Understanding the Concepts of Hazard, Disaster,

Risk, and Vulnerability

Disaster management as a discipline focuses on understanding the causes, impacts, and mitigation of events
that severely affect human life, property, and the environment. At the core of disaster studies lie four interrelated
concepts: hazard, disaster, vulnerability, and risk. These concepts help in assessing threats, planning
interventions, and reducing the adverse impacts of both natural and anthropogenic (human-induced) events.
This essay explores each of these terms in depth, drawing from key academic and institutional sources,
including definitions provided by the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR), the World
Health Organization (WHO), and Indian governmental agencies.

1. Hazard
Definition

According to the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR), a hazard is defined as:

“A process, phenomenon or human activity that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property
damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage.”​
— UNDRR, Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction (2017)

Explanation

Hazards are essentially potential threats. They represent the probability of a harmful event occurring due to
natural or human processes. The severity of a hazard does not solely determine the disaster risk; rather, it is the
interaction of the hazard with exposed and vulnerable populations that leads to a disaster.

Classification of Hazards

As per the WHO and India’s High Powered Committee (HPC, 1999), hazards can be broadly classified into the
following categories:

a. Natural Hazards

These arise from natural processes and include:

●​ Geophysical: Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions​

●​ Hydrological: Floods, tsunamis​

●​ Meteorological: Cyclones, storms​

●​ Climatological: Droughts, wildfires​

●​ Biological: Epidemics, pandemics, pest attacks​

●​ Extraterrestrial: Space weather, meteors​

b. Human-Induced or Technological Hazards

These are caused by human actions, negligence, or technological failures, such as:

●​ Industrial accidents​

●​ Chemical spills​

●​ Nuclear radiation​

●​ Transport accidents (road, rail, air, sea)​

●​ Fire and explosions​

c. Societal Hazards

These include events such as:

●​ Armed conflict​

●​ Riots and civil unrest​

●​ Terrorism​

●​ Migration crises​

Each hazard has specific characteristics in terms of frequency, intensity, duration, and geographical impact.
Some hazards, such as earthquakes, are sudden onset, while others, such as droughts, develop gradually.
Moreover, hazards can act in combination, leading to complex emergencies—for instance, an earthquake
triggering a tsunami and subsequent industrial chemical leaks, as seen in the 2011 Japan disaster.

2. Disaster
Definition

The Disaster Management Act of India (2005) defines a disaster as:

“A catastrophe, mishap, calamity or grave occurrence in any area, arising from natural or man-made causes, or
by accident or negligence which results in substantial loss of life or human suffering or damage to and
destruction of property, or degradation of environment, and is of such a nature or magnitude as to be beyond
the coping capacity of the affected community of the affected area.”
The UNDRR similarly defines a disaster as:

“A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread human, material,
economic or environmental losses and impacts, which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society
to cope using its own resources.”​
— UNDRR, 2009

Explanation

A disaster is not merely an event but a condition arising from the interaction of a hazard with vulnerable
populations. It leads to disruption on such a scale that local resources and coping mechanisms are inadequate,
necessitating external assistance. The same hazard may or may not result in a disaster, depending on the
preparedness, resilience, and exposure of the affected population.

Key Characteristics of a Disaster

●​ It causes sudden and large-scale disruption.​

●​ It results in significant loss of life and property.​

●​ It is beyond the coping capacity of the affected area.​

●​ It requires immediate and coordinated response.​

●​ It affects development and economy over both short and long terms.​
Disaster = (Hazard + Vulnerability)/Capacity

Examples

●​ The 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami resulted from a massive undersea earthquake. The lack of early
warning systems and coastal vulnerability led to over 230,000 deaths.​

●​ The Bhopal Gas Tragedy in 1984, caused by leakage of methyl isocyanate gas from the Union Carbide
factory, is a prime example of a technological hazard turning into a human-made disaster.​

3. Vulnerability
Definition

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), vulnerability is:

“The conditions determined by physical, social, economic, and environmental factors or processes which
increase the susceptibility of an individual, a community, assets or systems to the impacts of hazards.”​
— WHO Guidance on Research Methods for Health Emergency and Disaster Risk Management, 2020

Explanation
Vulnerability refers to the degree to which individuals or communities are susceptible to damage when exposed
to a hazard. It is shaped by a range of factors including socio-economic status, access to resources, education,
infrastructure, health, governance, and even cultural attitudes.

Types of Vulnerability

a. Physical Vulnerability

This is related to the location and infrastructure of buildings and settlements. For instance, houses built on
floodplains or unstable slopes are physically more vulnerable.

b. Social Vulnerability

Certain groups such as children, elderly, persons with disabilities, and marginalized communities are socially
more vulnerable due to lack of mobility, social support, or representation.

c. Economic Vulnerability

Poor households that rely on unstable or seasonal incomes have fewer assets and are less likely to recover
from disasters.

d. Environmental Vulnerability

Areas with deforestation, poor water management, or land degradation face higher susceptibility to natural
hazards.

e. Institutional Vulnerability

Poor governance, lack of disaster preparedness, and weak enforcement of building codes contribute to
institutional vulnerability.

Example: Bhopal Gas Tragedy

The residents around the Union Carbide factory in Bhopal were economically disadvantaged, lacked awareness
of chemical hazards, and had no access to emergency services—making them highly vulnerable to the effects
of the gas leak.

