Chess

Chess is a board game for two players. It is an abstract

Chess
strategy game that involves no hidden information and
no elements of chance. It is played on a square board
consisting of 64 squares arranged in an 8×8 grid. The
players, referred to as "White" and "Black", each
control sixteen pieces: one king, one queen, two rooks,
two bishops, two knights, and eight pawns, with each
type of piece having a different pattern of movement.
An enemy piece may be captured (removed from the
board) by moving one's own piece onto the square it
occupies. The object of the game is to "checkmate"
(threaten with inescapable capture) the enemy king.
There are also several ways a game can end in a draw.
Part of a Staunton chess set
The recorded history of chess goes back to at least the Left to right: white king, black rook, black
emergence of chaturanga—also thought to be an queen, white pawn, black knight, white bishop
ancestor to similar games like xiangqi and shogi—in
Years c. 1475 to present[1]
seventh-century India. After its introduction in Persia,
active (predecessors c. 900 years
it spread to the Arab world and then to Europe. The
earlier)
modern rules of chess emerged in Europe at the end of
the 15th century, with standardization and universal Genres Board game
acceptance by the end of the 19th century. Today, chess Abstract strategy game
is one of the world's most popular games, with millions Mind sport
of players worldwide.
Players 2
Organized chess arose in the 19th century. Chess Chance None
competition today is governed internationally by FIDE Skills Strategy, tactics
(Fédération Internationale des Échecs), the
Synonyms International chess
International Chess Federation. The first universally
recognized World Chess Champion, Wilhelm Steinitz, Western chess
claimed his title in 1886; Gukesh Dommaraju is the
current World Champion, having won the title in 2024.

A huge body of chess theory has developed since the game's inception. Aspects of art are found in chess
composition, and chess in its turn influenced Western culture and the arts, and has connections with other
fields such as mathematics, computer science, and psychology. One of the goals of early computer
scientists was to create a chess-playing machine. In 1997, Deep Blue became the first computer to beat a
reigning World Champion in a match when it defeated Garry Kasparov. Today's chess engines are
significantly stronger than the best human players and have deeply influenced the development of chess
theory; however, chess is not a solved game.
Rules
The rules of chess are published by FIDE (Fédération Internationale des Échecs; "International Chess
Federation"), chess's world governing body, in its Handbook.[2] Rules published by national governing
bodies, or by unaffiliated chess organizations, commercial publishers, etc., may differ in some details.
FIDE's rules were most recently revised in 2023.

Setup
Chess sets come in a wide variety of styles. The Staunton
pattern is the most common, and is usually required for
competition.[3] Chess sets come with pieces in two colors,
referred to as white and black, regardless of their actual color;
the players controlling the color sets are referred to as White
and Black, respectively. Each set comes with at least the
following 16 pieces in both colors: one king, one queen, two
rooks, two bishops, two knights, and eight pawns.[2]
Setup at the start of a chess game
The game is played on a square board of eight rows (called
ranks) and eight columns (called files). Although it does not
affect gameplay, by convention the 64 squares alternate in color and are referred to as light and dark
squares.[2]

To start the game, White's pieces are placed on the first rank in a b c d e f g h
the following order, from left to right: rook, knight, bishop, 8 8
queen, king, bishop, knight, rook. Pawns are placed on each
7 7
square of the second rank. Black's position mirrors White's,
with equivalent pieces on every file.[2] The board is oriented 6 6

so that the right-hand corner nearest each player is a light 5 5

square; as a result the white queen always starts on a light 4 4
square, while the black queen starts on a dark square. This 3 3
may be remembered by the phrases "white on the right" and
2 2
"queen on her color".[4]
1 1
In competition, the piece colors are allocated to players by the a b c d e f g h
organizers. In informal games, colors may be decided either Initial position: first row: rook, knight,
by mutual agreement, or randomly, for example by a coin toss, bishop, queen, king, bishop, knight,
or by one player concealing a white pawn in one hand and a rook; second row: pawns
black pawn in the other and having the opponent choose.

Movement
White moves first, after which players alternate turns. One piece is moved per turn (except when castling,
during which two pieces are moved). In the diagrams, dots mark the squares to which each type of piece
can move if unoccupied by friendly pieces and there are no intervening piece(s) of either color (except
the knight, which leaps over any intervening pieces). With the sole exception of en passant, a piece
captures an enemy piece by moving to the square it occupies, removing it from play and taking its place.
The pawn is the only piece that does not capture the way it moves, and it is the only piece that moves and
captures in only one direction (forwards from the player's perspective). A piece is said to control empty
squares on which it could capture, attack squares with enemy pieces it could capture, and defend squares
with pieces of the same color on which it could recapture. Moving is compulsory; a player may not skip a
turn, even when having to move is detrimental.

Moves of the king

a b c d e f g h
8 8

7 7

6 6

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1
a b c d e f g h

Moves of a rook
a b c d e f g h
8 8

7 7

6 6

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1
a b c d e f g h
 Moves of a bishop
a b c d e f g h
8 8

7 7

6 6

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1
a b c d e f g h

Moves of a queen
a b c d e f g h
8 8

7 7

6 6

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1
a b c d e f g h

Moves of a knight
a b c d e f g h
8 8

7 7

6 6

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1
a b c d e f g h
 Moves of a pawn
a b c d e f g h
8 8

7 7

6 6

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1
a b c d e f g h

The king moves one square in any direction. There is also a special move called castling
which moves the king and a rook. The king is the most valuable piece—it is illegal to play
any move that puts one's king under attack by an opponent piece. A move that attacks the
king must be parried immediately; if this cannot be done, the game is lost. (See § Check
and checkmate.)
A rook can move any number of squares along a rank or file. A rook is involved in the king's
castling move.
A bishop can move any number of squares diagonally.
A queen combines the power of a rook and bishop and can move any number of squares
along a rank, file, or diagonal.
A knight moves to any of the closest squares that are not on the same rank, file, or diagonal.
(Thus the move forms an "L"-shape: two squares vertically and one square horizontally, or
two squares horizontally and one square vertically.) The knight is the only piece that can
leap over other pieces.
A pawn can move forward to the unoccupied square immediately in front of it on the same
file, or on its first move it can optionally advance two squares along the same file, provided
both squares are unoccupied (diagram dots). A pawn can capture an opponent's piece on a
square diagonally in front of it by moving to that square (diagram crosses). It cannot capture
a piece while advancing along the same file, nor can it move to either square diagonally in
front without capturing. Pawns have two special moves: the en passant capture and
promotion.

Check and checkmate

 a b c d e f g h
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
a b c d e f g h
The black king is in check by the
rook.

a b c d e f g h
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
a b c d e f g h
White is in checkmate, being
unable to escape attack by the
bishop on f3.

When a king is under immediate attack, it is in check. A move in response to a check is legal only if it
results in a position in which the king is no longer in check. There are three ways to counter a check:

Capture the checking piece.

Interpose a piece between the checking piece and the king (possible only if the attacking
piece is a queen, rook, or bishop and there is a square between it and the king).
Move the king to a square where it is not under attack.
The object of the game is to checkmate the opponent; this occurs when the opponent's king is in check,
and there is no legal way to get it out of check. In casual games, it is common to announce "check" when
putting the opponent's king in check, but this is not required by the rules of chess and is usually not done
in tournaments.[5]

Castling
Kings can castle once per game. Castling consists of moving the king two squares toward either rook of
the same color, and then placing the rook on the square that the king crossed.

Castling is possible only if the following conditions are met:[2]

 Neither the king nor the rook has previously moved
during the game.
There are no pieces between the king and the rook.
The king is not in check and does not pass through or
finish on a square controlled by an enemy piece.
Castling is still permitted if the rook is under attack, or if the
rook crosses an attacked square.

Special pawn moves

Pawns have two special moves:

En passant: when a pawn makes a two-square Examples of castling (view animation (h

advance to the same rank as an opponent's pawn on ttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/co
an adjacent file, that pawn can capture it en passant mmons/5/55/ChessCastlingMovie_en.s
("in passing"), moving to one square behind the vg))
captured pawn. A pawn can only be captured en
passant on the turn after it makes a two-square
advance. In the animated diagram, the black pawn
advances two squares from g7 to g5, and the white pawn
on f5 takes it en passant, landing on g6.
Promotion: when a pawn advances to its last rank, it is
promoted and replaced with the player's choice of a
queen, rook, bishop, or knight. Usually, pawns are
promoted to queens; choosing another piece is called
underpromotion. In the animated diagram, the c7-pawn is
advanced to c8 and promoted to a queen. If the required
piece is not available (e.g. a second queen), an inverted
rook is sometimes used as a substitute, but this is not
recognized in FIDE-sanctioned games.
Examples of special pawn moves:
(left) promotion; (right) en passant
End of the game

Win
A game can be won in the following ways:

Checkmate: The opposing king is in check and the opponent has no legal move. (See
§ Check and checkmate.)
Resignation: A player may resign, conceding the game to the opponent.[6] If, however, the
opponent has no way of checkmating the resigned player, this is a draw under FIDE Laws.[2]
Most tournament players consider it good etiquette to resign in a hopeless position.[7][8]
Win on time: In games with a time control, a player wins if the opponent runs out of time,
even if the opponent has a superior position, as long as the player has a theoretical
possibility to checkmate the opponent were the game to continue.
Forfeit: A player who cheats, violates the rules, or violates the rules of conduct specified for
the particular tournament can be forfeited. Occasionally, both players are forfeited.[2]
Draw
There are several ways a game can end in a draw:

Stalemate: If the player to move has no legal move, but is not in check, the position is a
stalemate, and the game is drawn.
Dead position: If neither player is able to checkmate the other by any legal sequence of
moves, the game is drawn. For example, if only the kings are on the board, all other pieces
having been captured, checkmate is impossible, and the game is drawn by this rule. On the
other hand, if both players still have a knight, there is a highly unlikely yet theoretical
possibility of checkmate, so this rule does not apply. The dead position rule supersedes an
older rule which referred to "insufficient material", extending it to include other positions
where checkmate is impossible, such as blocked pawn endings where the pawns cannot be
attacked.
Draw by agreement: In tournament chess, draws are most commonly reached by mutual
agreement between the players. The correct procedure is to verbally offer the draw, make a
move, then start the opponent's clock. Traditionally, players have been allowed to agree to a
draw at any point in the game, occasionally even without playing a move. More recently
efforts have been made to discourage early draws, for example by forbidding draw offers
before a certain number of moves have been completed, or even forbidding draw offers
altogether.
Threefold repetition: This most commonly occurs when neither side is able to avoid
repeating moves without incurring a disadvantage. The three occurrences of the position
need not occur on consecutive moves for a claim to be valid. The addition of the fivefold
repetition rule in 2014 requires the arbiter to intervene immediately and declare the game a
draw after five occurrences of the same position, consecutive or otherwise, without requiring
a claim by either player. FIDE rules make no mention of perpetual check; this is merely a
specific type of draw by threefold repetition.
Fifty-move rule: If during the previous 50 moves no pawn has been moved and no capture
has been made, either player can claim a draw. The addition of the seventy-five-move rule
in 2014 requires the arbiter to intervene and immediately declare the game drawn after 75
moves without a pawn move or capture, without requiring a claim by either player. There are
several known endgames where it is possible to force a mate but it requires more than 50
moves before a pawn move or capture is made; examples include some endgames with two
knights against a pawn and some pawnless endgames such as queen against two bishops.
Historically, FIDE has sometimes revised the fifty-move rule to make exceptions for these
endgames, but these have since been repealed. Some correspondence chess organizations
do not enforce the fifty-move rule.[note 1]
Draw on time: In games with a time control, the game is drawn if a player is out of time and
no sequence of legal moves would allow the opponent to checkmate the player.[2]
Draw by resignation: Under FIDE Laws, a game is drawn if a player resigns and no
sequence of legal moves would allow the opponent to checkmate that player.[2]
 a b c d e f g h
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
a b c d e f g h
Black (to move) is not in check and
has no legal move. The result is
stalemate.

a b c d e f g h
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
a b c d e f g h
A dead position; White's king and
bishop are insufficient to deliver
checkmate.

a b c d e f g h
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
a b c d e f g h
Also a dead position; neither king
can capture the other's pawns in
order to promote a pawn and give
checkmate.
Time control
In competition, chess games are played
with a time control. Time controls are
generally divided into categories based
on the amount of time given to each
player, which range from classical time
controls, which allot about 2 hours or
more to each player and which can take
Typical digital and analog chess clocks
upwards of seven hours (even longer if
adjournments are permitted), to bullet
chess, in which players receive less than three minutes each. Between these are rapid chess (ten to sixty
minutes per player), popular in amateur tournaments, and blitz chess (three to ten minutes), popular
online. Non-classical chess is sometimes referred to as fast chess.

Time is controlled using a chess clock with two displays, one for each player's remaining time. Analog
chess clocks have been largely replaced by digital clocks, which allow for time controls with increments.

There are some aspects unique to online chess. A premove allows a player to submit a move on the
opponent's turn, which gets played automatically if possible using little to no time. Premoves, alongside
the relative ease of digital inputs, make faster time controls feasible online.

Time controls are also enforced in correspondence chess competitions. A typical time control is 50 days
for every 10 moves. Time is usually allotted per move in online correspondence chess.

Notation
Historically, many different notation systems have been used to record chess moves; the standard system
today is short-form algebraic notation.[10] In this system, files are labeled a through h and ranks are
labeled 1 through 8. Squares are identified by the file and rank they occur on; g3 is the square on the g
file and the third rank. In English, the piece notations are: K (king), Q (queen), R (rook), B (bishop), and
N (knight; N is used to avoid confusion with king). Different initials are used in other languages. Moves
are recorded as follows:

notation of piece moved – destination square

For example, Qg5 means "queen moves to g5". No letter initial is used for pawns, so e4 means "pawn
moves to e4". When multiple moves could be rendered the same way, the file or rank from which the
piece moved is added to resolve ambiguity (e.g. Ngf3 means "knight from the g-file moves to the square
f3"; R1e2 means "rook on the first rank moves to e2"). If a move may be disambiguated by rank or file, it
is done by file, and in the rare case that both are needed, squares are listed normally (e.g. Qh4xe1).

If the move is a capture, "x" is usually inserted before the destination square, thus Bxf3 means "bishop
captures on f3". When a pawn makes a capture, the file from which the pawn departed is often listed even
when no disambiguation is necessary; for example, exd5.
If a pawn moves to its last rank, achieving promotion, the piece
chosen is indicated after the move (for example, e1=Q or
e1Q). Castling is indicated by the special notations 0-0 for
kingside castling and 0-0-0 for queenside castling. A move that
places the opponent's king in check usually has the notation
"+" suffixed. Checkmate can be indicated by suffixing "#". At
the end of the game, "1–0" means White won, "0–1" means
Black won, and "½–½" indicates a draw.[2] Chess moves can
be annotated with punctuation marks and other symbols. For
example: "!" indicates a good move; "!!" an excellent move;
"?" a mistake; "??" a blunder; "!?" an interesting move that
may not be best; or "?!" a dubious move not easily refuted.[11]
Square names in algebraic chess
Moves are written as white/black pairs, preceded by the move notation
number and a period. Individual white moves are also recorded
this way, while black moves are rendered with an ellipsis after
the move number. For example, one variation of a simple trap
known as the Scholar's mate (see animated diagram) can be
recorded:

1. e4 e5 2. Qh5?! Nc6 3. Bc4 Nf6?? 4. Qxf7#

The move 3... Nf6?? is recorded as a blunder, as it allows 4.

Qxf7# checkmate.

Games or sequences may be recorded in Portable Game

Notation (PGN), a text-based file format with support for
annotative symbols, commentary, and background
information, such as player names. It is based on short form
"Scholar's mate"
English algebraic notation incorporating markup language.
PGN transcripts, stored digitally as PGN (.pgn) files can be
processed by most chess software and are easily readable by humans.

