energy using various technologies such as tidal barrages, tidal stream generators, or dynamic
tidal power systems. Since tides are predictable and regular, tidal energy is considered a reliable and
sustainable form of power, especially in regions with strong tidal activity.

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Parts of a Tidal Power Plant

Barrage/Dam: A barrier built across an estuary or tidal basin to control tidal flow and create a
difference in water levels.

Sluice Gates: Gates in the barrage that control water flow in and out of the tidal basin.

Turbines: Placed within tunnels in the barrage or underwater; they spin as water flows through
during rising or falling tides.

Generator: Connected to the turbines; converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Tidal Basin/Reservoir: Holds seawater during high tide, releasing it during low tide to generate
energy.

Control System: Regulates gate operation, monitors tidal patterns, and manages the overall system
for optimal efficiency.

Transformer and Transmission Lines: Transmit the generated electricity to the power grid.

Working Principle

˗ As the tide rises, water flows into a tidal basin through sluice gates in the barrage, and the gates
are then closed to trap the water.

˗ When the tide lowers, a height difference (or head) is created between the sea level and the water
in the basin.

˗ The sluice gates are reopened, and the trapped water is released through turbines, which begin to
spin.

˗ The spinning turbines turn a generator, converting mechanical energy into electrical energy.

˗ Tidal power can also be generated during incoming tides, using reversible turbines that work in
both directions.

˗ A control system ensures proper timing of gate openings and turbine operation based on tidal
data.

˗ The electricity is sent to the grid through transformers and power lines.

Advantages

˗ Renewable and predictable energy source based on lunar cycles.

˗ Produces no greenhouse gas emissions during operation.

˗ Highly reliable compared to solar or wind energy due to consistent tidal patterns.

˗ Can serve as coastal flood protection (in the case of tidal barrages).

˗ Long operational lifespan with low maintenance after installation.

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Disadvantages

˗ High initial construction costs, especially for tidal barrages or underwater systems.

˗ Limited to coastal regions with sufficient tidal range or flow.

˗ Potential impact on marine ecosystems, including fish migration and sediment flow.

˗ Can alter natural tidal patterns, affecting nearby wetlands and estuaries.

˗ Installation and maintenance in marine environments can be technically challenging.

1.5.4 Ocean thermal energy

Ocean thermal energy is a renewable

energy source that exploits the
temperature difference between the
warm surface waters and the cold
deep waters of the ocean to generate
electricity. This process, known as
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
(OTEC), works best in tropical
regions where the surface water is
much warmer than the deep water—
typically requiring a temperature
difference of at least 20°C. OTEC systems operate continuously and can provide a stable, clean source of
electricity with minimal environmental impact. In addition to power generation, OTEC systems can also
support applications such as desalination and air conditioning.

Parts of an Ocean Thermal Energy Plant

Warm Water Intake Pipe: Draws in warm surface seawater from the ocean to vaporize the working
fluid.

Cold Water Intake Pipe: Pumps cold water from deep in the ocean to condense the vaporized
working fluid.

Heat Exchanger (Evaporator): Transfers heat from the warm seawater to a low-boiling-point
working fluid (e.g., ammonia), turning it into vapor.

Turbine: The high-pressure vapor expands and spins the turbine, converting thermal energy into
mechanical energy.

Generator: Connected to the turbine, it converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

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Condenser: Uses the cold seawater to condense the vapor back into liquid form.

Pump System: Maintains the flow of seawater and working fluid through the system.

Control System: Manages operations, flow rates, temperatures, and safety protocols.

Transformer and Power Lines: Transfer the generated electricity to the power grid or storage.

Working Principle

˗ Warm surface seawater is drawn in through an intake pipe and passed through a heat exchanger,
where it heats a working fluid (like ammonia) with a low boiling point.

˗ The working fluid vaporizes and expands, creating pressure that spins a turbine.

˗ The turbine drives a generator, producing electrical energy.

˗ Cold seawater from deep in the ocean is then pumped into a condenser, where it cools the
vaporized working fluid back into liquid.

˗ The liquid working fluid is recirculated in a closed-loop system, allowing continuous operation.

˗ A control system monitors temperatures, flow rates, and power output to ensure safe and
efficient performance.

˗ The generated electricity is delivered through transformers and transmission lines.

Advantages

˗ Renewable and constant energy source, especially effective in tropical regions.

˗ No air or water pollution produced during operation.

˗ Can provide 24/7 base-load power, unlike solar or wind.

˗ Can support desalination, aquaculture, and refrigeration using cold seawater byproducts.

˗ Utilizes vast, untapped thermal energy potential of the oceans.

Disadvantages

˗ High initial costs for infrastructure, especially deep-sea cold water pipes.

˗ Only feasible in regions with sufficient temperature gradients (usually near the equator).

˗ Efficiency is relatively low, requiring large-scale systems for practical output.

˗ Complex technology with limited commercial deployment so far.