4. Risk
Definition

The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) defines risk as:

“The combination of the probability of an event and its negative consequences.”​

— UNDP, 2010

In disaster studies, a widely used formula is:

Disaster Risk = Hazard × Vulnerability / Capacity

Explanation

Risk is the likelihood that a hazard will cause a disaster in a given area. It is a function of three components:

1.​ Hazard: The probability and intensity of a damaging event.​

2.​ Vulnerability: The susceptibility of the exposed population.​

3.​ Capacity: The ability of people and systems to prevent, mitigate, and respond to the hazard.​

Reducing risk involves:

●​ Minimizing exposure to hazards (e.g., relocating from flood zones)​

●​ Reducing vulnerability (e.g., improving infrastructure and awareness)​

●​ Increasing capacity (e.g., community training, emergency services)​

Types of Risk

●​ Physical risk: Likelihood of structural damage or loss of life.​

●​ Economic risk: Potential for financial loss or economic instability.​

●​ Health risk: Increased chances of injury or disease outbreaks.​

●​ Environmental risk: Long-term degradation due to repeated disasters.​

5. Interrelationship between Hazard, Vulnerability, Risk, and Disaster

Conceptual Linkage

The relationship between these concepts can be understood through the following logical framework:

●​ A hazard becomes a disaster only when it affects a vulnerable population.​

●​ The risk of disaster increases when vulnerability is high and capacity is low.​

●​ If capacity (preparedness, resilience) increases, then risk decreases, even if the hazard remains
constant.​
Example:

Scenario Outcome

quake in uninhabited desert rd only, no disaster

quake in vulnerable urban area impact disaster

quake in well-prepared city mpact disaster

Conclusion
The concepts of hazard, disaster, vulnerability, and risk are interlinked pillars of disaster management.
Understanding these terms is crucial for designing effective disaster risk reduction strategies. While hazards
may not be preventable, their impacts can be mitigated by reducing vulnerability and enhancing community
capacity. Policymakers, planners, and community stakeholders must work collaboratively to identify risks,
assess vulnerabilities, and build resilience. In the context of a rapidly urbanizing and climate-sensitive country
like India, this understanding is critical for achieving sustainable development and safeguarding human lives.

Classification of Disasters
1. Definition of Disaster
According to the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR):

“A disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread human,
material, economic or environmental losses and impacts, which exceeds the ability of the affected community or
society to cope using its own resources.”​
— UNDRR, 2009

The Disaster Management Act, 2005 (Government of India) defines a disaster as:

“A catastrophe, mishap, calamity or grave occurrence in any area, arising from natural or man-made
causes...which results in substantial loss of life or human suffering or damage to, and destruction of, property or
the environment and is of such a nature or magnitude as to be beyond the coping capacity of the affected area.”
2. Basis of Classification
Disasters can be classified based on:

●​ Origin (natural or human-made)​

●​ Causes (physical, biological, chemical, social, etc.)​

●​ Onset (sudden or slow)​

●​ Duration and impact​

●​ Institutional response mechanisms​

These classifications help in understanding the nature of disasters and developing tailored risk reduction and
management strategies.

3. Classification by Origin: Natural and Human-Made Disasters

I. Natural Disasters

Natural disasters are caused

by natural forces or
phenomena and can be
further divided into subtypes
based on the nature of the
causative agent.

a. Geophysical Disasters

These are related to earth

processes.

●​ Earthquakes​

●​ Volcanic eruptions​

●​ Tsunamis​

●​ Landslides and mudflows​

b. Meteorological Disasters

Caused by extreme weather events.

●​ Cyclones, hurricanes, and typhoons​

●​ Thunderstorms and hailstorms​

●​ Heat waves and cold waves​

c. Hydrological Disasters

Result from water movement.

●​ Floods​

●​ Flash floods​

●​ Avalanches​

d. Climatological Disasters

Caused by long-term atmospheric conditions.

●​ Droughts​

●​ Wildfires​

●​ Glacial lake outbursts​

e. Biological Disasters

Involve the spread of organisms that cause harm.

●​ Human epidemics (e.g., COVID-19)​

●​ Animal and livestock diseases​

●​ Pest infestations​

●​ Food poisoning​

Source: WHO (2020), Guidance on Research Methods for Health Emergency and Disaster Risk Management​
UNDRR (2009), Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction
 II. Human-Made (Anthropogenic) Disasters

These result from human action, negligence, or

failure of systems. They include:

a. Technological Disasters

●​ Industrial accidents (e.g., gas leaks, factory

explosions)​

●​ Nuclear accidents (e.g., Chernobyl, Fukushima)​

●​ Structural collapses (buildings, bridges, dams)​

●​ Fires (urban or industrial)​

●​ Transport accidents (road, rail, air, sea)​

b. Chemical Disasters

●​ Toxic waste release​

●​ Oil spills​

●​ Hazardous material exposure​

c. Radiological and Nuclear Disasters

●​ Radioactive contamination​

●​ Reactor accidents​

d. Socio-Political Disasters

●​ Riots and communal violence​

●​ Armed conflicts​

●​ Terrorist attacks​

●​ Refugee crises and internal displacement​

Source: WHO (2020); Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India; classification of disasters by the High
Powered Committee (1999)
4. Classification by the High Powered Committee (HPC), Government of
India (1999)
In 1999, the Government of India set up a High Powered Committee (HPC) under J.C. Pant to classify
disasters. This classification remains influential in national disaster management planning.