Variants of algebraic notation include long algebraic, in which both the departure and destination square
are indicated; abbreviated algebraic, in which capture signs, check signs, and ranks of pawn captures
may be omitted; and figurine algebraic notation, used in chess books and magazines, which uses graphic
symbols instead of initials to indicate pieces for readability regardless of language.

Until about 1980, the majority of English language chess publications used descriptive notation, in which
files are identified by the initial letter of the piece that occupies the first rank at the beginning of the
game. In descriptive notation, the common opening move 1.e4 is rendered as "1.P-K4" ("pawn to king
four"). Another system is ICCF numeric notation, recognized by the International Correspondence Chess
Federation though its use is in decline.

In tournament games, players are normally required to keep a score (written record of the game). This is a
requirement in all FIDE-sanctioned games played at classical time controls.[2] For this purpose, only
algebraic notation is recognized by FIDE, though variants such as long algebraic are acceptable; game
scores recorded in a different notation system may not be used as evidence in the event of a dispute.
Gameplay

Theory
Chess has an extensive literature. In 1913, the chess historian H.J.R. Murray estimated the total number
of books, magazines, and chess columns in newspapers to be about 5,000.[12] B.H. Wood estimated the
number, as of 1949, to be about 20,000.[13] David Hooper and Kenneth Whyld write that, "Since then
there has been a steady increase year by year of the number of new chess publications. No one knows
how many have been printed."[13] Significant public chess libraries include the John G. White Chess and
Checkers Collection at Cleveland Public Library, with over 32,000 chess books and over 6,000 bound
volumes of chess periodicals;[14] and the Chess & Draughts collection at the National Library of the
Netherlands, with about 30,000 books.[15]

Strategy
Chess strategy is concerned with the evaluation of chess positions Example of underlying pawn
structure
and with setting up goals and long-term plans for future play.
During the evaluation, players must take into account numerous a b c d e f g h
factors such as the value of the pieces on the board, control of the 8 8
center and centralization, the pawn structure, king safety, and the 7 7
control of key squares or groups of squares (for example, 6 6
diagonals, open files, and dark or light squares). 5 5
4 4
The most basic step in evaluating a position is to count the total
3 3
value of pieces of both sides.[17] The point values used for this
2 2
purpose are based on experience; usually, pawns are considered
1 1
worth one point, knights and bishops about three points each,
a b c d e f g h
rooks about five points (the value difference between a rook and a
Position after 12...Re8 ...
bishop or knight being known as the exchange), and queens about Tarrasch vs. Euwe, Bad Pistyan
nine points. The king is more valuable than all of the other pieces (1922)[16]
combined, since its checkmate loses the game, but is still capable
as a fighting piece; in the endgame, the king is generally more
powerful than a bishop or knight but less powerful than a rook.[18] a b c d e f g h
These basic values are then modified by other factors like position 8 8
of the piece (e.g. advanced pawns are usually more valuable than 7 7
those on their initial squares), coordination between pieces (e.g. a 6 6
pair of bishops usually coordinate better than a bishop and a 5 5
knight), or the type of position (e.g. knights are generally better in 4 4
closed positions with many pawns while bishops are more 3 3
powerful in open positions).[19] 2 2
1 1
Another important factor in the evaluation of chess positions is
a b c d e f g h
pawn structure (sometimes known as the pawn skeleton): the
... and its pawn structure, known
configuration of pawns on the chessboard.[20] Since pawns are the as the Rauzer formation
least mobile of the pieces, pawn structure is relatively static and
largely determines the strategic nature of the position. Weaknesses
in pawn structure include isolated, doubled, or backward pawns and holes; once created, they are often
permanent. Care must therefore be taken to avoid these weaknesses unless they are compensated by
another valuable asset (for example, by the possibility of developing an attack).[21]

Tactics
In chess, tactics generally refer to short-term maneuvers – so short-term that they can be calculated in
advance by a human player. The possible depth of calculation depends on the player's ability. In quiet
positions with many possibilities on both sides, a deep calculation is more difficult and may not be
practical, while in positions with a limited number of forced variations, strong players can calculate long
sequences of moves.

Theoreticians describe many elementary tactical methods and typical maneuvers, for example: pins,
forks, skewers, batteries, discovered attacks (especially discovered checks), zwischenzugs, deflections,
decoys, sacrifices, underminings, overloadings, and interferences.[22] Simple one-move or two-move
tactical actions – threats, exchanges of material, and double attacks – can be combined into longer
sequences of tactical maneuvers that are often forced from the point of view of one or both players. A
forced variation that involves a sacrifice and usually results in a tangible gain is called a combination.[23]
Brilliant combinations – such as those in the Immortal Game – are considered beautiful and are admired
by chess lovers.

A common type of chess exercise, aimed at developing players' tactical skills, is a position where a
combination is available and the challenge is to find it. Such positions are usually taken from actual
games or from analysis of actual games. Solutions usually result in checkmate, decisive advantage, or
successful defense. Tactical exercises are commonly found in instructional books, chess magazines,
newspaper chess columns, and internet chess sites.[24]

Phases
Chess theory divides chess games into three phases with different sets of strategies: the opening, the
middlegame, and lastly the endgame. There is no universally accepted way to delineate the three phases
of the game; the middlegame is typically considered to have begun after 10–20 moves, and the endgame
when only a few pieces remain.

Opening
Competitive players typically learn, memorize, and play well-documented sequences of opening moves.
The most common starting moves for White are 1.e4 and 1.d4, which usually lead to substantially
different types of positions, and Black has multiple viable responses to both.

Sequences of opening moves are referred to as openings and are catalogued in reference works, such as
the Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings. There are thousands of openings, though only a small fraction of
them are commonly played; variations of openings may also be given names. Openings vary widely in
character from quiet positional play (for example, the Réti Opening) to sharp aggressive play (like the
Latvian Gambit). In some opening lines, the exact sequence considered best for both sides has been
worked out to more than 30 moves.[25]
The fundamental strategic aims of most openings are
a b c d e f g h
similar:[26]
8 8

Development: moving pieces (particularly bishops 7 7

and knights) forward to squares on which they are 6 6
useful (defending, attacking, and controlling
important squares) and/or have the potential to take 5 5
part in future plans and ideas. 4 4
Control of the center: control of the central squares
3 3
allows pieces to be moved to any part of the board
relatively easily, and can inhibit the mobility of the 2 2
opponent's pieces. 1 1
King safety: typically secured by castling; incorrectly a b c d e f g h
timed castling can be wasteful or even harmful,
The Najdorf Variation (5...a6), a popular
however.
line of the Sicilian Defense (1...c5), itself
Pawn structure: players strive to avoid the creation of a response to the King's Pawn Game
pawn weaknesses such as isolated, doubled, or
(1.e4)
backward pawns – and to force such weaknesses in
the opponent's position.
Most players and theoreticians consider that White, by virtue of the initiative granted from moving first,
begins the game with a small advantage.[27] Black usually strives to neutralize White's advantage and
achieve equality, or to develop dynamic counterplay in an unbalanced position.

Middlegame
The middlegame is the part of the game that starts after the opening. Because the opening theory has
ended, players have to form plans based on the features of the position, and at the same time take into
account the tactical possibilities of the position.[28] The middlegame is the phase in which most
combinations occur. Combinations are a series of tactical moves executed to achieve some gain.
Middlegame combinations are often connected with an attack against the opponent's king. Some typical
patterns have their own names; for example, the Boden's Mate or the Lasker–Bauer combination.[29]

Specific plans or strategic themes will often arise from particular groups of openings that result in a
specific type of pawn structure. An example is the minority attack, which is the attack of queenside
pawns against an opponent who has more pawns on the queenside. The study of openings is therefore
connected to the preparation of plans that are typical of the resulting middlegames.[30]

Another important strategic question in the middlegame is whether and how to reduce material and
transition into an endgame (i.e. simplify). Minor material advantages can generally be transformed into
victory only in an endgame, and therefore the stronger side must choose an appropriate way to achieve an
ending. Not every reduction of material is good for this purpose; for example, if one side keeps a light-
squared bishop and the opponent has a dark-squared one, the transformation into a bishops and pawns
ending is usually advantageous for the weaker side only, because an endgame with bishops on opposite
colors is likely to be a draw, even with an advantage of a pawn, or sometimes even with a two-pawn
advantage.[31]
Endgame
The endgame (also end game or ending) is the stage of the Example of zugzwang
game when there are few pieces left on the board. There are a b c d e f g h
three main strategic differences between earlier stages of the 8 8
game and the endgame:[32]
7 7

Pawns become more important. Endgames often 6 6

revolve around endeavors to promote a pawn by 5 5
advancing it to the furthest rank.
4 4
The king, which requires safeguarding from attack
during the middlegame, emerges as a strong piece 3 3
in the endgame. It is often used to protect its own
2 2
pawns, attack enemy pawns, and hinder moves of
the opponent's king. 1 1
Zugzwang, a situation in which the player who is to a b c d e f g h
move is forced to incur a disadvantage, is often a The side to move is disadvantaged.
factor in endgames but rarely in other stages of the
game. In the example diagram, either side having
the move is in zugzwang: Black to move must play 1...Kb7 allowing White to promote the
pawn after 2.Kd7; White to move must permit a draw, either by 1.Kc6 stalemate or by losing
the pawn after any other legal move.
Endgames can be classified according to the type of pieces remaining on the board. Basic checkmates are
positions in which one side has only a king and the other side has one or two pieces and can checkmate
the opposing king, with the pieces working together with their king. For example, king and pawn
endgames involve only kings and pawns on one or both sides, and the task of the stronger side is to
promote one of the pawns. Other more complicated endings are classified according to pieces on the
board other than kings, such as "rook and pawn versus rook" endgames.

Problems and studies

Chess problems (also called chess compositions) are composed positions, usually created for artistic
effect rather than practical application. The creator is known as a chess composer.[34]

There are many types of chess problems, the most common being directmates, in which White is required
to move and checkmate Black within a specified number of moves, usually two or three, against any
defense.

These are commonly referred to as "two-movers", "three-movers", or "more-movers". "Many-movers"

(also known as "long-range problems") of over 100 moves have been composed, the current record
standing at over 200; these usually require repetitions of the same manoeuvre in order to produce a
repeated zugzwang and force detrimental pawn advances.[35][36]

Directmates usually consist of positions unlikely to occur in an actual game, and are intended to illustrate
a particular theme, usually requiring a surprising or counterintuitive key move. Themes associated with
chess problems occasionally appear in actual games, when they are referred to as "problem-like"
moves.[37]

Other common types of problems include:

 Helpmates, in which Black moves first and Richard Réti
cooperates with White to get Black's king
checkmated Ostrauer Morgenzeitung, 1921
a b c d e f g h
Selfmates, in which White moves first and forces
Black to checkmate White 8 8

Retrograde analysis problems, in which the solver is 7 7

required to work out what has previously occurred in
6 6
the game, for example to prove that castling is illegal
in the current position 5 5

The above type of problems are usually considered orthodox, 4 4

in the sense that the standard rules of chess are observed. 3 3

2 2
Fairy chess problems, also called heterodox problems, involve
altered rules, such as the use of unconventional pieces or 1 1

boards, or stipulations that contradict the standard rules of a b c d e f g h

chess such as reflexmates or seriesmovers. White to move and draw

This endgame study is solved by
Studies are usually considered distinct from problems, advancing the white king diagonally,
although there is some overlap. In a study, the stipulation is simultaneously stopping the black pawn
that White to play must win or draw, without specifying any and supporting the white pawn on its
particular number of moves. The majority of studies are way to queen.[33]
endgame positions, with varying degrees of realism or
practical application.[38]

Tournaments for composition and solving of chess problems and studies are organized by the World
Federation for Chess Composition (WFCC), which works cooperatively with but independent of FIDE.
The WFCC awards titles for composing and solving chess problems.[39]

Chess in public spaces

Chess is often played in public spaces such as parks and town squares. Although the nature of these
games is often casual, the chess hustling scene has seen growth in urban areas such as New York City.[40]

A child playing chess in Public chess tables in the Jardin Men playing chess,
Washington Square Park, du Luxembourg, Paris, France Kutaisi, Georgia, 2014
New York City, US
 A girl playing Chess game in Kilifi, Kenya Giant chess in Cathedral
chess in Square, Christchurch, New
Mexico City, Zealand, 2005
Mexico

Boys playing chess on a Chess players in the Széchenyi A girl playing chess in
street in Santiago de Cuba, baths of Budapest, Hungary Salatiga, Indonesia
Cuba

Organized competition

Tournaments and matches

Contemporary chess is an organized sport with structured
international and national leagues, tournaments, and
congresses. Thousands of chess tournaments, matches, and
festivals are held around the world every year catering to
players of all levels.

Tournaments with a small number of players may use the

round-robin format, in which every player plays one game
against every other player. For a large number of players, the
Tata Steel Chess Tournament 2019, Wijk
Swiss system may be used, in which each player is paired aan Zee (the Netherlands)
against an opponent who has the same (or as similar as
possible) score in each round. In either case, a player's score
is usually calculated as 1 point for each game won and one-half point for each game drawn. Variations
such as "football scoring" (3 points for a win, 1 point for a draw) may be used by tournament organizers,
but ratings are always calculated on the basis of standard scoring. A player's score may be reported as
total score out of games played (e.g. 5½/8), points for versus points against (e.g. 5½–2½), or by number
of wins, losses and draws (e.g. +4−1=3).
The term "match" refers not to an individual game, but to either a series of games between two players, or
a team competition in which each player of one team plays one game against a player of the other team.

Governance
Chess's international governing body is usually known by its French acronym FIDE (pronounced FEE-
day) (French: Fédération Internationale des Échecs), or International Chess Federation. FIDE's
membership consists of the national chess organizations of over 180 countries; there are also several
associate members, including various supra-national organizations, the International Braille Chess
Association (IBCA), International Chess Committee of the Deaf (ICCD), and the International Physically
Disabled Chess Association (IPCA).[41] FIDE is recognized as a sports governing body by the
International Olympic Committee,[42] but chess has never been part of the Olympic Games.

FIDE's most visible activity is organizing the World Chess

Championship, a role it assumed in 1948. The current World Champion
is Gukesh Dommaraju of India.[43][44] The reigning Women's World
Champion is Ju Wenjun from China.[45]

Other competitions for individuals include the World Junior Chess

Championship, the European Individual Chess Championship, the
tournaments for the World Championship qualification cycle, and the
various national championships. Invitation-only tournaments regularly
attract the world's strongest players. Examples include Spain's Linares
event, Monte Carlo's Melody Amber tournament, the Dortmund
Sparkassen meeting, Sofia's M-tel Masters, and Wijk aan Zee's Tata
Steel tournament.

Regular team chess events include the Chess Olympiad and the
Garry Kasparov, former World
European Team Chess Championship. Chess Champion

The World Chess Solving Championship and World Correspondence

Chess Championship include both team and individual events. These are held independently of FIDE by,
respectively, the World Federation for Chess Composition (WFCC), and the International
Correspondence Chess Federation (ICCF).