˗ Potential marine ecosystem disturbance due to large water intake and discharge.

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1.5.5 Bio-mass energy

Biomass energy is a renewable energy source

derived from organic materials such as wood,
crop residues, animal waste, and municipal
solid waste. These materials contain stored
energy from the sun, captured through the
process of photosynthesis. Biomass can be
burned directly for heat, converted into biofuels like ethanol and biodiesel, or transformed into biogas
through anaerobic digestion. Since biomass comes from living or recently living organisms, it is
renewable, and when managed sustainably, can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions by replacing fossil
fuels.

Parts of a Biomass Power Plant

Biomass Feedstock Storage: Area where raw materials (wood chips, crop residues, etc.) are stored
before processing.

Feeding System: Transfers biomass from storage to the devolatilization reactor.

Devolatilization Reactor: The devolatilization reactor heats biomass in low or no oxygen to release
gases and leave behind solid char. The gases can be used for energy, and this step helps in
converting solid biomass into useful fuel forms.

Boiler: The boiler burns biomass or gases from the reactor to heat water and produce steam. This
steam is used to run a turbine and generate electricity.

Steam Turbine: The steam turbine uses high-pressure steam from the boiler to spin its blades. This
spinning motion creates mechanical energy needed to power the generator.

Generator: The generator converts the turbine’s mechanical energy into electrical energy. It
produces electricity using electromagnetic principles.

Power Converter: The power converter adjusts the electricity from the generator to match grid or
usage needs. It controls the voltage, frequency, and current to ensure safe power output.

Working Principle

˗ Biomass materials are collected and stored in a feedstock storage area.

˗ The feeding system moves the biomass into the combustion chamber, digester, or gasifier,
depending on the plant type.

˗ In a combustion system, biomass is burned to produce heat, which is used to generate steam in a
boiler.

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˗ The high-pressure steam turns a turbine, which spins a generator to produce electrical energy.

˗ In anaerobic digestion, organic waste is broken down in the absence of oxygen to produce biogas,
which can be burned in a generator.

˗ In gasification, biomass is partially burned to create syngas, which can also power a turbine or
engine.

˗ A flue gas treatment system removes pollutants before exhaust gases are released.

˗ A control system monitors and regulates the entire process for safety and efficiency.

˗ Electricity is delivered to the grid through transformers and power lines.

Advantages

˗ Renewable and widely available from agricultural, forestry, and urban waste.

˗ Reduces waste and supports waste management efforts.

˗ Can be carbon-neutral if biomass growth balances emissions.

˗ Produces reliable, base-load power unlike intermittent sources like solar or wind.

˗ Biomass byproducts (e.g., ash) can be used as fertilizer or soil enhancers.

Disadvantages

˗ Air pollution from burning biomass if not properly controlled.

˗ Land use competition with food production if crops are grown specifically for energy.

˗ Carbon emissions still occur, especially with poor biomass sourcing or processing.

˗ High transport and processing costs for bulky biomass materials.

˗ Requires sustainable harvesting to remain environmentally beneficial.

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1.6 Power absorbing systems

Power absorbing systems are devices or equipment that consume electrical or mechanical power to
perform a specific function. These systems absorb mechanical power to perform useful work, such as
moving fluids or compressing gases. Examples include pumps, compressors, and fans, which convert
input power into hydraulic, pneumatic, or mechanical energy.

1.6.1 Pumps

Pumps are mechanical devices used to move liquids or slurries from one place to another by converting
mechanical energy into fluid energy. They play a crucial role in various industries, including water supply,
irrigation, chemical processing, and oil and gas. Pumps can be classified based on their operation
principle, construction, and application. Broadly, they are categorized into two main types: positive
displacement pumps and kinetic (dynamic) pumps. Positive displacement pumps, such as gear pumps,
diaphragm pumps, and piston pumps, move a fixed amount of fluid with each cycle, offering high
pressure and flow control. On the other hand, kinetic pumps, like centrifugal pumps, rely on rotating
impellers to impart velocity to the fluid, which is then converted into pressure, making them suitable for
high-flow, low-pressure applications. Each type of pump is designed for specific tasks based on the
nature of the fluid being handled, required pressure, and flow rate.

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1.6.2 Compressors

Compressors are mechanical devices used to increase the pressure of gases by reducing their volume.
They work by absorbing mechanical energy from an engine or motor and using it to compress air or other
gases, which is essential for a variety of industrial and commercial applications such as refrigeration, air
conditioning, and pneumatic systems. Compressors come in different types, with the most common being
reciprocating compressors, which use pistons to compress the gas, and rotary compressors, which use
rotating elements like screws or vanes. Another popular type is the centrifugal compressor, which uses
high-speed rotating impellers to increase the gas's velocity and pressure. Depending on the specific
requirements such as pressure, flow rate, and gas type, compressors are designed to deliver reliable,
efficient performance across various sectors like manufacturing, power generation, and transportation.

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