The HPC grouped over 30 types of disasters into five major categories:

Category Examples

1. Water and Climate Related Floods, cyclones, cloudbursts, hailstorms, snow avalanches, droughts

2. Geological Disasters Earthquakes, landslides, dam failures, mine fires

3. Biological Disasters Epidemics, pest attacks, cattle diseases, food poisoning

4. Chemical, Industrial, Nuclear Gas leaks, radiation exposure, chemical spills

5. Accidental Disasters Fires (forest and urban), transport accidents, building collapses, oil spills

Source: Report of the High Powered Committee on Disaster Management, Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperation (1999)

5. Other Modes of Classification

a. Classification by Onset

Sudden-Onset Disasters Earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, explosions

-Onset Disasters ghts, epidemics, environmental degradation

b. Classification by Scope and Impact

Major Disasters Require national or international intervention

r Disasters be handled with local resources

c. Classification by Institutional Responsibility

In India, different ministries are responsible for coordinating disaster response based on disaster type:

Disaster Type Nodal Ministry

Air accidents Ministry of Civil Aviation

Earthquakes, cyclones Ministry of Home Affairs

Epidemics Ministry of Health and Family Welfare

Industrial/chemical Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change

Nuclear disasters Department of Atomic Energy

Source: National Disaster Management Plan, Government of India (2016)

6. The Importance of Disaster Classification

a. Facilitates Preparedness

●​ Helps identify risk-prone regions and sectors​

●​ Allocates specific responsibilities to departments​

b. Enables Effective Response

●​ Mobilizes appropriate resources and personnel​

●​ Determines the level of intervention (local/state/national/international)​

c. Supports Recovery and Mitigation Planning

●​ Post-disaster assessments differ by disaster type​

●​ Enables tailored rehabilitation strategies​

d. Promotes Awareness and Education

●​ Different types of disasters require different safety protocols​

●​ Community-based education programs can be disaster-specific​

7. Emerging Trends in Disaster Classification

●​ Increasing frequency and severity of climate-induced disasters (e.g., flash floods, extreme heat)​

●​ Rise in compound and cascading disasters (e.g., earthquake-tsunami-nuclear chain)​

●​ Cyber disasters and digital infrastructure attacks are emerging as new risks​

●​ Interlinkages between disasters and development are being recognized more explicitly​

Source: UNDRR Global Assessment Report (2019); IPCC Reports on Climate Change and Extreme Events

Conclusion
Disasters are multifaceted events that affect human lives, economies, and ecosystems. Their classification,
based on origin, onset, scale, and responsible institutions, is not merely academic but an operational necessity.
In a diverse and disaster-prone country like India, effective classification enables targeted interventions, efficient
resource allocation, and disaster-specific policy formulation. Recognizing the overlapping nature of many
disasters today—such as those involving both natural and technological elements—calls for a more integrated
and dynamic classification framework rooted in risk-informed development planning.

The Disaster Management Cycle: Components and

Stages
The Disaster Management Cycle (DMC) is a conceptual framework that
represents the continuous process by which governments, organizations,
and communities prepare for, respond to, recover from, and mitigate the
impacts of disasters. The cycle emphasizes that disaster management is not
a linear process but rather a recurring set of phases, each essential to
reducing vulnerability and enhancing resilience.
The cycle is typically divided into four key phases: Mitigation, Preparedness, Response, and Recovery. Each of these
plays a critical role in the management of disasters, aiming to minimize loss, expedite relief, and ensure long-term
sustainability.

1. Mitigation

Mitigation refers to efforts to minimize the impact of disasters before they occur. It includes both structural measures like
the construction of flood levees and non-structural measures such as land-use planning and public awareness campaigns.

Objectives and Activities:

●​ Risk identification through hazard mapping and vulnerability assessment.​

●​ Enforcement of building codes to ensure infrastructure can withstand hazards.​

●​ Land-use planning and zoning laws that prevent construction in floodplains or seismic zones.​

●​ Community health and sanitation improvements to reduce disease outbreaks post-disaster.​

●​ Public education and awareness programs to inform citizens about risks and safety measures.​

Examples:

●​ Seismic retrofitting of buildings in earthquake-prone areas.​

●​ Constructing cyclone shelters and sea walls in coastal regions.​

●​ Legislation banning settlements in landslide-prone zones.​

Significance:​
Mitigation reduces the long-term risk to human life and property. It is cost-effective, as every dollar spent on mitigation can
save multiple dollars in disaster response and recovery costs​​.

2. Preparedness

Preparedness involves planning and capacity-building efforts taken before a disaster to ensure effective response when it
occurs. It is about being ready to respond, minimizing delay and confusion.

Key Measures:

●​ Development of disaster management plans at national, regional, and local levels.​

●​ Emergency drills and simulations to test response capabilities.​

●​ Establishment of early warning systems for hazards like cyclones or tsunamis.​

●​ Stockpiling essential supplies such as food, medicine, and rescue equipment.​

●​ Training personnel in emergency response, first aid, and coordination.​

Community Involvement:

●​ Public campaigns to teach citizens "do's and don'ts" during disasters.​

●​ School safety programs and local volunteer training.​

Preparedness ensures a higher level of readiness and reduces casualties and chaos during the disaster response phase​​.