Titles and rankings

In order to rank players, FIDE, ICCF, and most national chess organizations use the Elo rating system
developed by Arpad Elo. An average club player has a rating of about 1500; the highest FIDE rating of all
time, 2882, was achieved by Magnus Carlsen on the March 2014 FIDE rating list.[46]

Players may be awarded lifetime titles by FIDE:[48]

Grandmaster (GM) is the highest title a chess player can attain. For the GM title, a player
must have had an Elo rating of 2500 or more at least once and must achieve three results of
a prescribed standard (called norms) in tournaments involving other grandmasters, including
some from countries other than the applicant's. There are other milestones that can
substitute for norms, such as winning the World Junior Championship.
 International Master (IM). The conditions are similar to GM, but less demanding. The
minimum rating for the IM title is 2400.
FIDE Master (FM). The usual way for a player to qualify for the FIDE Master title is by
achieving a FIDE rating of 2300 or more.
Candidate Master (CM). Similar to FM, but with a FIDE rating of at least 2200.
The above titles are known as "open" titles, obtainable by both men and women. There are also separate
women-only titles; Woman Grandmaster (WGM), Woman International Master (WIM), Woman FIDE
Master (WFM) and Woman Candidate Master (WCM). These require a performance level approximately
200 rating points below their respective open titles, and their continued existence has sometimes been
controversial. Beginning with Nona Gaprindashvili in 1978, a number of women have earned the open
GM title: 40 as of July 2023.[note 2]

FIDE also awards titles for arbiters and trainers.[49][50] International titles are also awarded to composers
and solvers of chess problems and to correspondence chess players (by the International Correspondence
Chess Federation). National chess organizations may also award titles.

History

Origins
Texts referring to the origins of chess date
from the beginning of the seventh century.
Three are written in Pahlavi (Middle
Persian)[53] and one, the Harshacharita, is in
Sanskrit.[54] One of these texts, the Chatrang-
namak, represents one of the earliest written
accounts of chess. The narrator Bozorgmehr
explains that Chatrang, "Chess" in Pahlavi,
was introduced to Persia by 'Dewasarm, a
great ruler of India' during the reign of
Khosrow I:[55]
Sasanian Empire King Khosrow I sits on his throne before
the chessboard, while his vizir and the Indian envoy Deva
Dewasarm has fashioned this
Sharma, probably sent by the Maukhari King Śarvavarman
chatrang after the likeness of a
of Kannauj, are playing chess. Shahnama, 10th century
battle, and in its likeness are two
AD.[51][52]
supreme rulers after the likeness of
Kings (shah), with the essentials of
rooks (rukh) to right and to left,
with Counsellor (farzin) in the
likeness of a commander of the
champions, with the Elephant (pil)
in the likeness of the commander of
the rearguard, with Horse (asp) in
the likeness of the commander of
the cavalry, with the Footsoldier
 (piyadak) in the likeness of so many infan

— Translation by Murray, 1913.[56]

The oldest known chess manual was in Arabic and dates to

about 840, written by al-Adli ar-Rumi (800–870), a renowned
Arab chess player, titled Kitab ash-shatranj (The Book of
Chess). This is a lost manuscript, but is referenced in later
works.[57] Here also, al-Adli attributes the origins of Persian
chess to India, along with the eighth-century collection of
fables Kalīla wa-Dimna.[58] By the 20th century, a substantial
consensus[59][60] developed regarding chess's origins in
northwest India in the early seventh century.[61] More
recently, this consensus has been the subject of further
scrutiny.[62]

The early forms of chess in India were known as chaturaṅga

(Sanskrit: चतुरङ्ग), literally "four divisions" [of the military] –
infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariotry – represented by
pieces that would later evolve into the modern pawn, knight,
bishop, and rook, respectively. Chaturanga was played on an
8×8 uncheckered board, called ashtāpada.[63] Thence it
spread eastward and westward along the Silk Road. The
An illustration from a Persian manuscript
earliest evidence of chess is found in nearby Sasanian Persia
"A treatise on chess". The Ambassadors around 600 A.D., where the game came to be known by the
from India present the Chatrang to name chatrang (Persian: ‫)چترنگ‬.[64] Chatrang was taken up
Khosrow I Anushirwan, "Immortal Soul", by the Muslim world after the Islamic conquest of Persia
King of Persia, 14th century AD. (633–51), where it was then named shatranj (Arabic:
‫ ;شطرنج‬Persian: ‫)شترنج‬, with the pieces largely retaining
their Persian names. In Spanish, "shatranj" was rendered as
ajedrez ("al-shatranj"), in Portuguese as xadrez, and in Greek as ζατρίκιον (zatrikion, which comes
directly from the Persian chatrang),[65] but in the rest of Europe it was replaced by versions of the
Persian shāh ("king"), from which the English words "check" and "chess" descend.[note 3] The word
"checkmate" is derived from the Persian shāh māt ("the king is dead").[66]

Xiangqi is the form of chess best known in China. The eastern migration of chess, into China and
Southeast Asia, has even less documentation than its migration west, making it largely conjectured. The
word xiàngqí ( 象棋 ) was used in China to refer to a game from 569 A.D. at the latest, but it has not been
proven that this game was directly related to chess.[67][68] The first reference to Chinese chess appears in
a book entitled Xuánguaì Lù ( 玄怪錄 ; "Record of the Mysterious and Strange"), dating to about 800. A
minority view holds that Western chess arose from xiàngqí or one of its predecessors.[69][70] Chess
historians Jean-Louis Cazaux and Rick Knowlton contend that xiangqi's intrinsic characteristics make it
easier to construct an evolutionary path from China to India/Persia than the opposite direction.[71]

The oldest archaeological chess artifacts – ivory pieces – were excavated in ancient Afrasiab, today's
Samarkand, in Uzbekistan, Central Asia, and date to about 760, with some of them possibly being older.
Remarkably, almost all findings of the oldest pieces come from along the Silk Road, from the former
regions of the Tarim Basin (today's Xinjiang in
China), Transoxiana, Sogdiana, Bactria,
Gandhara, to Iran on one end and to India
through Kashmir on the other.[72]

The game reached Western Europe and Russia

via at least three routes, the earliest being in the
ninth century. By the year 1000, it had spread
throughout both the Muslim Iberia and Latin
Europe.[74] A Latin poem called Versus de
scachis ("Verses on Chess") dated to the late 10th Knights Templar playing chess, Libro de los juegos,
century, has been preserved at Einsiedeln Abbey 1283
in Switzerland.

1200–1700: Origins of the modern game

The game of chess was then played and known in all
European countries. A famous 13th-century Spanish
manuscript covering chess, backgammon, and dice is known
as the Libro de los juegos, which is the earliest European
treatise on chess as well as being the oldest document on
European tables games.[75] The rules were fundamentally
similar to those of the Arabic shatranj. The differences were
These are some of the seven Early
mostly in the use of a checkered board instead of a plain
Islamic ivory chess pieces excavated in
monochrome board used by Arabs and the habit of allowing Samarkand in 1977. They date to the
some or all pawns to make an initial double step. In some 700s and are among the oldest in the
regions, the queen, which had replaced the wazir, or the king world.[73] The ivory came from India.
could also make an initial two-square leap under some
conditions.[76]

Around 1200, the rules of shatranj started to be modified in

Europe, culminating, several major changes later, in the
emergence of modern chess practically as it is known
today.[77] A major change was the modern piece movement
rules, which began to appear in intellectual circles in
Valencia, Spain, around 1475,[note 4] which established the
foundations and brought it very close to current chess. These
new rules then were quickly adopted in Italy and Southern
France before diffusing into the rest of Europe.[80][81] Pawns
gained the ability to advance two squares on their first move,
while bishops and queens acquired their modern movement
powers. The queen replaced the earlier vizier chess piece
A tactical puzzle from Lucena's 1497
toward the end of the 10th century and by the 15th century
book
had become the most powerful piece;[82] in light of that,
modern chess was often referred to at the time as "Queen's
Chess" or "Mad Queen Chess".[83] Castling, derived from the "king's leap", usually in combination with a
pawn or rook move to bring the king to safety, was introduced. These new rules quickly spread
throughout Western Europe.

Writings about chess theory began to appear in the late 15th century. An anonymous treatise on chess of
1490 with the first part containing some openings and the second 30 endgames is deposited in the library
of the University of Göttingen.[84] The book El Libro dels jochs partitis dels schachs en nombre de 100
was written by Francesc Vicent in Segorbe in 1495, but no copy of this work has survived.[84] The
Repetición de Amores y Arte de Ajedrez (Repetition of Love and the Art of Playing Chess) by Spanish
churchman Luis Ramírez de Lucena was published in Salamanca in 1497.[81] Lucena and later masters
like Portuguese Pedro Damiano, Italians Giovanni Leonardo Di Bona, Giulio Cesare Polerio and
Gioachino Greco, and Spanish bishop Ruy López de Segura developed elements of opening theory and
started to analyze simple endgames.

1700–1873: Romantic era

In the 18th century, the center of European chess life moved
from Southern Europe to mainland France. The two most
important French masters were François-André Danican
Philidor, a musician by profession, who discovered the
importance of pawns for chess strategy, and later Louis-Charles
Mahé de La Bourdonnais, who won a famous series of matches
against Irish master Alexander McDonnell in 1834.[85] Centers
of chess activity in this period were coffee houses in major
European cities like Café de la Régence in Paris and Simpson's
Divan in London.[86][87]

At the same time, the Romantic intellectual movement had had

a far-reaching impact on chess, with aesthetics and tactical The "Immortal Game", Anderssen vs.
beauty being held in higher regard than objective soundness Kieseritzky, 1851

and strategic planning. As a result, virtually all games began

with the Open Game, and it was considered unsportsmanlike to decline gambits that invited tactical play
such as the King's Gambit and the Evans Gambit.[88] This chess philosophy is known as Romantic chess,
and its sharp, tactical style of play was predominant until the late 19th century.[89]

The rules concerning stalemate were finalized in the early 19th century. Also in the 19th century, the
convention that White moves first was established (formerly either White or Black could move first).
Finally, the rules around castling and en passant captures were standardized – variations in these rules
persisted in Italy until the late 19th century. The resulting standard game is sometimes referred to as
Western chess[90] or international chess,[91] particularly in Asia where other games of the chess family
such as xiangqi are prevalent. Since the 19th century, the only rule changes, such as the establishment of
the correct procedure for claiming a draw by repetition, have been technical in nature.

As the 19th century progressed, chess organization developed quickly. Many chess clubs, chess books,
and chess journals appeared. There were correspondence matches between cities; for example, the
London Chess Club played against the Edinburgh Chess Club in 1824.[92] Chess problems became a
regular part of 19th-century newspapers; Bernhard Horwitz,
Josef Kling, and Samuel Loyd composed some of the most
influential problems. In 1843, von der Lasa published his and
Bilguer's Handbuch des Schachspiels (Handbook of Chess),
the first comprehensive manual of chess theory.

The first modern chess tournament was organized by Howard

Staunton, a leading English chess player, and was held in
London in 1851. It was won by the German Adolf Anderssen,
who was hailed as the leading chess master. His brilliant,
energetic attacking style was typical for the time.[93][94] A depiction of the chess match between
Sparkling games like Anderssen's Immortal Game and Howard Staunton and Pierre Saint-
Evergreen Game or Morphy's "Opera Game" were regarded Amant, on 16 December 1843
as the highest possible summit of the art of chess.[95]

Deeper insight into the nature of chess came with the American Paul Morphy, an extraordinary chess
prodigy. Morphy won against all important competitors (except Staunton, who refused to play), including
Anderssen, during his short chess career between 1857 and 1863. Morphy's success stemmed from a
combination of brilliant attacks and sound strategy; he intuitively knew how to prepare attacks.[96]

1873–1945: Birth of a sport

Prague-born Wilhelm Steinitz laid the foundations for a scientific
approach to the game, the art of breaking a position down into
components[98] and preparing correct plans.[99] In addition to his
theoretical achievements, Steinitz founded an important tradition: his
triumph over the leading German master Johannes Zukertort in 1886
is regarded as the first official World Chess Championship. This win
marked a stylistic transition at the highest levels of chess from an
attacking, tactical style predominant in the Romantic era to a more
positional, strategic style introduced to the chess world by Steinitz.
Steinitz lost his crown in 1894 to a much younger player, the German
mathematician Emanuel Lasker, who maintained this title for 27
years, the longest tenure of any world champion.[100]
Wilhelm Steinitz, the first official
After the end of the 19th century, the number of master tournaments World Chess Champion, from
1886 to 1894
and matches held annually quickly grew. The first Olympiad was held
in Paris in 1924, and FIDE was founded initially for the purpose of
organizing that event. In 1927, the Women's World Chess Championship was established; the first to hold
the title was Czech-English master Vera Menchik.[101]

A prodigy from Cuba, José Raúl Capablanca, known for his skill in endgames, won the World
Championship from Lasker in 1921. Capablanca was undefeated in tournament play for eight years, from
1916 to 1924. His successor (1927) was the Russian-French Alexander Alekhine, a strong attacking
player who died as the world champion in 1946. Alekhine briefly lost the title to Dutch player Max Euwe
in 1935 and regained it two years later.[102]
In the interwar period, chess was revolutionized by the new Rubinstein vs. Nimzowitsch,
theoretical school of so-called hypermodernists like Aron 1925
Nimzowitsch and Richard Réti. They advocated controlling the
a b c d e f g h
center of the board with distant pieces rather than with pawns, thus 8 8
inviting opponents to occupy the center with pawns, which become
7 7
objects of attack.[103] Among the innovations popularized by
6 6
hypermodernists was the fianchetto: the development of bishops
5 5
away from, rather than towards, the center, onto the b- and g-files.
4 4
3 3
1945–1990: Post-World War II era 2 2
1 1
a b c d e f g h
Nimzowitsch later commented:
"Each side castles now with a clear
conscience, for not even the most
hypermodern pair of masters can
produce more than four
fianchettoed Bishops!"[97]

After the death of Alekhine, a new World Champion was

sought. FIDE, which has controlled the title since then, ran a
tournament of elite players. The winner of the 1948
tournament was Russian Mikhail Botvinnik. In 1950, FIDE
established a system of titles, conferring the title of
Grandmaster on 27 players. (Some sources state that, in 1914,
the title of chess Grandmaster was first formally conferred by
Mikhail Botvinnik, the first post-war World
Tsar Nicholas II of Russia to Lasker, Capablanca, Alekhine,
Champion
Tarrasch, and Marshall, but this is a disputed claim.[note 5])

Botvinnik started an era of Soviet dominance in the chess world, which mainly through the Soviet
government's politically inspired efforts to demonstrate intellectual superiority over the West[104][105]
stood almost uninterrupted for more than a half-century. Until the dissolution of the Soviet Union, there
was only one non-Soviet champion, American Bobby Fischer (champion 1972–1975).[106] Botvinnik also
revolutionized opening theory. Previously, Black strove for equality, attempting to neutralize White's
first-move advantage. As Black, Botvinnik strove for the initiative from the beginning.[107] In the
previous informal system of World Championships, the current champion decided which challenger he
would play for the title and the challenger was forced to seek sponsors for the match. FIDE set up a new
system of qualifying tournaments and matches. The world's strongest players were seeded into Interzonal
tournaments, where they were joined by players who had qualified from Zonal tournaments. The leading
finishers in these Interzonals would go through the "Candidates" stage, which was initially a tournament,
and later a series of knockout matches. The winner of the Candidates would then play the reigning
champion for the title. A champion defeated in a match had a right to play a rematch a year later. This
system operated on a three-year cycle. Botvinnik participated in championship matches over a period of
fifteen years. He won the world championship tournament in 1948 and retained the title in tied matches in
1951 and 1954. In 1957, he lost to Vasily Smyslov, but regained the title in a rematch in 1958. In 1960, he
lost the title to the 23-year-old Latvian prodigy Mikhail Tal, an accomplished tactician and attacking
player who is widely regarded as one of the most creative players ever,[108] hence his nickname "the
magician from Riga". Botvinnik again regained the title in a rematch in 1961.

