ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR AIR POLLUTION CONTROL 525

rated depends on particle mass, gas velocity within the cyclone, and cyclone
imeter, as shown in Eq. (9-3).

centrifugal force, N
particulate mass, kg
centrifugal acceleration where v} equals particle velocity and R equals
radius of the cyclone, m/s?

Ly From this equation it can be seen that the centrifugal force on the particles,
thus the collection efficiency of the cyclone collector, can be increased by
easing R, the radius of the cyclone. [9-28] Large-diameter cyclones have good
Length of cylinder llection efficiencies for particles 40 to 50 um in diameter. High-efficiency cyclones
Length of cone h diameters of 23 cm (9 in) or less have good efficiencies for particles from 15 to
i { #m. Multiple cyclones operating in parallel are necessary to treat large flows
Diameter of exit = . .
small-diameter cyclones are used. The cleaning efficiency for units such as
Height of entrance 7 one in Fig. 9-4 may be as high as 90 percent for particulates in the 5- to 10-um
Width of entrance ige. The smailer radius of the cones not only increases the centrifugal force,
Diameter of dust exit also reduces the distance the particles have to travel to reach the collection
imber. Small cyclones do have some disadvantages, such as problems with
Length of exit duct
LDy
Dust hopper Clean gas out ’ Clean gas out

|—1
°
>
Efficiency

/
o°
=

0.1
03 0405 07 1.0 20 30 4050 70 100 Collected
d
Relative size, —— dust out
dso @

Figure 9-3 Standard-dimension cyclone collector. (4) Relative dimensions and operational mode
(h) Empirical efficiency for standard-dimension cyclone collector as a function of relative particle s/ 94 Cyclones arranged in parallel: (a) multiple cyclone and () collector element. (From U.S.
(From Lapple [9-171) [9-151)
526 AR
ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR AIR POLLUTION CONTROL 527
equalizing gas flow to each cone, abrasion of tubes due to high velocity, and p
ging of heavily loaded tubes. [9-28] Cyclones are usually built to standard relatiw
At this inlet velocity, N, ~ S turns
AUTT°C.p =21 x 10~ *kg/m- s
dimensions, as shown in Fig. 9-3a. Using Eq. (9-4).
Determination of collection efficiency with respect to particle size is not i
straightforward for cyclones as for gravity settling chambers. Size-efficiency
s (9 x 207 x 10" kg/m -5 x 0.5 m)w
curves for cyclones are curvilinear rather than straight-line relationships. Althcugh 27\ 21 x 5 x 14m/s- 1500 kg/m®
there are sizes beyond which all particles are collected with 100 percent efficiency, =119 x 107°m
this size is approached asymptotically and may be quite large. For this reason, = i2um
the reference particle is usually taken as the particle that will be removed with
50 percent efficiency on a weight basis. The size of this particle is determined by
'
L0 dg)
dso 12 ;s
the following equation based on work by Lapple. [9-17]
oub \i From Fig. 9-3b the efficiency for the 10-um particle is found to be about 42 percent.
aitfia i, 9. Determine the dy for the small cyclone.
40 (ZnN,v,pp) o3
where ds, = diameter of the particle that is collected with 50 percent efficiency, m
W = gas viscosity, kg/m - s “
= width of cyclone inlet, m
= number of effective turns within the cyclone
v; = inlet gas velocity, m/s Area of inlet = 006 x 0.12 = 7.2 x 10™* m?
= density of the particulate matter, kg/m* Area of all inlets = 64 x 7.2 x 107> m?

The collection efficiency of particles both larger and smaller than ds, It b
determined by their ratio to ds, as shown in Fig. 9-3b. These calculations are Inlet velocity =
illustrated in the following example.
4o = (0X 21 X 107* ke/m -5 x 0.06 m) 2
Example 9-2: Determining particle removal efficiency in cyclones An air stream with 27\ 22 x5 x 15m/s x 1500 kg/m”® |
flow rate of 7 m/s is passed through a cyclone of standard proportions. The diameter of
the cyclone is 2.0 m, and the air temperature is 77°C. =40x10"°m
(a) Determine the removal efficiency for a particle with a density of 1.5 g/cm and =40 um
diameter of 10 um.
(5) Determine the collection efficiency based on the above if a bank of64 cyclones
with diameters of 24 cm are used instead of the single large unit.
From Fig. 9-3b. the efficiency for the 10-um particle is about 88 percent.
SoLuTion
Cyclone collectors are relatively inexpensive to construct and operate, and
1. Determine ds, for the large cyclone. y can handle large volumes of gases at temperatures up to 980°C (1800°F).
For a cyclone of standard proportions ure drops across these units are generally low and range from 2.5 to 20 cm
10 8 in) of water. Cyclones have been used successfully at feed and grain mills,
ton gins, cement plants, fertilizer plants, petroleum refineries, asphalt mixing
ts, and other applications involving large quantities of gas containing relatively
particles.