3. Response

Response is the phase that begins immediately after a disaster occurs. It focuses on saving lives, reducing health impacts,
ensuring public safety, and meeting the basic subsistence needs of the affected population.

Main Activities:

●​ Search and rescue operations.​

●​ Evacuation of people from dangerous areas.​

●​ Provision of emergency shelter, food, water, and medical aid.​

●​ Establishment of temporary housing and relief camps.​

●​ Restoration of critical infrastructure such as power, communication, and transport.​

Coordination Needs:

Effective response requires coordination between various stakeholders, including:

●​ Government agencies.​

●​ Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs).​

●​ International humanitarian bodies (e.g., Red Cross).​

●​ Local community volunteers.​

Challenges:

●​ Overcrowding in shelters.​

●​ Communication breakdown.​

●​ Psychological trauma among survivors.​

Despite these challenges, a well-prepared response effort can significantly reduce the disaster's impact and lay the
groundwork for recovery​​.

4. Recovery

Recovery is a long-term process that begins once immediate needs are addressed. It aims to restore the affected area to
its pre-disaster state, or ideally, to a more resilient and sustainable state.

Sub-Stages:

1.​ Emergency Relief – Immediate assistance post-disaster (food, water, shelter).​

2.​ Rehabilitation – Temporary housing, employment programs, medical care, and psychological support.​

3.​ Reconstruction – Rebuilding infrastructure, homes, schools, hospitals with improved standards to withstand future
disasters.​

Long-Term Goals:

●​ Restoration of livelihoods through income-generation and employment schemes.​

●​ Resettlement in safer areas, if original locations are too risky.​

●​ Capacity-building to enhance future preparedness and mitigation.​

Recovery also offers an opportunity to “build back better” by addressing the root causes of vulnerability, such as poverty,
inadequate infrastructure, and environmental degradation​​.

Integrated and Holistic Approach

The disaster management cycle emphasizes the interconnectedness of all phases. It also integrates development and
environmental concerns. For instance:

●​ Development that ignores environmental sustainability can increase disaster risk (e.g., deforestation leading to
landslides).​

●​ Incorporating disaster mitigation into development policies leads to resilient communities.​

India has gradually moved from a relief-centric to a risk-reduction approach, with national policies focusing on community
participation, institutional strengthening, and mainstreaming disaster risk into planning​.

Conclusion

The Disaster Management Cycle is a dynamic and ongoing process that requires participation from all sectors of society.
The cycle—through Mitigation, Preparedness, Response, and Recovery—seeks not only to reduce the impact of
disasters but also to promote sustainable development and enhance resilience. Understanding and implementing the
disaster management cycle is essential for creating disaster-resilient communities and minimizing future losses.

Community based disaster management

Community-Based Disaster Management (CBDM)

Introduction

Community-Based Disaster Management (CBDM) is a participatory approach that places local communities at
the heart of disaster preparedness, response, and recovery efforts. Recognizing that communities are the first
to experience the impacts of disasters, CBDM seeks to empower them to assess their risks, organize
resources, and develop strategies to reduce vulnerabilities and enhance resilience. It is increasingly recognized
as a vital complement to top-down government strategies in disaster-prone areas.

What is CBDM?

CBDM refers to involving local people in identifying hazards, assessing vulnerabilities, planning, implementing,
and monitoring disaster risk reduction and response strategies. Rather than viewing community members as
passive victims, this model
acknowledges them as active
agents who possess valuable
indigenous knowledge and
capacities to deal with hazards​​.

CBDM operates on a bottom-up

approach that includes all
stakeholders—especially
marginalized groups like women, the
elderly, persons with disabilities, and
the poor—to ensure equitable and
effective disaster management at
the grassroots level.

Why CBDM is Necessary

India and many developing countries face a variety of natural and human-made disasters such as floods,
earthquakes, cyclones, industrial accidents, and epidemics. Government agencies often cannot reach every
individual or area during an emergency. Communities, being the first responders, are often left to deal with the
immediate impacts. This gap highlights the need for community-based approaches that are locally driven,
sustainable, and context-sensitive​.

Disasters like the 2001 Gujarat earthquake and the 1999 Odisha super cyclone have demonstrated how
community mobilization significantly improves response and recovery. In Gujarat, post-disaster rebuilding was
accelerated by community-driven initiatives where locals were trained in safe construction practices and hazard
mapping​.