Following the 1961 event, FIDE abolished the automatic right

of a deposed champion to a rematch, and the next champion,
Armenian Tigran Petrosian, a player renowned for his
defensive and positional skills, held the title for two cycles,
1963–1969. His successor, Boris Spassky from Russia
(champion 1969–1972), won games in both positional and
sharp tactical style.[109] The next championship, the so-called
Match of the Century, saw the first non-Soviet challenger
since World War II, American Bobby Fischer. Fischer
defeated his opponents in the Candidates matches by
unheard-of margins, and convincingly defeated Spassky for
Bobby Fischer, World Champion from the world championship. The match was followed closely by
1972 to 1975 news media of the day, leading to a surge in popularity for
chess; it also held significant political importance at the
height of the Cold War, with the match being seen by both
sides as a microcosm of the conflict between East and West.[110] In 1975, however, Fischer refused to
defend his title against Soviet Anatoly Karpov when he was unable to reach agreement on conditions with
FIDE, and Karpov obtained the title by default.[111] Fischer modernized many aspects of chess, especially
by extensively preparing openings.[112]

Karpov defended his title twice against Viktor Korchnoi and dominated the 1970s and early 1980s with a
string of tournament successes.[113] In the 1984 World Chess Championship, Karpov faced his toughest
challenge to date, the young Garry Kasparov from Baku, Soviet Azerbaijan. The match was aborted in
controversial circumstances after 5 months and 48 games with Karpov leading by 5 wins to 3, but
evidently exhausted; many commentators believed Kasparov, who had won the last two games, would
have won the match had it continued. Kasparov won the 1985 rematch. Kasparov and Karpov contested
three further closely fought matches in 1986, 1987 and 1990, Kasparov winning them all.[114] Kasparov
became the dominant figure of world chess from the mid-1980s until his retirement from competition in
2005.

Beginnings of chess technology

Chess-playing computer programs (later known as chess engines) began to appear in the 1960s. In 1970,
the first major computer chess tournament, the North American Computer Chess Championship, was
held, followed in 1974 by the first World Computer Chess Championship. In the late 1970s, dedicated
home chess computers such as Fidelity Electronics' Chess Challenger became commercially available, as
well as software to run on home computers. The overall standard of computer chess was low, however,
until the 1990s.

The first endgame tablebases, which provided perfect play for relatively simple endgames such as king
and rook versus king and bishop, appeared in the late 1970s. This set a precedent to the complete six- and
seven-piece tablebases that became available in the 2000s and 2010s respectively.[115]
The first commercial chess database, a collection of chess games searchable by move and position, was
introduced by the German company ChessBase in 1987.[116] Databases containing millions of chess
games have since had a profound effect on opening theory and other areas of chess research.

Digital chess clocks were invented in 1973, though they did not become commonplace until the 1990s.
Digital clocks allow for time controls involving increments and delays.

1990–present: Rise of computers and online chess

Technology
The Internet enabled online chess as a new medium of playing, with chess servers allowing users to play
other people from different parts of the world in real time. The first such server, known as Internet Chess
Server (ICS), was developed at the University of Utah in 1992. ICS formed the basis for the first
commercial chess server, the Internet Chess Club, which was launched in 1995, and for other early chess
servers such as Free Internet Chess Server (FICS). Since then, many other platforms have appeared, and
online chess began to rival over-the-board chess in popularity.[117][118] During the 2020 COVID-19
pandemic, the isolation ensuing from quarantines imposed in many places around the world, combined
with the success of the popular Netflix show The Queen's Gambit and other factors such as the popularity
of online tournaments (notably PogChamps) and chess Twitch streamers, resulted in a surge of popularity
not only for online chess, but for the game of chess in general; this phenomenon has been referred to in
the media as the 2020 online chess boom.[119][120]

Computer chess has also seen major advances. By the 1990s, chess engines could consistently defeat
most amateurs, and in 1997 Deep Blue defeated World Champion Garry Kasparov in a six-game match,
starting an era of computer dominance at the highest level of chess. In the 2010s, engines significantly
stronger than even the best human players became accessible for free on a number of PC and mobile
platforms, and free engine analysis became a commonplace feature on internet chess servers. An adverse
effect of the easy availability of engine analysis on hand-held devices and personal computers has been
the rise of computer cheating, which has grown to be a major concern in both over-the-board and online
chess.[121] In 2017, AlphaZero – a neural network also capable of playing shogi and Go – was introduced.
Since then, many chess engines based on neural network evaluation have been written, the best of which
have surpassed the traditional "brute-force" engines. AlphaZero also introduced many novel ideas and
ways of playing the game, which affected the style of play at the top level.[122]

As endgame tablebases developed, they began to provide perfect play in endgame positions in which the
game-theoretical outcome was previously unknown, such as positions with king, queen and pawn against
king and queen. In 1991, Lewis Stiller published a tablebase for select six-piece endgames,[123][124] and
by 2005, following the publication of Nalimov tablebases, all six-piece endgame positions were solved.
In 2012, Lomonosov tablebases were published which solved all seven-piece endgame positions.[125] Use
of tablebases enhances the performance of chess engines by providing definitive results in some branches
of analysis.

Technological progress made in the 1990s and the 21st century has influenced the way that chess is
studied at all levels, as well as the state of chess as a spectator sport.
Previously, preparation at the professional level required an extensive chess library and several
subscriptions to publications such as Chess Informant to keep up with opening developments and study
opponents' games. Today, preparation at the professional level involves the use of databases containing
millions of games, and engines to analyze different opening variations and prepare novelties.[126] A
number of online learning resources are also available for players of all levels, such as online courses,
tactics trainers, and video lessons.[127]

Since the late 1990s, it has been possible to follow major international chess events online, the players'
moves being relayed in real time. Sensory boards have been developed to enable automatic transmission
of moves. Chess players will frequently run engines while watching these games, allowing them to
quickly identify mistakes by the players and spot tactical opportunities. While in the past the moves have
been relayed live, today chess organizers will often impose a half-hour delay as an anti-cheating measure.
In the mid-to-late 2010s – and especially following the 2020 online boom – it became commonplace for
supergrandmasters, such as Hikaru Nakamura and Magnus Carlsen, to livestream chess content on
platforms such as Twitch.[128][129] Also following the boom, online chess started being viewed as an
esport, with esport teams signing chess players for the first time in 2020.[130] The number of esport teams
signing chess players rose considerably in 2025, after chess was added to Saudi Arabia's Esports World
Cup.[131][132]

Growth
Organized chess even for young children has become common. FIDE holds world championships for age
levels down to 8 years old. The largest tournaments, in number of players, are those held for children.[133]

The number of grandmasters and other chess professionals has also grown in the modern era. Kenneth
Regan and Guy Haworth conducted research involving comparison of move choices by players of
different levels and from different periods with the analysis of strong chess engines. They concluded that
the increase in the number of grandmasters and higher Elo ratings of the top players reflect an actual
increase in the average standard of play, rather than "rating inflation" or "title inflation".[134]

Professional chess
In 1993, Garry Kasparov and Nigel Short broke ties with FIDE to organize their own match for the World
Championship and formed a competing Professional Chess Association (PCA). From then until 2006,
there were two simultaneous World Championships and respective World Champions: the PCA or
"classical" champions extending the Steinitzian tradition in which the current champion plays a
challenger in a series of games, and the other following FIDE's new format of many players competing in
a large knockout tournament to determine the champion. Kasparov lost his PCA title in 2000 to Vladimir
Kramnik of Russia.[135] Due to the complicated state of world chess politics and difficulties obtaining
commercial sponsorships, Kasparov was never able to challenge for the title again. Despite this, he
continued to dominate in top level tournaments and remained the world's highest rated player until his
retirement from competitive chess in 2005.

The World Chess Championship 2006, in which Kramnik beat the FIDE World Champion Veselin
Topalov, reunified the titles and made Kramnik the undisputed World Chess Champion.[136] In September
2007, he lost the title to Viswanathan Anand of India. Anand defended his title in the revenge match of
2008,[137] 2010 and 2012. Magnus Carlsen defeated Anand in 2013, defending his title in 2014, 2016,
2018, and 2021, whereafter he announced that he would not defend his title a fifth time. The 2023
 championship
was played
between the
winner and
runner-up of the
Candidates
Tournament 2022:
Ian
Nepomniachtchi
of Russia and
Ding Liren of
China. Ding beat
Nepomniachtchi,
making him the
Magnus Carlsen of Norway, top 1 FIDE
world ranked player since July 2011
Gukesh Dommaraju of India, current champion.[44] In
World Champion 2024, Indian
Gukesh Dommaraju beat Ding.

Connections to other fields

Arts and humanities

In the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance, chess was a part of noble culture; it was used to teach
war strategy and was dubbed the "King's Game".[138] Gentlemen are "to be meanly seene in the play at
Chestes", says the overview at the beginning of Baldassare Castiglione's The Book of the Courtier (1528,
English 1561 by Sir Thomas Hoby), but chess should not be a gentleman's main passion. Castiglione
explains it further:

And what say you to the game at chestes? It is truely an honest kynde of enterteynmente and
wittie, quoth Syr Friderick. But me think it hath a fault, whiche is, that a man may be to
couning at it, for who ever will be excellent in the playe of chestes, I beleave he must beestowe
much tyme about it, and applie it with so much study, that a man may assoone learne some
noble scyence, or compase any other matter of importaunce, and yet in the ende in beestowing
all that laboure, he knoweth no more but a game. Therfore in this I beleave there happeneth a
very rare thing, namely, that the meane is more commendable, then the excellency.[139]

Some of the elaborate chess sets used by the aristocracy at least partially survive, such as the Lewis
chessmen.

Chess was often used as a basis of sermons on morality. An example is Liber de moribus hominum et
officiis nobilium sive super ludo scacchorum ('Book of the customs of men and the duties of nobles or the
Book of Chess'), written by an Italian Dominican friar Jacobus de Cessolis c. 1300. This book was one of
the most popular of the Middle Ages.[140] The work was translated into many other languages (the first
printed edition was published at Utrecht in 1473) and was the basis for William Caxton's The Game and
Playe of the Chesse (1474), one of the first books printed in
English.[141] Different chess pieces were used as metaphors
for different classes of people, and human duties were derived
from the rules of the game or from visual properties of the
chess pieces:[142]

The knyght ought to be made alle armed upon an

hors in suche wyse that he haue an helme on his
heed and a spere in his ryght hande/ and coueryd
wyth his sheld/ a swerde and a mace on his lyft
syde/ Cladd wyth an hawberk and plates to fore his
breste/ legge harnoys on his legges/ Spores on his
heelis on his handes his gauntelettes/ his hors well
broken and taught and apte to bataylle and couerid
with his armes/ whan the knyghtes ben maad they
ben bayned or bathed/ that is the signe that they
shold lede a newe lyf and newe maners/ also they
wake alle the nyght in prayers and orysons vnto god
that he wylle gyue hem grace that they may gete Noble chess players, Germany, c. 1320
that thynge that they may not gete by nature/ The
kynge or prynce gyrdeth a boute them a swerde in
signe/ that they shold abyde and kepe hym of whom
they take theyr dispenses and dignyte.[143]

Known in the circles of clerics, students, and merchants, chess entered into the popular culture of the
Middle Ages. An example is the 209th song of Carmina Burana from the 13th century, which starts with
the names of chess pieces, Roch, pedites, regina...[144] The game of chess, at times, has been discouraged
by various religious authorities in Middle Ages: Jewish,[145] Catholic and Orthodox.[146] Some Muslim
authorities prohibited it even recently, for example Ruhollah Khomeini in 1979 and Abdul-Aziz ash-
Sheikh even later.[147]

During the Age of Enlightenment, chess was viewed as a means of self-improvement. Benjamin Franklin,
in his article "The Morals of Chess" (1786), wrote:

The Game of Chess is not merely an idle amusement; several very valuable qualities of the
mind, useful in the course of human life, are to be acquired and strengthened by it, so as to
become habits ready on all occasions; for life is a kind of Chess, in which we have often points
to gain, and competitors or adversaries to contend with, and in which there is a vast variety of
good and ill events, that are, in some degree, the effect of prudence, or the want of it. By
playing at Chess then, we may learn:

I. Foresight, which looks a little into futurity, and considers the consequences that may attend
an action ...

II. Circumspection, which surveys the whole Chess-board, or scene of action: – the relation of
the several Pieces, and their situations ...
 III. Caution, not to make our moves too hastily ...[148]

Chess was occasionally criticized in the 19th century as a

waste of time.[149][150]

Chess is taught to children in schools around the world

today. Many schools host chess clubs, and there are
many scholastic tournaments specifically for children.
Tournaments are held regularly in many countries, hosted
by organizations such as the United States Chess
Federation and the National Scholastic Chess
Foundation.[151]
Through the Looking-Glass: the Red King is
snoring. Illustration by Sir John Tenniel.
Chess is many times depicted in the arts; significant
works where chess plays a key role range from Thomas
Middleton's A Game at Chess to Through the Looking-Glass by Lewis Carroll, to Vladimir Nabokov's
The Defense, to The Royal Game by Stefan Zweig. Chess has also featured in film classics such as
Ingmar Bergman's The Seventh Seal, Satyajit Ray's The Chess Players, and Powell and Pressburger's A
Matter of Life and Death.

Chess is also present in contemporary popular culture. For example, the characters in Star Trek play a
futuristic version of the game called "Federation Tri-Dimensional Chess",[152] and "Wizard's Chess" is
played in J.K. Rowling's Harry Potter.[153]

Mathematics
The game structure and nature of chess are related to several branches of mathematics. Many
combinatorical and topological problems connected to chess, such as the knight's tour and the eight
queens puzzle, have been known for hundreds of years.

The number of legal positions in chess is estimated to be

(4.59 ± 0.38) × 1044 with a 95% confidence level,[154] with a game-
tree complexity of approximately 10123. The game-tree complexity of
chess was first calculated by Claude Shannon as 10120, a number
known as the Shannon number.[155] An average position typically has
thirty to forty possible moves, but there may be as few as zero (in the
case of checkmate or stalemate) or (in a constructed position) as
many as 218.[156]

In 1913, Ernst Zermelo used chess as a basis for his theory of game
strategies, which is considered one of the predecessors of game Mathematicians Euler, Legendre,
[157]
theory. Zermelo's theorem states that it is possible to solve chess, de Moivre, and Vandermonde
i.e. to determine with certainty the outcome of a perfectly played studied the knight's tour.
game (either White can force a win, or Black can force a win, or both
sides can force at least a draw).[158] With 1043 legal positions in
chess, however, it will take an impossibly long time to compute a perfect strategy with any feasible
technology.[159]
Applied mathematics
A novel methodology in steganography explores the use of chess-based covers (such as puzzles, chess
problems, game reports, training documents, news articles, etc.) for concealing data within a selection of
moves, each hiding some bits.[160][161] Several proof-of-concept projects have been developed that
convert text or files into binary code, which is then converted into a series of legal chess moves, that can
then be decrypted and downloaded.[162]

Correspondence chess has been historically suspected of being a potential steganographic medium.
Melville Davisson Post documented a chess problem that was used to create a pictorial cipher during
World War I.[163][164] During World War II, extensive postal censorship was imposed on military
personnel from the United States and Canada that made playing correspondence chess impossible, arising
from suspicion that chess could be used to send secret messages to the enemies.[165]

Psychology
There is an extensive scientific literature on chess psychology.[note 6][167][168][169][170] Alfred Binet and
others showed that knowledge and verbal, rather than visuospatial, ability lies at the core of
expertise.[171][172] In his doctoral thesis, Adriaan de Groot showed that chess masters can rapidly
perceive the key features of a position.[173] According to de Groot, this perception, made possible by
years of practice and study, is more important than the sheer ability to anticipate moves. De Groot
showed that chess masters can memorize positions shown for a few seconds almost perfectly. The ability
to memorize does not alone account for chess-playing skill, since masters and novices, when faced with
random arrangements of chess pieces, had equivalent recall (about six positions in each case). Rather, it is
the ability to recognize patterns, which are then memorized, which distinguished the skilled players from
the novices. When the positions of the pieces were taken from an actual game, the masters had almost
total positional recall.[174]