amic Precipitators
amic precipitators are compact units that impart a centrifugal force to the
iculate by the action of rotating vanes, a force about seven times that of a
ventional cyclone of the same capacity. This type of unit, shown in Fig. 9-5,
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR AIR POLLUTION CONTROL 529

9:3 Average pressure drops

well-designed collectors of

Source: From Shaheen. [9-42]

In addition to the pressure drop, the cleaning efficiency of wet collectors varies
tly with the size of the particulates being collected. Generally, collectors
rating at very low pressure loss will remove only medium- to coarse-size
icles, while collectors operating at higher pressure losses (and therefore in-
Figure 9-§ Dynamic precipitator. (Courtesy of American Air Filter. an Allis-Chalmers Company.) sed energy output) will be highly efficient at removing fine particles.
A graph of efficiency versus particle size for wet scrubbers operating at
can serve as both an exhaust fan and a dust collector and is widely used in ceramics, ious pressure drops is given in Fig. 9-6. Consistent with the contact-power %
food, pharmaceutical, and woodworking industries. It cannot handle wet, ry, efficiency in collection of particles in the smaller size range is substantially »'0
fibrous material, which can accumulate on the blades, and it requires a higher jgher when more energy is expended in air-water contact. [9-42] "
power input than does a centrifugal fan operating at the same volume and system With virtually no particle reentrainment, wet collectors can provide efficient,
resistance in a cyclone. [9-3] latively low-cost solutionsto many air pollution problems, including the handling
hot. moist gases that many other systems cannot accommodate. However,
'y are not without drawbacks. High or fluctuating pressure drops can be a
9-5 WET COLLECTORS blem in some units, and maintenance costs can be high when corrosive materials
being collected. Further, wet collectors are not recommended for use where
Wet collectors, or scrubbers, remove particulate matter from gas streams by
incorporating the particles into liquid droplets directly on contact. Either inertial
impingement or interception during gravitational settling may be the contact i —
mechanism. 90
According to the contact-power theory developed for scrubbers, collection ol
efficiency for well-designed wet collectors of all types is a function of the energy 20
consumed in the air-to-water contact process. The energy consumed is directly
proportional to the pressure drop, and comparable performance can be expected 60
from all well-designed wet collectors operating at or near the same pressure drop. 50/
[9-42] Average pressure drops from well-designed collectors of several different k.
types are shown in Table 9-3. Applying the contact-power theory, more efficiency
can be expected from a venturi-type wet collector with a 125-cm water gage (w.g.) 30
pressure drop than from a spray chamber with a pressure drop of 1- to 4-cm w.g 20
In actual practice. most operations would not need the high efficiency and could 10
not afford the high energy cost of a scrubber with a 125-cm w.g. pressured drop 01 0.2 04 06 08 1.0 2.0 40 60 80100
Particle size, um

9-6 Graph of efficiency versus particle size for a wet scrubber. (From Shaheen [9-42].) 4
530 AR ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR AIR POLLUTION CONTROL 531

high plume rise is important, because wet plumes do not rise and disperse well little pressure loss and can handle large volumes of gases. As the gas flows upward,
[9-33] trained particles collide with liquid droplets sprayed across the flow passage,
For all wet collectors, disposal of the wastewater in which the particulatey d liquid droplets containing the particles settle by gravity to the bottom of the
have been collected poses problems. Often the wastewater will require some form chamber. Spray towers are effective in removing particles in excess of 10 um, and
of treatment (i.e,, settling tank or pond, or centrifugal device) before being dis: lodifications can be made to improve efficiencies for smaller particles. [9-50]
charged into a receiving stream. In areas where water supplies are limited or water
costs are unusually high, further treatment before recycling the water may be
‘et Cyclone Scrubbers
called for.
Three of the wet collectors most commonly used for control of particulate n a simple wet cyclone scrubber, high-pressure spray nozzles located in various
matter —the spray tower, the wet cyclone scrubber, and the venturi scrubber laces within the cyclone chamber generatea fine spray that intercepts the small
are discussed in this section. Though wet collectors of other types (notably, ticles entrained in the swirling gases. The particulate matter thrown to the wall
packed tower scrubbers) may trap particles effectively, particles tend to clog such centrifugal force is then drained to the collection sump. One version of a cyclone
units too quickly to make them useful for particulate removal. Because the primary ubber is shown in Fig. 9-8. For droplets of 100 um, efficiency approaches 100
function of other types of wet collectors is to remove gaseous pollutants, they will be t, and 90 to 98 percent removal is achieved for droplets between 5 and 50 um.
discussed in a later section of this chapter. 50] Particle removal depends on contact with the liquid droplets and is a