Principles of CBDM

CBDM is built on several foundational principles:

1.​ Community Ownership: Communities lead planning and implementation, making the strategies more
relevant and sustainable.​

2.​ Use of Local Resources: Emphasis is placed on indigenous knowledge and available resources.​

3.​ Inclusiveness: Special attention is given to vulnerable groups.​

4.​ Sustainability: Interventions are linked to long-term development.​

5.​ Capacity Building: Training and skill development of local volunteers and task forces are essential.​

6.​ Networking and Partnerships: Collaboration with NGOs, local governments, and institutions is
encouraged​.​

Key Components of a CBDM Plan

According to best practices and guidelines, a comprehensive CBDM plan includes the following:

1.​ Community Profile: Information on demographics, socio-economic status, infrastructure, and

geographic characteristics.​

2.​ Resource Inventory: Local availability of resources such as medical facilities, shelters, water sources,
and transportation.​

3.​ Hazard and Risk Mapping: Identification of vulnerable areas, safe zones, and evacuation routes.​

4.​ Formation of Task Forces: Specialized groups for rescue, first aid, communication, sanitation, trauma
counseling, and relief distribution.​

5.​ Mock Drills and Training: Periodic rehearsals to keep the community prepared.​
6.​ Emergency Directory: Contact details of key officials, organizations, and resources​.​

CBDM in Action: Case Studies

The Chipko Movement (Uttarakhand, India)

Though not a disaster response movement per se, Chipko is a powerful example of community-led
environmental conservation to prevent long-term ecological disasters. Women of Reni village hugged trees to
prevent deforestation, which had been increasing floods and landslides. Their efforts led to afforestation and the
formation of Van Panchayats for forest management​.

Ranavav Taluka, Gujarat

Post-2001 earthquake, Gujarat saw widespread community mobilization. Locals were trained in safe
construction, water harvesting, and health practices. Village-level champions like masons, school teachers, and
farmers became advocates of disaster-resilient practices, spreading awareness and training others​.

Challenges in Implementing CBDM

1.​ Limited Resources: Funding and logistics support is often inadequate.​

2.​ Low Awareness: Some communities may lack knowledge about disaster risks.​

3.​ Gender and Social Inequality: Marginalized groups may be excluded from planning.​

4.​ Policy Gaps: National and state-level disaster plans often neglect community involvement.​

5.​ Lack of Trained Manpower: Especially in rural areas, there is a shortage of trained health workers,
engineers, and planners​.​

Policy Recommendations and Future Direction

To strengthen and scale up CBDM, the following strategies are recommended:

●​ Institutionalization of CBDM: Integrate community-based approaches into official national and state
disaster policies.​

●​ Capacity Building Programs: Regular training for community volunteers, including simulation exercises
and mock drills.​

●​ Mainstreaming Risk Reduction: Embed disaster preparedness into development plans, housing, and
health programs.​

●​ Technological Integration: Use GIS and mobile platforms for risk mapping and information
dissemination.​

●​ Public-Private Partnerships: Engage NGOs, CSR initiatives, and academic institutions for funding,
expertise, and research.​

●​ Documentation and Replication: Identify successful community models and replicate them in other
vulnerable regions​.​

Conclusion

Community-Based Disaster Management is not merely a technique but a philosophy that transforms vulnerable
communities into resilient ones. By shifting from a reactive to a proactive approach, and by ensuring inclusivity,
empowerment, and sustainability, CBDM can play a pivotal role in reducing disaster risks and enhancing
community welfare. The way forward is to embed CBDM into our broader governance and development
frameworks, ensuring that every community is equipped not only to survive disasters but to thrive in their
aftermath.

1. Concept and Framework of Community-Based Disaster Management

(CBDM)
Introduction

Community-Based Disaster Management (CBDM) is a participatory approach that empowers local communities
to actively engage in disaster risk reduction (DRR) and management. Recognizing that communities are often
the first responders during disasters, CBDM emphasizes the importance of local knowledge, resources, and
capacities in mitigating and responding to disasters effectively.

Core Principles of CBDM

1.​ Participation: Involving community members in all stages of disaster management ensures that their
needs, knowledge, and capacities are considered.​

2.​ Empowerment: Building the skills and capacities of community members to take proactive roles in
DRR.​
3.​ Inclusivity: Ensuring that all segments of the community, including vulnerable groups like women,
children, the elderly, and persons with disabilities, are included in DRR planning and implementation.​

4.​ Sustainability: Fostering long-term resilience by integrating DRR into community development plans.​

Framework of CBDM

The CBDM framework encompasses several stages:

A. Risk and Vulnerability Assessment

Communities assess their exposure to various hazards (e.g., floods, earthquakes, cyclones) and identify
vulnerable groups and assets. This involves:

●​ Mapping hazard-prone areas.​

●​ Identifying vulnerable populations.​

●​ Assessing existing coping mechanisms.​

B. Resource Mapping and Inventory

Communities identify available resources that can be mobilized during disasters, such as:

●​ Human resources (e.g., trained volunteers).​

●​ Physical resources (e.g., shelters, medical facilities).​

●​ Financial resources (e.g., community funds).​

C. Planning and Preparedness

Based on the assessments, communities develop disaster preparedness plans that include:

●​ Early warning systems.​

●​ Evacuation routes and shelters.​

●​ Communication strategies.​

●​ Roles and responsibilities of community members.​

D. Capacity Building

Training programs are conducted to enhance the skills of community members in areas such as:
●​ First aid and basic life support.​

●​ Search and rescue operations.​

●​ Disaster risk communication.​

E. Implementation and Monitoring

Communities implement the preparedness plans and conduct regular drills to test their effectiveness. Monitoring
and evaluation mechanisms are established to:

●​ Track progress.​

●​ Identify gaps.​

●​ Update plans as needed.​

Benefits of CBDM

●​ Enhanced Resilience: Communities are better prepared to face disasters, reducing loss of life and
property.​

●​ Cost-Effectiveness: Utilizing local resources and knowledge reduces dependency on external aid.​

●​ Ownership: Community involvement fosters a sense of ownership, leading to more sustainable DRR
initiatives.​

●​ Timely Response: Localized plans enable quicker response times during emergencies.​

2. Indigenous Knowledge and Practices in Disaster Management

Introduction

Indigenous Knowledge (IK) refers to the long-standing traditions and practices of specific regional, indigenous,
or local communities. This knowledge is often passed down through generations and is deeply rooted in the
community's culture and environment. In disaster management, IK offers valuable insights into sustainable and
effective DRR strategies.