More recent research has focused on chess as mental training; the respective roles of knowledge and
look-ahead search; brain imaging studies of chess masters and novices; blindfold chess; the role of
personality and intelligence in chess skill; gender differences; and computational models of chess
expertise. The role of practice and talent in the development of chess and other domains of expertise has
led to much empirical investigation. Ericsson and colleagues have argued that deliberate practice is
sufficient for reaching high levels of expertise in chess.[175] Recent research, however, fails to replicate
their results and indicates that factors other than practice are also important.[176][177] For example,
Fernand Gobet and colleagues have shown that stronger players started playing chess at a young age and
that experts born in the Northern Hemisphere are more likely to have been born in late winter and early
spring. Compared to the general population, chess players are more likely to be non-right-handed, though
they found no correlation between handedness and skill.[177]

A relationship between chess skill and intelligence has long been discussed in scientific literature as well
as in popular culture. Academic studies that investigate the relationship date back at least to 1927.[178]
Although one meta-analysis and most children studies find a positive correlation between general
cognitive ability and chess skill, adult studies show mixed results.[179][180]
Online chess
Online chess is chess played over the internet. This is done through the use of internet chess platforms,
which use Elo ratings or similar systems to pair up individual players. Online chess saw a spike in growth
during the quarantines of the COVID-19 pandemic.[181][182] This can be attributed to both isolation and
the popularity of Netflix miniseries The Queen's Gambit, which was released in October 2020.[181][182]
Chess app downloads on the App Store and Google Play Store rose by 63% after the show debuted.[183]
Chess.com saw more than twice as many account registrations in November as it had in previous months,
and the number of games played monthly on Lichess doubled as well. There was also a demographic shift
in players, with female registration on Chess.com shifting from 22% to 27% of new players.[184] GM
Maurice Ashley said "A boom is taking place in chess like we have never seen maybe since the Bobby
Fischer days", attributing the growth to an increased desire to do something constructive during the
pandemic.[185] USCF Women's Program Director Jennifer Shahade stated that chess works well on the
internet, since pieces do not need to be reset and matchmaking is virtually instant.[186]

Computer chess
The idea of creating a chess-playing machine dates to the 18th century; around 1769, the chess-playing
automaton called The Turk became famous before being exposed as a hoax.[187] Serious trials based on
automata, such as El Ajedrecista, were too complex and limited to be useful. Since the advent of the
digital computer in the 1950s, chess enthusiasts, computer engineers, and computer scientists have built,
with increasing degrees of seriousness and success, chess-playing machines and computer programs.[188]
The groundbreaking paper on computer chess, "Programming a Computer for Playing Chess", was
published in 1950 by Claude Shannon.[note 7] He wrote:

The chess machine is an ideal one to start with, since: (1) the problem is sharply defined both in
allowed operations (the moves) and in the ultimate goal (checkmate); (2) it is neither so simple
as to be trivial nor too difficult for satisfactory solution; (3) chess is generally considered to
require "thinking" for skillful play; a solution of this problem will force us either to admit the
possibility of a mechanized thinking or to further restrict our concept of "thinking"; (4) the
discrete structure of chess fits well into the digital nature of modern computers.[190]

The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) held the

first major chess tournament for computers, the North
American Computer Chess Championship, in September
1970. CHESS 3.0, a chess program from Northwestern
University, won the championship. The first World Computer
Chess Championship, held in 1974, was won by the Soviet
program Kaissa. At first considered only a curiosity, the best
chess playing programs have become extremely strong. In
1997, a computer won a chess match using classical time
1990s chess-playing computer
controls against a reigning World Champion for the first time:
IBM's Deep Blue beat Garry Kasparov 3½–2½ (it scored two
wins, one loss, and three draws).[191][192] There was some controversy over the match,[193] and human–
computer matches were relatively close over the next few years, until convincing computer victories in
2005 and in 2006.

In 2009, a mobile phone won a category 6 tournament with a performance rating of 2898: chess engine
Hiarcs 13 running on the mobile phone HTC Touch HD won the Copa Mercosur tournament with nine
wins and one draw.[194] The best chess programs are now able to consistently beat the strongest human
players, to the extent that human–computer matches no longer attract interest from chess players or the
media.[195] While the World Computer Chess Championship still exists, the Top Chess Engine
Championship (TCEC) is widely regarded as the unofficial world championship for chess
engines.[196][197][198] The current champion is Stockfish.

With huge databases of past games and high analytical ability, computers can help players to learn chess
and prepare for matches. Internet Chess Servers allow people to find and play opponents worldwide. The
presence of computers and modern communication tools have raised concerns regarding cheating during
games.[199]

Related games
Related games include:

direct predecessors of chess, such as chaturanga

and shatranj;
traditional national or regional games that share
common ancestors with Western chess such as
xiangqi (Chinese chess), shogi (Japanese chess),
janggi (Korean chess), ouk chatrang (Cambodian
chess), makruk (Thai chess), sittuyin (Burmese
chess), and shatar (Mongolian chess);
In the comparison of chess with games often referred to as
national forms of chess, chess may be referred to as Western
chess or international chess.[200][201]
Sittuyin, after setup phase. Players elect
their own starting setups behind the
Chess variants pawns.
There are more than two thousand published chess variants,
games with similar but different rules,[202] most of which are
of relatively recent origin.[203] They include modern variations employing different rules (e.g. losing
chess and Chess960[note 8]), different forces (e.g. Dunsany's chess), non-standard pieces (e.g. Grand
Chess), and different board geometries (e.g. hexagonal chess and infinite chess); In the context of chess
variants, chess is commonly referred to as orthodox chess, orthochess, and classic chess.[200][201]

See also
Glossary of chess
Glossary of chess problems
 List of abstract strategy games
List of chess players
List of World Chess Championships
Outline of chess
Women in chess

Notes
1. The fifty-move rule is not applied at FICGS.[9]
2. Current FIDE lists of top players with their titles are online at "FIDE Ratings and Statistics"
(https://ratings.fide.com/). ratings.fide.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230710
101639/http://ratings.fide.com/) from the original on 10 July 2023. Retrieved 29 December
2022.
3. At that time the Spanish word would have been written axedrez. The Spanish "x" was
pronounced as English "sh", as the Portuguese "x" still is today. The spelling of ajedrez
changed after Spanish lost the "sh" sound.
4. The allegorical poem Scachs d'amor, the first to describe a modern game, is probably from
1475.[78][79]
5. This is stated in The Encyclopaedia of Chess (1970, p. 223) by Anne Sunnucks, but is
disputed by Edward Winter (chess historian) in his Chess Notes 5144 and 5152 (http://www.
chesshistory.com/winter/winter38.html).
6. Chess is even called the "drosophila" of cognitive psychology and artificial intelligence (AI)
studies, because it represents the domain in which expert performance has been most
intensively studied and measured.[166]
7. Alan Turing made an attempt in 1953.[189]
8. In 2008 FIDE added Chess960 rules to an appendix of the Handbook.[204] This section is
now classified under "Guidelines",[2] indicating that the rules presented do not have the
weight of FIDE law.

References
1. A World of Chess, Jean-Louis Cazaux and Rick Knowlton, p. 244
2. "Fide Laws of Chess taking effect from 1 January 2023" (https://handbook.fide.com/chapter/
E012023). FIDE. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230101083033/https://handbook.f
ide.com/chapter/E012023) from the original on 1 January 2023. Retrieved 1 January 2023.
3. "C. General Rules and Technical Recommendations for Tournaments / 02. Chess
Equipment / 01. Standards of Chess Equipment / FIDE Handbook" (https://handbook.fide.co
m/chapter/StandardsOfChessEquipment2022). International Chess Federation (FIDE).
Retrieved 19 January 2025.
4. Hooper & Whyld (1992), p. 47
5. United States Chess Federation. (2003). U.S. Chess Federation's official rules of chess.
Just, Tim., Burg, Daniel B. (5th ed.). New York: Random House Puzzles and Games.
ISBN 0-8129-3559-4. OCLC 52859422 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/52859422).
6. Burgess (2000), p. 481
7. David Brine Pritchard (6 November 2008) [1950]. The Right Way to Play Chess. Updated by
Richard James (2008 revised ed.). Right Way. ISBN 978-0-7160-2199-5.
 8. Jack Peters (18 May 2001). "Why Grandmasters Rarely Checkmate" (https://www.latimes.co
m/archives/la-xpm-2001-may-18-cl-64946-story.html). Los Angeles Times. Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20201229221956/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2001-may-
18-cl-64946-story.html) from the original on 29 December 2020. Retrieved 3 December
2020.
9. "50 moves rules" (http://www.ficgs.com/membership.html#chess). FICGS. Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20100209034210/http://www.ficgs.com/membership.html#chess) from
the original on 9 February 2010. Retrieved 1 December 2009.
10. See paragraph "C. Algebraic notation" in FIDE Laws of Chess[2]
11. Hooper & Whyld (1992), p. 92
12. Murray (1985), p. 25
13. Hooper & Whyld (1992), p. 229
14. Susan Polgar (11 February 2008). "Special Chess Records" (https://chessdailynews.com/sp
ecial-chess-records/). Chess Daily News. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202212290
64443/https://chessdailynews.com/special-chess-records/) from the original on 29
December 2022. Retrieved 29 December 2022.
15. "Chess and draughts collection – Koninklijke Bibliotheek" (http://www.kb.nl/en/resources-res
earch-guides/kb-collections/collections-by-theme/chess-and-draughts-collection). kb.nl.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150602095256/http://www.kb.nl/en/resources-rese
arch-guides/kb-collections/collections-by-theme/chess-and-draughts-collection) from the
original on 2 June 2015.
16. "Siegbert Tarrasch vs. Max Euwe, Bad Pistyan it, CZE 1922" (http://www.chessgames.com/
perl/chessgame?gid=1006866). Chessgames.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0090110122502/http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1006866) from the
original on 10 January 2009.
17. Harding (2003), pp. 1–7
18. Lasker (1934), p. 73
19. Watson (1998), pp. 163ff
20. Harding (2003), pp. 138ff
21. Evans (1958), pp. 22–67
22. Harding (2003), pp. 8ff
23. Harding (2003), pp. 70ff
24. Burgess, Nunn & Emms (2004), pp. 14–15
25. Tamburro (2010), p. 18
26. Tarrasch (1987)
27. Evans (1958), p. 175
28. Harding (2003), pp. 32–151
29. Hooper & Whyld (1992), p. 86
30. Silman (1998), pp. 202–205
31. Emms (2004), p. 90
32. Harding (2003), pp. 187ff
33. de la Villa (2008), pp. 179–180
34. Howard (1961)
35. Hooper & Whyld (1992), p. 234
36. John Nunn (12 May 2015). "Longest dual-free direct mate problem" (https://en.chessbase.c
om/post/longest-dual-free-direct-mate-problem). Chessbase.com. Retrieved 30 January
2025.
37. Hooper & Whyld (1992), p. 110
38. Hooper & Whyld (1992), pp. 400–401
39. Weenink (1926)
40. Hercules, Andrew (11 January 2021). "What Is Chess Hustling & How Much Do Chess
Hustlers Make?" (https://herculeschess.com/what-is-chess-hustling/). Hercules Chess.
Retrieved 28 January 2025.
41. "FIDE - Affiliated organizations" (https://www.fide.com/directory/affiliated-organizations).
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210224160953/https://www.fide.com/directory/affili
ated-organizations) from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 26 February 2021.
42. "Association of IOC Recognised International Sports Federations" (https://www.arisf.sport/m
embers.aspx). International Olympic Committee. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2021
0122114531/https://www.arisf.sport/members.aspx) from the original on 22 January 2021.
Retrieved 14 January 2021.
43. "Gukesh defeats Ding, takes 6-5 lead in world chess championship" (https://www.aljazeera.c
om/sports/2024/12/8/gukesh-defeats-ding-takes-6-5-lead-in-world-chess-championship). Al
Jazeera. Retrieved 13 December 2024.
44. "Ding Liren defeats Ian Nepomniachtchi to win World Chess Championship – live" (https://w
ww.msn.com/en-gb/sport/tennis/ding-liren-defeats-ian-nepomniachtchi-to-win-world-chess-c
hampionship-live/ar-AA1ay88z). MSN. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202304301350
51/https://www.msn.com/en-gb/sport/tennis/ding-liren-defeats-ian-nepomniachtchi-to-win-wo
rld-chess-championship-live/ar-AA1ay88z) from the original on 30 April 2023. Retrieved
30 April 2023.
45. "Women's World Championship 2020 - Ju wins tiebreak" (https://en.chessbase.com/post/wo
mens-world-championship-2020-ju-goryachkina-game-12). chessbase.com. 24 January
2020. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200124185454/https://en.chessbase.com/po
st/womens-world-championship-2020-ju-goryachkina-game-12) from the original on 24
January 2020. Retrieved 26 February 2020.
46. "Carlsen with record-breaking lead" (http://chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=8744).
ChessBase News. 1 January 2013. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2013012211575
3/http://chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=8744) from the original on 22 January 2013.
Retrieved 16 January 2013.
47. "FIDE Handbook" (https://handbook.fide.com/). FIDE. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20210108150228/https://handbook.fide.com/) from the original on 8 January 2021.
Retrieved 5 July 2020.
48. Section "01. International Title Regulations (Qualification Commission)" in FIDE
Handbook[47]
49. Section "06. Regulations for the Titles of Arbiters" in FIDE Handbook[47]
50. Section "07. Regulations for the Titles of Trainers" in FIDE Handbook[47]
51. Eder, Manfred A. J. (2010). South Asian Archaeology 2007 Proceedings of the 19th Meeting
of the European Association of South Asian Archaeology in Ravenna, Italy, July 2007,
Volume II (http://history.chess.free.fr/papers/Eder%202007-2.pdf) (PDF). Archaeopress
Archaeology. p. 69. ISBN 978-1-4073-0674-2. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202111
20194215/http://history.chess.free.fr/papers/Eder%202007-2.pdf) (PDF) from the original on
20 November 2021. Retrieved 21 November 2021.
52. Bakker, Hans T. (2017). The Huns in Central and South Asia. How Two Centuries of War
against Nomadic Invaders from the Steps are Concluded by a Game of Chess between the
Kings of India and Iran (https://www.academia.edu/34156496). Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20220320115332/https://www.academia.edu/34156496) from the original on 20
March 2022. Retrieved 21 November 2021.
53. Panaino, Antonio (1999). La novella degli scacchi e della tavola reale. Milano: Mimesis.
ISBN 88-87231-26-5.
54. Andreas Bock-Raming, The Gaming Board in Indian Chess and Related Board Games: a
terminological investigation, Board Games Studies 2, 1999
55. Warner (2000), p. 381
56. Mark 2007, p. 148.
57. Murray (1985), pp. 169–174
58. Trautmann (2015), p. 117
59. Mark 2007, p. 138.
60. Fine (2015), p. 3
61. Murray (1985), pp. 26–27, 51–52
62. "A critical review of: "The Beginnings of Chess" " (http://history.chess.free.fr/mark2007.htm).
Jean-Louis Cazaux. 8 August 2012. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2021080803231
8/http://history.chess.free.fr/mark2007.htm) from the original on 8 August 2021. Retrieved
4 May 2021.
63. "Ashtapada" (http://history.chess.free.fr/ashtapada.htm). Jean-Louis Cazaux. 25 July 2005.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170725185540/http://history.chess.free.fr/ashtapad
a.htm) from the original on 25 July 2017. Retrieved 16 July 2013.
64. Eiland, Murray (2013). "Some Problems of Islamic Heraldry" (https://www.academia.edu/801
3404). The Armiger's News. 35 (2): 1–5. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2023020301
1606/https://www.academia.edu/8013404) from the original on 3 February 2023. Retrieved
27 December 2022 – via academia.edu.
65. Murray (1985), p. 163
66. Harper, Douglas; Dan McCormack. "Online Etymology Dictionary" (http://www.etymonline.co
m/index.php?term=checkmate). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20121102052251/htt
p://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=checkmate) from the original on 2 November
2012. Retrieved 2 May 2020.
67. Peter Banaschak, Facts on the origin of Chinese chess (Xiangqi), 4th Symposium of the
Initiative Gruppe Königstein, Wiesbaden, August 1997
68. Png Hau Cheng, Jim (2016). Understanding the Elephant, Part 1: History of Xiangqi. New
Taipei City: Jim Png Hau Cheng. ISBN 978-957-43-3998-3.
69. Li (1998)
70. Banaschak, Peter. "A story well told is not necessarily true: a critical assessment of David H.
Li's The Genealogy of Chess" (http://www.banaschak.net/schach/ligenealogyofchess.htm).
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130511071131/http://www.banaschak.net/schach/li
genealogyofchess.htm) from the original on 11 May 2013.
71. Cazaux, Jean-Louis; Knowlton, Rick (2017). A World of Chess, Its Development and
Variations through Centuries and Civilisations. McFarland. pp. 334–353 (The origins of
chess, approaching the question from several angles). ISBN 9-780786-494279.
72. Freeman Fahid, Deborah (2018). Chess and other games pieces from Islamic Lands.
London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-97092-8.
73. Brunning et al. (2024), pp. 151–152
74. Hooper & Whyld (1992), pp. 173–175
75. Ilko, Krisztina (2024). "Chess and Race in the Global Middle Ages". Speculum. 99 (2): 505–
519. doi:10.1086/729294 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F729294). ISSN 0038-7134 (https://sea
rch.worldcat.org/issn/0038-7134).
76. Murray (1985), pp. 457–459
77. Murray (1985), p. 777
78. "Francesco di Castellvi vs. Narciso Vinyoles (1475) "Old in Chess" " (http://www.chessgame
s.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1259987). Chessgames.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20210128214712/https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1259987) from
the original on 28 January 2021. Retrieved 13 November 2021.
79. Negri, Sergio Ernesto (16 March 2020). "Scachs d'amor: The poem that first portrayed the
modern rules of chess" (https://en.chessbase.com/post/scachs-damor-poem-part-1).
ChessBase. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200329222835/https://en.chessbase.c
om/post/scachs-damor-poem-part-1) from the original on 29 March 2020. Retrieved
9 November 2021.
80. Davidson (1949), pp. 13–17
81. Calvo, Ricardo (1998). "Valencia Spain: The Cradle of European Chess" (http://history.ches
s.free.fr/papers/Calvo%201998.pdf) (PDF). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160130
113355/http://history.chess.free.fr/papers/Calvo%201998.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 30
January 2016. Retrieved 3 March 2015.
82. Yalom (2004)
83. Weissberger (2004), pp. 152ff
84. Alex, Crisovan (1989). 1889-1989 : 100 Jahre Schweizerischer Schachverband: 100 ans de
fdration suisse des checs (https://books.google.com/books?id=nww4MQAACAAJ) (in
Italian). Verlag Zrcher. p. 54. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230203011446/https://
books.google.com/books?id=nww4MQAACAAJ) from the original on 3 February 2023.
Retrieved 25 January 2023.
85. "Louis Charles Mahe De La Bourdonnais" (http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pi
d=31596). Chessgames.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20081229231938/http://
www.chessgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pid=31596) from the original on 29 December
2008. Retrieved 26 November 2008.
86. Metzner (1998)
87. Bird, Henry Edward (January 2004). Chess History and Reminiscences (http://www.gutenbe
rg.org/ebooks/4902) (10 ed.). Gutenberg. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/200909241
25500/http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/4902) from the original on 24 September 2009.
Retrieved 26 November 2008.
88. David Shenk (2007). The Immortal Game: A History of Chess (https://archive.org/details/isb
n_9780385510103). Knopf Doubleday. p. 99 (https://archive.org/details/isbn_978038551010
3/page/99). ISBN 9780385510103.
89. Landsberger (1992)
90. René Gralla (19 November 2006). "XiangQi – an alternate to Western Chess" (http://www.ch
essbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=3492). ChessBase.com. Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20110604145052/http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=3492) from
the original on 4 June 2011.
91. Gralla, René (2 January 2005). "Kramnik plays Makruk Thai" (http://www.chessvariants.org/
oriental.dir/thaikramnik.html). The Chess Variant Pages. Archived (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20110606155706/http://www.chessvariants.org/oriental.dir/thaikramnik.html) from the
original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
92. "London Chess Club" (http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pid=80740).
Chessgames.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20081225144954/http://www.ches
sgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pid=80740) from the original on 25 December 2008.
Retrieved 26 November 2008.
93. Parr, Larry. "London, 1851" (https://web.archive.org/web/20031004035110/http://worldchess
network.com/English/chessHistory/salute/matchesTournaments/london1851.php). World
Chess Network. Archived from the original (http://worldchessnetwork.com/English/chessHist
ory/salute/matchesTournaments/london1851.php) on 4 October 2003. Retrieved
26 November 2008.
94. Hartston (1985), p. 36
95. Burgess, Nunn & Emms (2004), p. 14
96. Shibut (2004)
97. Nimzowitsch (1925), p. 140
 98. Kasparov (2003a), p. 6
99. Kasparov (2003a), p. 11
100. Kasparov (2003a), p. 117
101. "Vera Menchik" (http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pid=13277).
Chessgames.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20081026031307/http://www.ches
sgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pid=13277) from the original on 26 October 2008. Retrieved
26 November 2008.
102. Kasparov (2003b), p. 9
103. Hooper & Whyld (1992), p. 178
104. Hudson, Michael Andrew (2013). Storming Fortresses: A Political History Of Chess In The
Soviet Union, 1917-1948 (https://escholarship.org/uc/item/0s71f0cw) (Thesis). UC Santa
Cruz. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210425094201/https://escholarship.org/uc/ite
m/0s71f0cw) from the original on 25 April 2021. Retrieved 19 April 2021.
105. "The match of the century" (https://www.adamsmith.org/blog/the-match-of-the-century).
Adam Smith Institute. September 2019. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210908234
912/https://www.adamsmith.org/blog/the-match-of-the-century) from the original on 8
September 2021. Retrieved 8 September 2021.
106. Kasparov (2003b), pp. 7–8
107. Kasparov (2003b), p. 7
108. Pete (Pete) (28 April 2018). "The 12 Most Interesting Chess Players Ever" (https://www.ches
s.com/article/view/the-12-most-interesting-chess-players-ever). Chess.com. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20210419131201/https://www.chess.com/article/view/the-12-most-i
nteresting-chess-players-ever) from the original on 19 April 2021. Retrieved 19 April 2021.
109. Kasparov (2003b), p. 8; Kasparov (2004a), pp. 5–6
110. "How chess became a pawn in Russia's political war games" (https://www.wired.co.uk/articl
e/world-chess-championship-2018-london-carlsen-vs-caruana). Wired UK. ISSN 1357-0978
(https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1357-0978). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202109
08234912/https://www.wired.co.uk/article/world-chess-championship-2018-london-carlsen-v
s-caruana) from the original on 8 September 2021. Retrieved 8 September 2021.
111. Kasparov (2004b), pp. 5–6
112. Kasparov (2003a), p. 8
113. Kasparov (2004b), pp. 5–6; Kasparov (2006), pp. 5–6
114. Keene (1993), p. 16
115. "Endgame tablebases: A short history" (https://en.chessbase.com/post/endgame-tablebases
-a-short-history). ChessBase News. 16 March 2018. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0210420013702/https://en.chessbase.com/post/endgame-tablebases-a-short-history) from
the original on 20 April 2021. Retrieved 19 April 2021.
116. "ChessBase is 25" (https://en.chessbase.com/post/chebase-is-25-everything-25-off-in-our-s
hop). Chess News. 19 May 2011. Retrieved 4 February 2025.
117. McClain, Dylan Loeb (14 March 2010). "Wherever You Are, a Game Is Just a Point and
Click Away" (https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/1
4/crosswords/chess/14chess.html). The New York Times. Archived from the original (https://
www.nytimes.com/2010/03/14/crosswords/chess/14chess.html) on 1 January 2022.
Retrieved 10 January 2021.
118. Thomson, Adam (7 October 2015). "Internet helps to speed up growth of chess around the
world" (https://www.ft.com/content/d61a112a-524a-11e5-b029-b9d50a74fd14). Financial
Times. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210420013702/https://www.ft.com/content/d
61a112a-524a-11e5-b029-b9d50a74fd14) from the original on 20 April 2021. Retrieved
22 April 2021.
119. " 'It's electrifying': chess world hails Queen's Gambit-fuelled boom" (https://www.theguardia
n.com/sport/2020/nov/29/chess-world-hails-queens-gambit-fuelled-boom). The Guardian. 29
November 2020. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210310133353/https://www.thegu
ardian.com/sport/2020/nov/29/chess-world-hails-queens-gambit-fuelled-boom) from the
original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 19 April 2021.
120. Dottle, Rachael. "The Chess Boom Goes Digital After 'The Queen's Gambit' " (https://www.bl
oomberg.com/graphics/2020-chess-boom/). Bloomberg.com. Archived (https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20210417174425/https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2020-chess-boom/) from the
original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 19 April 2021.
121. Team (CHESScom), Chess com (15 August 2020). "About Online Chess Cheating" (https://
www.chess.com/article/view/online-chess-cheating). Chess.com. Archived (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20210420131449/https://www.chess.com/article/view/online-chess-cheating)
from the original on 20 April 2021. Retrieved 20 April 2021.
122. Waters, Richard (12 January 2018). "Techmate: How AI rewrote the rules of chess" (https://
www.ft.com/content/ea707a24-f6b7-11e7-8715-e94187b3017e). Financial Times. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20210317081158/https://www.ft.com/content/ea707a24-f6b7-1
1e7-8715-e94187b3017e) from the original on 17 March 2021. Retrieved 13 May 2021.
123. L. B. Stiller (1991). "Some Results from a Massively Parallel Retrograde Analysis". ICCA
Journal. 14 (3): 129–134. doi:10.3233/ICG-1991-14304 (https://doi.org/10.3233%2FICG-199
1-14304).
124. See also: L. B. Stiller (1995). "Exploiting symmetry on parallel architectures". Icga Journal.
18 (2): 102–113. doi:10.3233/icg-1995-18206 (https://doi.org/10.3233%2Ficg-1995-18206).
125. Convekta Ltd. "Lomonosov Endgame Tablebases" (http://chessok.com/?page_id=27966).
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130501134618/http://chessok.com/?page_id=2796
6) from the original on 1 May 2013. Retrieved 20 April 2021.
126. Campitelli, Guillermo (29 November 2013). "How computers changed chess" (https://thecon
versation.com/how-computers-changed-chess-20772). The Conversation. Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20210425081211/https://theconversation.com/how-computers-change
d-chess-20772) from the original on 25 April 2021. Retrieved 24 April 2021.
127. "Big Techday 9 - TNG Technology Consulting - Modern Chess Preparation – The Role of
Computers in professional Chess" (http://media.techcast.cloud/bigtechday9/barcelona-161
5/?q=barcelona-1615). media.techcast.cloud. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202104
27010714/http://media.techcast.cloud/bigtechday9/barcelona-1615/?q=barcelona-1615)
from the original on 27 April 2021. Retrieved 27 April 2021.
128. Brookwell, Ilya (2 September 2020). "Chess is taking over the online video game world –
and both are changing from this unlikely pairing" (https://theconversation.com/chess-is-takin
g-over-the-online-video-game-world-and-both-are-changing-from-this-unlikely-pairing-14379
0). The Conversation. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210427004246/https://theco
nversation.com/chess-is-taking-over-the-online-video-game-world-and-both-are-changing-fr
om-this-unlikely-pairing-143790) from the original on 27 April 2021. Retrieved 26 April 2021.
129. "The Big Story" (https://www.protocol.com/newsletters/gaming/chess-twitch-streaming?rebel
ltitem=1#rebelltitem1?rebelltitem=1). Protocol — The people, power and politics of tech. 23
February 2021. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210420132231/https://www.protoco
l.com/newsletters/gaming/chess-twitch-streaming?rebelltitem=1#rebelltitem1?rebelltitem=1)
from the original on 20 April 2021. Retrieved 20 April 2021.
130. Statt, Nick (27 August 2020). "Esports giant TSM signs Hikaru Nakamura, its first pro chess
player" (https://www.theverge.com/2020/8/27/21404322/hikaru-nakamura-chess-tsm-esport
s-sign-contract-player-twitch). The Verge. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202104201
30729/https://www.theverge.com/2020/8/27/21404322/hikaru-nakamura-chess-tsm-esports-
sign-contract-player-twitch) from the original on 20 April 2021. Retrieved 20 April 2021.
131. "Magnus Carlsen trolls FIDE in Team Liquid announcement video: 'Do I have to change?' "
(https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/chess/magnus-carlsen-trolls-fide-in-team-liquid-ann
ouncement-video-do-i-have-to-change-9837163/). The Indian Express. 15 February 2025.
Retrieved 15 February 2025.
132. Svensen, Tarjei J. (13 February 2025). "Ding Liren Signs With Chinese Esports Team,
Reveals Return To Chess" (https://www.chess.com/news/view/ding-liren-returns-to-chess-si
gns-for-lgd-gaming-less-busy-year). Chess.com. Retrieved 13 February 2025.
133. "SuperNationals VI is the Largest Rated Tourney Ever" (https://new.uschess.org/news/super
nationals-vi-largest-rated-tourney-ever/), Chess Life Online, 13 May 2017, archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20210429023117/https://new.uschess.org/news/supernationals-vi-larg
est-rated-tourney-ever) from the original on 29 April 2021, retrieved 8 May 2018
134. Regan, Kenneth; Haworth, Guy (4 August 2011). "Intrinsic Chess Ratings" (https://ojs.aaai.o
rg/index.php/AAAI/article/view/7951). Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial
Intelligence. 25 (1): 834–839. doi:10.1609/aaai.v25i1.7951 (https://doi.org/10.1609%2Faaai.
v25i1.7951). ISSN 2374-3468 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2374-3468).
S2CID 15489049 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15489049). Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20210420130735/https://ojs.aaai.org/index.php/AAAI/article/view/7951)
from the original on 20 April 2021. Retrieved 20 April 2021.
135. "Kramnik beats Kasparov, 2000" (https://web.archive.org/web/20060128031243/http://archiv
es.cnn.com/2000/WORLD/europe/11/02/chess.kramnik/index.html). CNN. 2 November
2000. Archived from the original (http://archives.cnn.com/2000/WORLD/europe/11/02/chess.
kramnik/index.html) on 28 January 2006. Retrieved 4 September 2010.
136. "Vladimir Kramnik" (http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pid=12295).
Chessgames.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20081222121703/http://www.ches
sgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pid=12295) from the original on 22 December 2008.
Retrieved 26 November 2008.
137. "Viswanathan Anand regains world chess title" (https://web.archive.org/web/2007122610202
8/http://in.reuters.com/article/sportsNews/idINIndia-29785520070930). Reuters. 30
September 2007. Archived from the original (http://in.reuters.com/article/sportsNews/idINIndi
a-29785520070930) on 26 December 2007. Retrieved 13 December 2007.
138. Vale (2001), pp. 170–199
139. Count Bladessar Castilio (1900) [1561]. Walter Raleigh (ed.). The Second Book of the
Courtier (https://web.archive.org/web/20000818234955/http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~rbear/
courtier/courtier2.html). Translated by Sir Thomas Hoby. London: David Nutt. Archived from
the original (http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~rbear/courtier/courtier2.html) on 18 August 2000.
Retrieved 7 May 2010.
140. Olmert (1996), p. 127
141. E. Gordon Duff (1907). "§3. The first book printed in English — "The Recuyell of the
Histories of Troy" " (https://www.bartleby.com/212/1303.html). XIII. The Introduction of
Printing into England and the Early Work of the Press. Vol. 2. The End of the Middle Ages.
The Cambridge History of English and American Literature: An Encyclopedia in Eighteen
Volumes. 1907–21. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220815001313/https://www.bar
tleby.com/212/1303.html) from the original on 15 August 2022. Retrieved 29 December
2022 – via Bartleby.
142. Adams (2006)
143. Caxton, William; Jacobus, de Cessolis (January 2004) [1474]. William Edward Armytage
Axon (ed.). The Game and Playe of the Chesse (http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/10672).
Project Gutenberg. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090924213005/http://www.gute
nberg.org/etext/10672) from the original on 24 September 2009. Retrieved 20 May 2010.
144. "Carmina potoria" (http://www.fh-augsburg.de/~harsch/Chronologia/Lspost13/CarminaBuran
a/bur_cpo2.html). Bibliotheca Augustana. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/200712291
51500/http://www.fh-augsburg.de/~harsch/Chronologia/Lspost13/CarminaBurana/bur_cpo2.
html) from the original on 29 December 2007. Retrieved 26 November 2008.
145. Joseph Jacobs; A. Porter. "Chess" (https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4314-ches
s). The Jewish Encyclopedia. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20221229064440/http
s://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4314-chess) from the original on 29 December
2022. Retrieved 29 December 2022.
146. Murray (1985), pp. 166–167, 410
147. Shaheen, Kareem (21 January 2016). "Chess forbidden in Islam, rules Saudi mufti, but
issue not black and white" (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jan/21/chess-forbidden
-in-islam-rules-saudi-arabia-grand-mufti). The Guardian. Archived (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20160213200335/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jan/21/chess-forbidden-in-isla
m-rules-saudi-arabia-grand-mufti) from the original on 13 February 2016. Retrieved 1 April
2019.
148. Franklin (2003) [1786], p. 289
149. Thompson, Clive (22 May 2014). "Why Chess Will Destroy Your Mind" (https://medium.com/
message/why-chess-will-destroy-your-mind-78ad1034521f). Medium. Archived (https://web.
archive.org/web/20170901152810/https://medium.com/message/why-chess-will-destroy-you
r-mind-78ad1034521f) from the original on 1 September 2017.
150. Geigner, Timothy (20 June 2014). "That Time When People Thought Playing Chess Would
Make You Violent" (https://www.techdirt.com/articles/20140613/08020527566/that-time-whe
n-people-thought-playing-chess-would-make-you-violent.shtml). TechDirt. Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20170324191000/https://www.techdirt.com/articles/20140613/0802052
7566/that-time-when-people-thought-playing-chess-would-make-you-violent.shtml) from the
original on 24 March 2017.
151. "National Scholastic Chess Foundation" (https://web.archive.org/web/20091230140133/htt
p://www.nscfchess.org/nscfmiss.html). Archived from the original (http://www.nscfchess.org/
nscfmiss.html) on 30 December 2009. Retrieved 30 December 2009.
152. Kraaijeveld (2000). "Origin of chess–a phylogenetic perspective" (http://ex.ludicum.org/publi
cacoes/bgsj/3.pdf#page=38) (PDF). Board Games Studies. 3: 39–50. Archived (https://web.
archive.org/web/20200929011559/http://ex.ludicum.org/publicacoes/bgsj/3.pdf#page=38)
(PDF) from the original on 29 September 2020. Retrieved 16 January 2021.
153. Ruthann Mayes-Elma (2006). Females and Harry Potter: Not All that Empowering (https://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=LiWrXUHgnL8C&pg=PA95). Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 95–.
ISBN 978-0-7425-3779-8. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210813113441/https://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=LiWrXUHgnL8C&pg=PA95) from the original on 13 August 2021.
Retrieved 16 January 2021.
154. John Tromp (2021). "Chess Position Ranking" (https://github.com/tromp/ChessPositionRank
ing). GitHub. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210808152713/https://github.com/tro
mp/ChessPositionRanking) from the original on 8 August 2021.
155. Babb, Jonathan (10 January 1996). "Evolution of the Chess Robot: Brute force Wins" (http://
groups.csail.mit.edu/cag/pub/papers/jbabb-area.ps.Z). Massachusetts Institute of
Technology. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230221064724/http://groups.csail.mit.e
du/cag/pub/papers/jbabb-area.ps.Z) from the original on 21 February 2023. Retrieved
21 February 2023.
156. "The biggest Number of simultaneous possible legal Moves" (https://web.archive.org/web/20
070613072827/http://www.chessbox.de/Compu/schachzahl2_e.html). ChessBox.de.
Archived from the original (http://www.chessbox.de/Compu/schachzahl2_e.html) on 13 June
2007.
157. Zermelo, Ernst (1913), Uber eine Anwendung der Mengenlehre auf die Theorie des
Schachspiels, Proceedings of the Fifth International Congress of Mathematicians 2, 501–04.
Cited from Eichhorn, Christoph: Der Beginn der Formalen Spieltheorie: Zermelo (1913), Uni-
Muenchen.de (http://www.mathematik.uni-muenchen.de/~spielth/artikel/Zermelo.pdf)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20070612134609/http://www.mathematik.uni-muench
en.de/~spielth/artikel/Zermelo.pdf) 12 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 23
March 2007.
158. "Fundamentals" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110607183513/http://www.gap-system.org/~
history/Projects/MacQuarrie/Chapters/Ch4.html). gap-system.org. Archived from the original
(http://www.gap-system.org/~history/Projects/MacQuarrie/Chapters/Ch4.html) on 7 June
2011.
159. "Games". Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology: Volume 8. CRC Press. 1977.
p. 394. ISBN 978-0-8247-2258-6.
160. Desoky, Abdelrahman; Younis, Mohamed (November 2009). "Chestega: chess
steganography methodology" (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fsec.99). Security and
Communication Networks. 2 (6): 555–566. doi:10.1002/sec.99 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fs
ec.99).
161. Hernandez-Castro, Julio C.; Blasco-Lopez, Ignacio; Estevez-Tapiador, Juan M.; Ribagorda-
Garnacho, Arturo (February 2006). "Steganography in games: A general methodology and
its application to the game of Go". Computers & Security. 25 (1): 64–71.
doi:10.1016/j.cose.2005.12.001 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cose.2005.12.001).
162. Mukherjee, Nayanika (15 September 2024). " 'I turned Lichess into Google Drive': 18yo
shows how to store files, secret messages in a game of chess" (https://indianexpress.com/a
rticle/puzzles-and-games/info/chess-games-cloud-storage-creative-coding-cryptography-bra
inteasers-9567020/). The Indian Express. Retrieved 28 January 2025.
163. Post, Melville Davisson (January 1918). "German War Ciphers". Everybody's Magazine.
Vol. 38, no. 1. pp. 28–34. hdl:2027/uiug.30112077173703 (https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fui
ug.30112077173703?urlappend=%3Bseq=626%3Bownerid=13510798903194481-672).
164. Oberhaus, Daniel (25 March 2017). "The Spy Who Checkmated Me: Why Postal Chess
Was Banned During Wartime" (https://www.vice.com/en/article/the-spy-who-checkmated-me
-why-postal-chess-was-banned-during-wartime/). Vice. Retrieved 28 January 2025.
165. Dubois, Joan (September 1991). "Golden Knights in Review" (https://uscf1-nyc1.aodhosting.
com/CL-AND-CR-ALL/CL-ALL/1991/1991_09.pdf#page=40) (PDF). Chess Life. Vol. 46,
no. 9. pp. 40–45 – via US Chess Federation.
166. Grabner, Stern & Neubauer (2007), pp. 398–420
167. de Groot & Gobet (1996)
168. Gobet, de Voogt & Retschitzki (2004)
169. Holding (1985)
170. Saariluoma (1995)
171. Binet (1894)
172. Robbins et al. (1996), pp. 83–93
173. de Groot (1965)
174. Richards J. Heuer Jr. Psychology of Intelligence Analysis Center for the Study of
Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency 1999 (see Chapter 3 (https://www.cia.gov/library/ce
nter-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/psychology-of-intel
ligence-analysis/art6.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20070912045710/https://w
ww.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monograph
s/psychology-of-intelligence-analysis/art6.html) 12 September 2007 at the Wayback
Machine).
175. Ericsson, K.A.; Krampe, R. Th.; Tesch-Römer, C. (1993). "The role of deliberate practice in
the acquisition of expert performance" (https://web.archive.org/web/20060512183911/http://
www.freakonomics.com/pdf/DeliberatePractice%28PsychologicalReview%29.pdf) (PDF).
Psychological Review. 100 (3): 363–406. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.100.3.363 (https://doi.org/
10.1037%2F0033-295X.100.3.363). S2CID 11187529 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corp
usID:11187529). Archived from the original (http://www.freakonomics.com/pdf/DeliberatePra
ctice%28PsychologicalReview%29.pdf) (PDF) on 12 May 2006.
176. Macnamara, Brooke N.; Maitra, Megha (21 August 2019). "The role of deliberate practice in
expert performance: revisiting Ericsson, Krampe & Tesch-Römer (1993)" (https://www.ncbi.n
lm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6731745). Royal Society Open Science. 6 (8): 190327.
doi:10.1177/0963721411421922 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0963721411421922).
PMC 6731745 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6731745). PMID 31598236
(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31598236). S2CID 190327 (https://api.semanticscholar.or
g/CorpusID:190327).
177. Gobet, F. & Chassy, P. (in press). "Season of birth and chess expertise" (http://bura.brunel.a
c.uk/bitstream/2438/736/1/Seasonality%20and%20chess.pdf) (PDF). Archived (https://web.
archive.org/web/20110718172434/http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/bitstream/2438/736/1/Seasonalit
y%20and%20chess.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 18 July 2011. (65.8 KB) Journal of
Biosocial Science.
Gobet, F. & Campitelli, G. (2007). "The role of domain-specific practice, handedness and
starting age in chess" (http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/bitstream/2438/611/1/Gobet_DevPsyc_Final.
pdf) (PDF). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20070808073144/http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/
bitstream/2438/611/1/Gobet_DevPsyc_Final.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 8 August
2007. (196 KB) Developmental Psychology, 43, 159–72. Both retrieved 2007-07-15.
178. Djakow, I. N., Petrowski, N. W., & Rudik, P. A. (1927). Psychologie des schachspiels.
179. Burgoyne, Alexander P.; Sala, Giovanni; Gobet, Fernand; MacNamara, Brooke N.;
Campitelli, Guillermo; Hambrick, David Z. (1 November 2016). "The relationship between
cognitive ability and chess skill: A comprehensive meta-analysis" (http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/102
241/1/INTELL_2016_117_The_Relationship_between_Cognitive_Ability_and_Chess_Skill_
a_Comprehensive_Meta_Analysis.pdf) (PDF). Intelligence. 59: 72–83.
doi:10.1016/j.intell.2016.08.002 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.intell.2016.08.002).
ISSN 0160-2896 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0160-2896). Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20200506054933/http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/102241/1/INTELL_2016_117_The_Relatio
nship_between_Cognitive_Ability_and_Chess_Skill_a_Comprehensive_Meta_Analysis.pdf)
(PDF) from the original on 6 May 2020. Retrieved 26 February 2020.
180. Campitelli, Guillermo; Gobet, Fernand (5 October 2011). "Deliberate Practice: Necessary
But Not Sufficient". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 20 (5): 280–285.
doi:10.1177/0963721411421922 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0963721411421922).
S2CID 145572294 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145572294).
181. Ruiter, Chananya De (16 November 2020). "The Queen's Gambit And A Rise In Online
Chess Playing" (https://www.thailandtatler.com/life/queens-gambit-a-new-perspective-on-ch
ess). Tatler Thailand. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210112150626/https://www.th
ailandtatler.com/life/queens-gambit-a-new-perspective-on-chess) from the original on 12
January 2021. Retrieved 10 January 2021.
182. Jibilian, Isabella. "Netflix's hit show 'The Queen's Gambit' inspired a chess surge — but now
Chess.com is seeing a surge in cheating, too" (https://www.businessinsider.com/chess-webs
ite-sees-cheating-high-after-netflix-queens-gambit-surge-2020-12). Business Insider.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210112072313/https://www.businessinsider.com/ch
ess-website-sees-cheating-high-after-netflix-queens-gambit-surge-2020-12) from the
original on 12 January 2021. Retrieved 10 January 2021.
183. Howell, Toby. "Netflix's 'The Queen's Gambit' is Causing a Surge in Online Chess Play" (http
s://www.morningbrew.com/daily/stories/2020/11/02/netflixs-queens-gambit-causing-surge-o
nline-chess-play). Morning Brew. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210112044420/ht
tps://www.morningbrew.com/daily/stories/2020/11/02/netflixs-queens-gambit-causing-surge-
online-chess-play) from the original on 12 January 2021. Retrieved 10 January 2021.
184. Settembre, Jeanette (9 November 2020). "Online chess classes see record interest amid
pandemic, and after release of Netflix's 'The Queen's Gambit' " (https://www.foxnews.com/lif
estyle/chess-queens-gambit-boosting-player-interest-pandemic). Fox News. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20210112133014/https://www.foxnews.com/lifestyle/chess-queens-
gambit-boosting-player-interest-pandemic) from the original on 12 January 2021. Retrieved
10 January 2021.
185. Rothman, David (November 2020). "Online chess makes its biggest move" (https://www.cbs
news.com/news/online-chess-makes-its-biggest-move/). www.cbsnews.com. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20210112030711/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/online-chess-ma
kes-its-biggest-move/) from the original on 12 January 2021. Retrieved 10 January 2021.
186. Robertson, Noah (20 August 2020). "Online chess is thriving, a calming constant in a
chaotic year" (https://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Society/2020/0820/Online-chess-is-thriving-a
-calming-constant-in-a-chaotic-year). Christian Science Monitor. Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20210111224133/https://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Society/2020/0820/Online-che
ss-is-thriving-a-calming-constant-in-a-chaotic-year) from the original on 11 January 2021.
Retrieved 10 January 2021.
187. Levitt (2000)
188. Hsu (2002)
189. Alan Turing. "Digital computers applied to games" (http://www.turingarchive.org/browse.php/
B/7). University of Southampton and King's College Cambridge. Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20080509054855/http://www.turingarchive.org/browse.php/B/7) from the original
on 9 May 2008.
190. Shannon, Claude E. XXII. Programming a Computer for Playing Chess. Philosophical
Magazine, Ser. 7, Vol. 41, No. 314 – March 1950. Available online at "computerhistory.org"
(https://web.archive.org/web/20100706211229/http://archive.computerhistory.org/projects/ch
ess/related_materials/text/2-0%20and%202-1.Programming_a_computer_for_playing_ches
s.shannon/2-0%20and%202-1.Programming_a_computer_for_playing_chess.shannon.0623
03002.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the original (http://archive.computerhistory.org/projects/che
ss/related_materials/text/2-0%20and%202-1.Programming_a_computer_for_playing_chess.
shannon/2-0%20and%202-1.Programming_a_computer_for_playing_chess.shannon.06230
3002.pdf) (PDF) on 6 July 2010. (175 KB) Retrieved 6 December 2006.
191. Hsu (2002), pp. 295–296
192. Deep Blue – Kasparov Match (http://researchweb.watson.ibm.com/deepblue/watch/html/c.s
html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20100302133413/http://researchweb.watson.ib
m.com/deepblue/watch/html/c.shtml) 2 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine.
research.ibm.com. Retrieved 30 November 2006.
193. Finley, Klint (28 September 2012). "Did a Computer Bug Help Deep Blue Beat Kasparov?"
(https://www.wired.com/2012/09/deep-blue-computer-bug/). Wired. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20180515043725/https://www.wired.com/2012/09/deep-blue-computer-bug/)
from the original on 15 May 2018. Retrieved 14 May 2018.
194. Crowther, Mark. "Hiarcs 13 wins Copa Mercosur" (https://web.archive.org/web/2011093023
2108/https://theweekinchess.com/html/twic771.html#13). The Week in Chess. Archived from
the original (https://theweekinchess.com/html/twic771.html#13) on 30 September 2011.
Retrieved 4 September 2010.
195. Siegel, Robert (24 October 2016). "20 Years Later, Humans Still No Match For Computers
On The Chessboard" (https://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2016/10/24/49916290
5/20-years-later-humans-still-no-match-for-computers-on-the-chessboard). NPR.org.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20201126080706/https://www.npr.org/sections/alltech
considered/2016/10/24/499162905/20-years-later-humans-still-no-match-for-computers-on-t
he-chessboard) from the original on 26 November 2020. Retrieved 11 March 2021.
196. Kosteniuk, Alexandra (15 August 2013). "TCEC Computer Chess Championship New
Season starts August 26th" (https://web.archive.org/web/20131025063745/http://www.chess
blog.com/2013/08/tcec-computer-chess-championship-new.html). Chess News Blog.
Archived from the original (http://www.chessblog.com/2013/08/tcec-computer-chess-champi
onship-new.html) on 25 October 2013. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
197. Soltis, Andy (9 June 2013). "Engine Super Bowl" (https://nypost.com/2013/06/09/engine-sup
er-bowl/). New York Post. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160503041111/http://nyp
ost.com/2013/06/09/engine-super-bowl/) from the original on 3 May 2016. Retrieved
25 October 2013.
198. Roeder, Oliver (25 January 2022). "We Taught Computers To Play Chess — And Then They
Left Us Behind" (https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/we-taught-computers-to-play-chess-and-
then-they-left-us-behind/). Fivethirtyeight. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202202160
55753/https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/we-taught-computers-to-play-chess-and-then-they-
left-us-behind/) from the original on 16 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
199. McClain, Dylan Loeb (8 August 2006). "Cheating Accusations in Mental Sports, Too" (https://
www.nytimes.com/2006/08/08/sports/othersports/08chess.html). The New York Times.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20111205235525/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/0
8/sports/othersports/08chess.html) from the original on 5 December 2011. Retrieved
28 August 2010.
200. "Western culture regards Chess as a particular game with a particular set of rules governed
by an international authority (FIDE – the Fédération Internationale des Echecs). Variously
known as International Chess, World Chess, Orthochess, and so on [...]" Parlett (1999),
p. 276
201. Schmittberger, R. Wayne (1992). New Rules for Classic Games (https://archive.org/details/n
ewrulesforclass00rway/page/186). John Wiley & Sons Inc. p. 186 (https://archive.org/details/
newrulesforclass00rway/page/186). ISBN 978-0-471-53621-5. "The form of chess most
people know – which is sometimes referred to as Western chess, orthodox chess, or
orthochess – is itself just one of many that have been played throughout history."
202. Pritchard (2000), p. 8
203. Pritchard details 1,450 of them in Pritchard, D.B. (1994). The Encyclopedia of Chess
Variants. Games & Puzzles Publications. ISBN 978-0-9524142-0-9. "Of these, about half
date from between 700 and 1970 (1,200 years!), half from the last quarter of the twentieth
century." Parlett (1999), p. 312
204. From "Laws Historic" (http://aekphotography.co.uk/CAA/html/laws_historic.html). Chess
Arbiters' Association. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200706060640/http://aekphot
ography.co.uk/CAA/html/laws_historic.html) from the original on 6 July 2020. Retrieved
29 December 2022.: "FIDE Laws of Chess - coming into force on 1 July 2009" (http://aekph
otography.co.uk/CAA/Laws_of_Chess_2009.pdf) (PDF). Chess Arbiters' Association.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20201021164037/http://aekphotography.co.uk/CAA/L
aws_of_Chess_2009.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 21 October 2020. Retrieved 5 July
2020.