Examples of Indigenous Practices

A. Flood Management in Assam, India

In Nadeswar Village, Assam, residents plant bamboo along riverbanks to prevent soil erosion and flooding. This
practice not only stabilizes the soil but also provides economic benefits through bamboo harvesting.
B. Earthquake-Resistant Structures in Gujarat, India

The Banni tribe in Kutch, Gujarat, constructs traditional bhunga houses with circular designs and thatched roofs.
These structures have demonstrated resilience during earthquakes, as seen in the 2001 Gujarat earthquake.

C. Cultural Burning in Australia

Aboriginal Australians practice "fire-stick farming," involving controlled burns to manage vegetation and reduce
wildfire risks. This method has been reintroduced in modern fire management strategies, proving effective in
reducing the severity of wildfires.

D. Early Warning Systems in the Philippines

In the Pangasinan Province, communities use the "Kanungkong," a bamboo communication device, to warn
residents of impending floods. This traditional method has been integrated with modern monitoring systems for
effective early warnings.

Benefits of Integrating Indigenous Knowledge

●​ Local Relevance: IK is tailored to specific environmental and cultural contexts.​

●​ Sustainability: Practices are often environmentally friendly and sustainable.​

●​ Community Engagement: Utilizing IK fosters community participation and ownership.​

●​ Complementarity: IK can complement scientific approaches, leading to more holistic DRR strategies.​

Challenges

●​ Documentation: IK is often transmitted orally, making it susceptible to loss.​

●​ Recognition: There is a need for greater acknowledgment of IK in formal DRR policies.​

●​ Integration: Bridging IK with modern scientific methods requires careful consideration to respect cultural
sensitivities.​

3. Role of Civil Society in Community-Based Disaster Management

Introduction

Civil society encompasses non-governmental organizations (NGOs), community-based organizations (CBOs),

faith-based organizations, academic institutions, and other non-state actors. These entities play a pivotal role in
supporting and enhancing CBDM initiatives.

Functions of Civil Society in CBDM

A. Advocacy and Policy Influence

Civil society organizations advocate for inclusive and community-centered DRR policies. They work to ensure
that the voices of marginalized groups are heard in policy-making processes.

B. Capacity Building

NGOs and CBOs conduct training programs to build the capacities of community members in disaster
preparedness, response, and recovery.

C. Resource Mobilization

Civil society mobilizes resources, including funding, volunteers, and materials, to support community DRR
initiatives.

D. Information Dissemination

They play a crucial role in raising awareness about disaster risks and promoting preparedness measures
through campaigns, workshops, and educational materials.

E. Service Delivery

During disasters, civil society organizations often provide essential services such as emergency shelter, food
distribution, medical aid, and psychosocial support.

Case Studies

A. Gujarat Earthquake, 2001

Post the 2001 earthquake, NGOs collaborated with local communities in Gujarat to rebuild infrastructure,
provide psychosocial support, and implement disaster preparedness programs, significantly contributing to the
region's recovery.

B. Cyclone Phailin, Odisha, 2013

During Cyclone Phailin, civil society organizations played a vital role in early warning dissemination, evacuation,
and relief distribution, minimizing the disaster's impact.

Challenges Faced by Civil Society

●​ Coordination: Ensuring effective coordination among various civil society actors and with government
agencies.​

●​ Sustainability: Securing long-term funding and resources for DRR initiatives.​

●​ Capacity Constraints
Capacity and Resilience in Disaster Management
Understanding the concepts of capacity and resilience is fundamental to disaster risk
reduction (DRR). These concepts are interrelated and essential for enhancing the ability
of communities and systems to withstand, respond to, and recover from disasters.

1. Capacity
Definition

According to the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR):

“Capacity refers to all the strengths, attributes and resources available within
a community, organization or society to manage and reduce disaster risks
and strengthen resilience.”​
— UNDRR Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction

Explanation

Capacity encompasses the combination of physical, institutional, social, and economic

resources and abilities that communities and organizations possess to effectively
anticipate, respond to, and recover from disasters. It includes:

●​ Human Resources: Skills, knowledge, and expertise of individuals and groups.​

●​ Physical Resources: Infrastructure, equipment, and technology.​

●​ Institutional Resources: Policies, governance structures, and organizational

systems.​

●​ Social Resources: Community networks, relationships, and cultural practices.​

●​ Financial Resources: Economic means and funding mechanisms.​

Types of Capacity

1.​ Individual Capacity: Personal skills and knowledge enabling individuals to

respond to disasters.​

2.​ Community Capacity: Collective resources and social networks that support
communal disaster response.​
 3.​ Institutional Capacity: Organizational structures and policies facilitating
coordinated disaster management.​

4.​ Systemic Capacity: Integration of various capacities across sectors and levels
for comprehensive disaster risk management.​

Importance in Disaster Management

●​ Risk Reduction: Enhances the ability to anticipate and mitigate potential

hazards.​

●​ Effective Response: Enables timely and organized actions during disasters.​

●​ Recovery and Rehabilitation: Facilitates efficient restoration of services and

livelihoods post-disaster.​

●​ Sustainable Development: Supports long-term resilience and adaptation

strategies.​

Example

In the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, communities with established early warning systems
and disaster preparedness programs experienced fewer casualties and quicker
recovery compared to those without such capacities.