Bibliography
Adams, Jenny (2006). Power Play: The Literature and Politics of Chess in the Late Middle
Ages. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-3944-7.
OCLC 238812746 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/238812746).
Binet, A. (1894). Psychologie des grands calculateurs et joueurs d'échecs (in French). Paris:
Hachette. OCLC 287413777 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/287413777).
Brunning, Sue; Yu-Ping, Luk; O'Connell, Elisabeth R.; Williams, Tim (2024). Silk Roads. The
British Museum. ISBN 978-0-7141-2498-8.
Burgess, Graham (2000). The Mammoth Book of Chess. New York: Carroll & Graf.
ISBN 978-0-7867-0725-6.
Burgess, Graham; Nunn, John; Emms, John (2004). The Mammoth Book of the World's
Greatest Chess Games (https://archive.org/details/mammothbookofwor0000burg) (2nd ed.).
New York: Carroll & Graf. ISBN 978-0-7867-1411-7.
Davidson, Henry A. (1949). A Short History of Chess. New York: D. McKay Co. ISBN 978-0-
679-14550-9. OCLC 17340178 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/17340178).
de Groot, Adriaan D. (1965) [1946 (first Dutch ed.)]. Thought and Choice in Chess
(English ed.). The Hague: Mouton. OCLC 4988227 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/498822
7).
de Groot, Adriaan D.; Gobet, Fernand (1996). Perception and Memory in Chess: Heuristics
of the Professional Eye. Assen, NL: Van Gorcum. ISBN 978-90-232-2949-0.
de la Villa, Jesús (2008). 100 Endgames You Must Know. New in Chess. ISBN 978-90-
5691-244-4.
Emms, John (2004). Starting Out: Minor Piece Endgames. London: Everyman Chess.
ISBN 978-1857443592.
Evans, Larry (1958). New Ideas in Chess. New York: Pitman (1984 Dover edition).
ISBN 978-0-486-28305-0.
Fine, Gary Alan (2015). Players and Pawns. United Kingdom: University of Chicago Press.
ISBN 9780226265032.
Franklin, Benjamin (2003) [1779]. A Benjamin Franklin Reader (https://archive.org/details/be
njaminfranklin00fran_1). New York: Simon & Schuster. p. [1] (https://archive.org/details/benj
aminfranklin00fran_1/page/289). ISBN 978-0-7432-5782-4. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
Gobet, Fernand; de Voogt, Alex; Retschitzki, Jean (2004). Moves in Mind: The Psychology
of Board Games. Hove, UK: Psychology Press. ISBN 978-1-84169-336-1. OCLC 53962630
(https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/53962630).
Grabner, RH; Stern, E; Neubauer, AC (March 2007). "Individual differences in chess
expertise: A psychometric investigation". Acta Psychologica. 124 (3): 398–420.
doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2006.07.008 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.actpsy.2006.07.008).
PMID 16942740 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16942740).
Harding, Tim (2003). Better Chess for Average Players. New York: Courier Dover
Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-29029-4. OCLC 33166445 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/3
3166445).
Hartston, William R. (1985). The Kings of Chess (https://archive.org/details/kingsofchesshi0
0hart). New York: Pavilion Books. ISBN 978-0-06-015358-8.
Holding, Dennis (1985). The Psychology of Chess Skill. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. ISBN 978-0-
89859-575-8. OCLC 11866227 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/11866227).
Hooper, David; Whyld, Kenneth (1992). The Oxford Companion to Chess, Second edition.
Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-866164-1. OCLC 25508610 (htt
ps://search.worldcat.org/oclc/25508610).
Howard, Kenneth S (1961). How to Solve Chess Problems. New York: Courier Dover
Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-20748-3.
Hsu, Feng-Hsiung (2002). Behind Deep Blue: Building the Computer that Defeated the
World Chess Champion. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-09065-8.
OCLC 50582855 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/50582855).
Kasparov, Garry (2003a). My Great Predecessors, part I. London; Guilford, CT: Everyman
Chess. ISBN 978-1-85744-330-1. OCLC 223602528 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/22360
2528).
Kasparov, Garry (2003b). My Great Predecessors, part II. London; Guilford, CT: Everyman
Chess. ISBN 978-1-85744-342-4. OCLC 223906486 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/22390
6486).
Kasparov, Garry (2004a). My Great Predecessors, part III. London; Guilford, CT: Everyman
Chess. ISBN 978-1-85744-371-4. OCLC 52949851 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/529498
51).
Kasparov, Garry (2004b). My Great Predecessors, part IV. London; Guilford, CT: Everyman
Chess. ISBN 978-1-85744-395-0. OCLC 52949851 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/529498
51).
Kasparov, Garry (2006). My Great Predecessors, part V. London; Guilford, CT: Everyman
Chess. ISBN 978-1-85744-404-9. OCLC 52949851 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/529498
51).
Keene, Raymond (1993). Gary Kasparov's Best Games. London: B.T. Batsford. ISBN 978-0-
7134-7296-7. OCLC 29386838 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/29386838).
Landsberger, Kurt (1992). William Steinitz, Chess Champion: A Biography of the Bohemian
Caesar. McFarland & Company. ISBN 0-89950-758-1.
Lasker, Emanuel (1934). Lasker's Chess Primer. London: Billings (1988 reprint). ISBN 978-
0-7134-6241-8.
Levitt, Gerald M. (2000). The Turk, Chess Automaton. Jefferson, NC: McFarland &
Company. ISBN 978-0-7864-0778-1. OCLC 226148928 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/22
6148928).
Li, David H. (1998). The Genealogy of Chess. Bethesda, MD: Premier. ISBN 978-0-
9637852-2-0. OCLC 39281682 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/39281682).
Mark, Michael (2007). Ancient Board Games in Perspective: The Beginnings of Chess.
United Kingdom: British Museum Press. ISBN 9780714111537.
Metzner, Paul (1998). Crescendo of the Virtuoso: Spectacle, Skill, and Self-Promotion in
Paris during the Age of Revolution (http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft4
38nb2b6&brand=ucpress). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20684-
7. OCLC 185289629 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185289629). Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20100706122359/http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft438n
b2b6&brand=ucpress) from the original on 6 July 2010. Retrieved 28 August 2010.
Murray, H.J.R. (1985) [First pub. 1913 by Oxford University Press]. A History of Chess (http
s://archive.org/details/AHistoryOfChessHJRMurray/page/n33/mode/2up). Northampton,
Mass.: Benjamin Press. ISBN 978-0-936317-01-4. OCLC 13472872 (https://search.worldca
t.org/oclc/13472872).
Nimzowitsch, Aron (1925). My System: 21st Century Edition (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/2
5278950). Lou Hays. Dallas, Tex.: Hays Pub. ISBN 1-880673-85-1. OCLC 25278950 (http
s://search.worldcat.org/oclc/25278950).
Olmert, Michael (1996). Milton's Teeth and Ovid's Umbrella: Curiouser & Curiouser
Adventures in History (https://archive.org/details/miltonsteethovid00olme). New York: Simon
& Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-80164-3.
Parlett, David (1999). The Oxford History of Board Games (https://archive.org/details/oxford
historyofb0000parl). Oxford University Press Inc. ISBN 978-0-19-212998-7.
Pritchard, David (2000). Popular Chess Variants. London: Batsford Chess Books. ISBN 978-
0-7134-8578-3. OCLC 44275285 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/44275285).
 Robbins, T.W.; Anderson, E.J.; Barker, D.R.; Bradley, A.C.; Fearnyhough, C.; Henson, R.;
Hudson, S.R.; Baddeley, A.D. (1996). "Working Memory in Chess" (https://doi.org/10.3758%
2FBF03197274). Memory & Cognition. 24 (1): 83–93. doi:10.3758/BF03197274 (https://doi.
org/10.3758%2FBF03197274). PMID 8822160 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8822160).
S2CID 14009447 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14009447).
Saariluoma, Pertti (1995). Chess Players' Thinking: A Cognitive Psychological Approach.
New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-12079-1.
Silman, Jeremy (1998). The Complete Book of Chess Strategy. Los Angeles: Silman-James
Press. ISBN 978-1-890085-01-8.
Shibut, Macon (2004). Paul Morphy and the Evolution of Chess Theory. New York: Courier
Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-43574-9. OCLC 55639730 (https://search.worldcat.org/
oclc/55639730).
Tamburro, Pete (September 2010). "Challenging the Ruy Lopez". Chess Life: 18–21.
Tarrasch, Siegbert (1987). The Game of Chess. New York: Courier Dover Publications.
ISBN 978-0-486-25447-0. OCLC 15631832 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/15631832).
Trautmann, Thomas (2015). Elephants and Kings: An Environmental History. United States:
University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226264530.
Vale, Malcolm (2001). The Princely Court: Medieval Courts and Culture in North-West
Europe, 1270–1380. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926993-8.
OCLC 47049906 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/47049906).
Warner, A.G. (2000). The Sháhnáma of Firdausí: Volume VII. United Kingdom: Routledge.
ISBN 9781136396809.
Watson, John (1998). Secrets of Modern Chess Strategy. London: Gambit Publications.
ISBN 978-1-901983-07-4.
Weenink, H.G.M. (1926). Hume, G.; White, A.C. (eds.). The Chess Problem. Stroud: Office
of The Chess Amateur. OCLC 3617028 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/3617028).
Weissberger, Barbara F. (2004). Isabel Rules: Qonstructing Queenship, Wielding Power.
Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-4164-2. OCLC 217447754 (h
ttps://search.worldcat.org/oclc/217447754).
Yalom, Marilyn (2004). Birth of the Chess Queen. New York: Harper Collins Publishers.
ISBN 978-0-06-009064-7.