2. Resilience
Definition

UNDRR defines resilience as:

“The ability of a system, community or society exposed to hazards to resist,

absorb, accommodate, adapt to, transform and recover from the effects of a
hazard in a timely and efficient manner, including through the preservation
and restoration of its essential basic structures and functions.”​
— UNDRR Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction

Explanation

Resilience refers to the capacity of individuals, communities, and systems to withstand

and recover from disasters while maintaining essential functions. It involves:
 ●​ Resistance: Withstanding the initial impact of a hazard.​

●​ Absorption: Minimizing the adverse effects during the event.​

●​ Adaptation: Adjusting to new conditions post-disaster.​

●​ Transformation: Implementing changes to reduce future risks.​

Components of Resilience

1.​ Robustness: Strength to withstand stress without significant degradation.​

2.​ Redundancy: Availability of alternative systems and resources.​

3.​ Resourcefulness: Ability to mobilize resources and respond effectively.​

4.​ Rapidity: Speed of response and recovery to minimize losses.​

Importance in Disaster Management

●​ Preparedness: Enhances readiness for potential hazards.​

●​ Response: Facilitates efficient and coordinated actions during disasters.​

●​ Recovery: Supports swift restoration of normalcy.​

●​ Adaptation: Encourages learning and improvement for future resilience.​

Example

The city of Bhuj in Gujarat, India, demonstrated resilience by rebuilding infrastructure

and implementing stricter building codes following the 2001 earthquake, leading to
improved preparedness for future seismic events.

3. Interrelationship between Capacity and Resilience

Capacity and resilience are interconnected:

●​ Capacity Building: Enhancing capacities strengthens resilience by improving

the ability to manage and recover from disasters.​
●​ Resilience Enhancement: Developing resilience contributes to capacity by
fostering adaptive and robust systems.
1. The Disaster Management Act, 2005
Introduction

The Disaster Management Act, 2005, is the primary legislation in India governing
disaster preparedness, response, and mitigation. Enacted in the aftermath of the 2004
Indian Ocean Tsunami, the Act marks a paradigm shift from a relief-centric approach to
a proactive strategy focused on risk reduction, preparedness, and institutional
accountability.

Objective of the Act

As per the Act:

“An Act to provide for the effective management of disasters and for matters
connected therewith or incidental thereto.”​
— Disaster Management Act, 2005, Government of India​

The Act aims to establish a robust legal and institutional framework for managing
disasters and to ensure the integration of disaster risk reduction into developmental
planning.

Key Definitions

●​ Disaster: A catastrophe, calamity or grave occurrence (natural or man-made)

causing substantial loss of life, property, or environment, and exceeding the
coping capacity of the affected community.​

●​ Disaster Management: A continuous and integrated process involving

prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response, recovery, and rehabilitation​.​

Institutional Framework under the Act

a) National Level Institutions

1.​ National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)​

○​ Headed by the Prime Minister of India​

○​ Lays down policies, plans, and guidelines for disaster management​

 ○​ Approves the National Disaster Management Plan​

○​ Coordinates enforcement and implementation of disaster management

measures​

○​ Recommends mitigation funds and oversees training and capacity-building

activities​

2.​ National Executive Committee (NEC)​

○​ Chaired by the Union Home Secretary​

○​ Prepares the National Plan and ensures its annual review​

○​ Coordinates with ministries for implementation​

○​ Assists NDMA in technical and strategic functions​

3.​ National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM)​

○​ Responsible for training, research, documentation, and capacity-building​

○​ Functions as a center of excellence and academic support for disaster

education​

4.​ National Disaster Response Force (NDRF)​

○​ A specialized force under the NDMA for rapid response​

○​ Composed of battalions from paramilitary forces​

○​ Deployed in events of major disasters or national emergencies​

b) State Level Institutions

1.​ State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA)​

○​ Headed by the Chief Minister​

○​ Prepares the State Disaster Management Plan (SDMP)​

 ○​ Coordinates disaster mitigation and integrates it with state-level
development planning​

2.​ State Executive Committee (SEC)​

○​ Headed by the Chief Secretary​

○​ Implements state and national plans​

○​ Monitors departmental preparedness and resource allocation​

c) District Level Institutions

1.​ District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA)​

○​ Chaired by the District Collector/Magistrate​

○​ Responsible for planning, coordination, and execution of disaster

management activities​

○​ Prepares the District Disaster Management Plan (DDMP)​

○​ Coordinates with line departments and community-based organizations

during emergencies​

Financial Provisions

The Act provides for the establishment of disaster-specific funds:

●​ National Disaster Response Fund (NDRF)​

●​ National Disaster Mitigation Fund (NDMF)​

●​ State Disaster Response Funds (SDRFs)​

●​ Emergency procurement mechanisms and accounting procedures for relief

efforts​
Recent Developments: Disaster Management (Amendment) Bill, 2024

The Disaster Management Amendment Bill, 2024 aims to strengthen the existing
framework by:

●​ Empowering central and state governments to issue binding directions to all

stakeholders​

●​ Including private sector and non-state actors under its ambit​

●​ Expanding the scope of funds and monitoring mechanisms​

●​ Introducing provisions for climate-change-induced disasters​

Source: PRS Legislative Research (2024), Disaster Management

(Amendment) Bill 2024

2. Role of Government and NGOs in Disaster Management

A. Role of Government

The government, at all levels—central, state, and district—is the primary stakeholder in
disaster management.

i) Central Government

●​ Formulates national policies and disaster management plans​

●​ Allocates resources and coordinates inter-state or large-scale disaster responses​

●​ Deploys NDRF, Armed Forces, and technical institutions like IMD, CWC, and
ISRO for early warning and response​

●​ Ensures integration of mitigation measures into developmental planning across

ministries​

Key Bodies:

●​ Ministry of Home Affairs (Nodal Ministry)​

●​ National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC)​

 ●​ Central ministries act as nodal agencies for specific disaster types (e.g., MoEF
for chemical disasters)​

Source: UNITS DISASTER MANAGEMENT ACT,.pdf; dis act.pdf

ii) State Government

●​ Leads response efforts within state boundaries​

●​ Prepares State Disaster Management Plans and implements national guidelines​

●​ Establishes State Disaster Response Funds​

●​ Engages local bodies and communities for preparedness and awareness​

Key Responsibilities:

●​ Training and capacity building​

●​ Risk assessment and vulnerability mapping​

●​ Coordination with central agencies during multi-state events​

iii) District Administration

●​ Headed by the District Collector​

●​ Operationalizes DDMPs and coordinates relief at the grassroots​

●​ Has financial autonomy to mobilize quick response​

●​ Works with panchayats, municipalities, and block officials​

B. Role of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)

NGOs play a pivotal role across all stages of the disaster management cycle:
prevention, preparedness, response, recovery, and rehabilitation.

1. Pre-Disaster Phase
 ●​ Awareness generation: Conducting campaigns on disaster preparedness and
early warning​

●​ Community training: First aid, evacuation drills, and search-rescue operations​

●​ Vulnerability assessment: Participating in mapping exercises and identifying

at-risk populations​

2. During Disaster Response

●​ Relief operations: Distributing food, shelter, medicine, and clothing​

●​ Support services: Psychological first aid, counseling, and protection for

vulnerable groups​

●​ Coordination: Assisting local administration in rescue and communication​

3. Post-Disaster Phase

●​ Rehabilitation: Helping restore livelihoods and community assets​

●​ Monitoring and Evaluation: Ensuring transparency in fund use and policy

compliance​

●​ Advocacy: Influencing government decisions for long-term resilience planning​

NGOs also support implementation of international frameworks such as the

Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015–2030).

4. Partnership between Government and NGOs

The National Policy on Disaster Management, 2009, emphasizes the involvement of

civil society in disaster management. It encourages:

●​ Public–Private Partnerships (PPPs)​

●​ Community-Based Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM)​

●​ Coordination through Incident Response Systems (IRS)​

●​ Inclusion in State/District Disaster Management Authorities​

 Some well-known NGOs active in disaster response in India:

●​ SEEDS India​

●​ Goonj​

●​ Sphere India​

●​ ActionAid​

●​ Red Cross Society​

Case Study: COVID-19 Pandemic (2020–2022)

Type: Biological Disaster (Pandemic)​

Scale: National and global

Government Response

●​ Ministry of Health and Family Welfare led coordination.​

●​ Lockdowns were enforced with administrative and police support.​

●​ The Aarogya Setu App and CoWIN portal were deployed for contact tracing
and vaccination management.​

NGO Role

●​ NGOs like Goonj, Hemkunt Foundation, GiveIndia, and SEWA provided:​

○​ Free oxygen cylinders​

○​ Food and cash assistance to migrants​

○​ PPE kits to frontline workers​

●​ Community-based groups raised awareness and helped bridge the digital divide
for online schooling and vaccination.​

Lesson: Public health crises require multi-sectoral collaboration. NGOs

were vital for reaching marginalized groups.
Case Study: Kerala Floods (2018)

Location: Kerala​
Type: Hydrological Disaster (Flood)

Government Response

●​ The Kerala State Disaster Management Authority (KSDMA) and local panchayats
coordinated evacuations.​

●​ Use of technology (drones, geospatial data) enhanced the response.​

●​ Deployment of NDRF, Army, Navy, and Air Force was swift.​

NGO Role

●​ NGOs like Rapid Response, Doctors for You, and local faith-based groups:​

○​ Operated relief camps​

○​ Conducted medical drives​

○​ Provided clean water and sanitation services​

Lesson: NGO support helped fill local service delivery gaps and provided
culturally sensitive, community-rooted aid.

Conclusion
The Disaster Management Act, 2005, laid the foundation for a robust and decentralized
system of disaster governance in India. The coordinated efforts of national, state, and
district institutions—alongside the proactive role of NGOs—are critical for reducing
vulnerabilities and strengthening disaster resilience. As India faces increasing risks due
to climate change and urban expansion, inclusive and adaptive disaster governance will
remain essential.