Further reading
Bird, Henry (2008) [First published 1893]. Chess History and Reminiscences. Forgotten
Books. ISBN 978-1-60620-897-7.
Dunnington, Angus (2003). Chess Psychology: Approaching the Psychological Battle Both
on and Off the Board. Everyman Chess. ISBN 978-1-85744-326-4.
Fine, Reuben (1983). The World's Great Chess Games. Courier Dover Publications.
ISBN 978-0-486-24512-6. OCLC 9394460 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/9394460).
Hale, Benjamin (2008). Philosophy Looks at Chess. Open Court Publishing Company.
ISBN 978-0-8126-9633-2.
Ilko, Krisztina (2024). "Chess and Race in the Global Middle Ages". Speculum. 99 (2): 480–
540. doi:10.1086/729294 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F729294).
Kotov, Alexander (1971). Think Like a Grandmaster. B.T. Batsford Ltd. ISBN 978-0-7134-
3160-5.
Lasker, Emanuel (1960). Lasker's Manual of Chess. Dover. ISBN 978-0-486-20640-0.
Leibs, Andrew (2004). Sports and Games of the Renaissance. Westport, CT: Greenwood
Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-32772-8.
 Mason, James (1947). The Art of Chess. Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-20463-5.
OCLC 45271009 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/45271009). (see the included
supplement, "How Do You Play Chess")
Pachman, Ludek (1971). Modern Chess Strategy. Dover. ISBN 978-0-486-20290-7.
Réti, Richard (1960). Modern Ideas in Chess. Dover. ISBN 978-0-486-20638-7.
Rizzitano, James (2004). Understanding Your Chess. Gambit Publications. ISBN 978-1-
904600-07-7. OCLC 55205602 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/55205602).
Steinitz, William; Landsberger, Kurt (2002). The Steinitz Papers: Letters and Documents of
the First World Chess Champion. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-0-7864-
1193-1. OCLC 48550929 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/48550929).
Verwer, Renzo (2010). Bobby Fischer for Beginners. Alkmaar: New in Chess. ISBN 978-90-
5691-315-1.
Wilkinson, Charles K. (May 1943). "Chessmen and Chess". The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Bulletin. New Series 1 (9): 271–79. doi:10.2307/3257111 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F32571
11). JSTOR 3257111 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3257111).

External links

International organizations

FIDE (http://www.fide.com/) – World Chess Federation

ICCF (http://www.iccf.com/) – International Correspondence Chess Federation

News

Chessbase news (http://www.chessbase.com/)

The Week in Chess (http://www.theweekinchess.com/)

History

Chesshistory.com (http://www.chesshistory.com/winter/extra/factfinder.html)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chess&oldid=1289942171"