Spray Towers Cleaned gas

Spray towers such as the one shown in Fig. 9-7 are low-cost scrubbers that can be ) }
used to remove both gaseous and particulate contaminants. The units cause very
Straightening _
Clean gas vanes
outlet

f
bz M Ciminater

Core buster disk —

RIS TN Spray manifold —
Tengential
gas inlet
WAYLAW

~——Dirty gas inlet

Dirty water
outlet
V-
Water Water
Figure 98 Wet cyclone scrubber.
(From Air Pollution Manual . .
Figure 9-7 Spray tower scrubber. outlet inlet 09-11)
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR AIR POLLUTION CONTROL 533
532 AR

function of the liquid flow rate and liquid droplet and particle sizes. Generally, FABRIC FILTERS (BAGHOUSE FILTERS)
efficiencies slightly higher than those obtained with the spray tower can be ex:
pected. a fabric filter system, the particulate-laden gas stream passes through a woven
felted fabric that filters out the particulate matter and allows the gas to pass
rough. Small particles are initially retained on the fabric by direct interception,
Venturi Scrubbers rtial impaction, diffusion, electrostatic attraction, and gravitational settling.
Venturi scrubbers such as the one shown in Fig. 9-9 are most efficient for re er a dust mat has formed on the fabric, more efficient collection of submicron
rticles (99 + percent) is accomplished by sieving. |
moving particulate matter in the size range of 0.5 to Sum, that makes them
especially effective for the removal of submicron particulates associated with Filter bags, usually tubular or envelope-shaped, are capable of removing most
rticles as small as 0.5 um and will remove substantial quantities of particles i
smoke and fumes. At velocities from 60 to 180 m/s (200 to 600 ft/s), the contami.
nated gas passes through a duct that has a venturi-shaped throat section. A coarst small as 0.1 pm. Filter bags ranging from 1.8 to 9 m (6 to 30 ft) long, can be
ilized in a baghouse filter arrangement similar to that shown in Fig. 9-10a.
water spray is injected into the throat, where it is atomized by the high gas velocities
The liquid droplets collide with the particles in the gas siream, and the water and e upper ends are closed and the lower ends are attached to an inlet manifold
particles fall down for later removal. Venturi scrubbers can efficiently remove baghouse arrangement may be small enough to fit into an ordinary room or
ge enough to dwarf many industrial buildings. For example, one baghouse
gaseous as well as particulate contaminants (see Sec. 9-9). Although venturl
ble of removing 6 tons of fumes and dust per hour from an automotive foundry
scrubbers are highly efficient (greater than 90 percent) for submijcron aerosoly,
sists of 16 compartments housing 4000 bags, each of which is 19.4 cm (7.64 in)
power costs are relatively high for this device because of the high inlet gas velocity
diameter and 6.9 m (224 ft) long. [9-50]
Removal efficiencies are a function of particle sizes and head loss as shown in
As particulates build up on the inside surfaces of the bags, the pressure drop
Fig. 9-6. .
reases. Before the pressure drop becomes 100 severe, the bags must be relieved
Clean gas out some of the particulate layer. Fabric filters can be cleaned intermittently,

o
eriodically, or continuously. Because intermittent cleaning means the unit must
Dirty gas in shut down to prevent the discharge of raw gases directly into the atmosphere,

l
t method is seldom used. In periodic cleaning portions of the filter device are
ut down and cleaned for brief intervals, while the rest remains operational "
a continuous, automatic cleaning operation, cleaning of some parts of the filter
urs at all times. In any of these methods, a mechanical shaker, reverse-air
low (blow rings), or pulse jets may be used to remove the dust cake.
Sprey Settling Continuously cleaned filters that use a traveling blow ring or reverse-air
chamber s leave little filter cake in place at any time. Although this results in some loss of
Venturi llection efficiency, the reduction in head loss allows faster filtering rates and
throat
reases the size needed for the filter baghouse. [9-39]
There are some problems associated with the use of fabric filters. The pos-
ibility of explosion or fire exists if sparks are discharged in a baghouse area where
ganic dusts are being filtered. Space limitations may prohibit use of baghouses
ge enough to handle heavy loads. There is always a slight possibility of rupture
other adverse effects because of temperatures too high for the fabric medium
because of the moisture, acidity, ar alkali content of the particulate-laden
s stream. [9-10] Judicious fabric choice can minimize these problem s;
a summary
the limitations of some of the common filter fabrics used in industrial baghouses
given in Table 9-4.
Water and condensate out l The design of fabric filters is based on filtering rates, or air-to-cloth ratios.
Itering rates range from 0.5 to 5 m/min (m® air/min - m? cloth) depending on
)
st loading, fabric material, and method of cleaning. Sizing of the units is illustra-
Figure 9-9 Venturi wet collector: (a) theoretical section (from Air Pollution Manual (91
in the following example.
(b) application (from U.S. EPA [9-15])
 Mechanism for shaking,
rapping, or vibrating bags ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR AIR POLLUTION CONTROL 535

Clean Tubular
air out | filter = Maximum temperature
bags at baghouse inlet Chemical
for continuous duty resistance
N\ A Clean Summary of Recommended
air published data, maximum,
~ out abric °C g Acid Alkali
70-90 Poor Fair
el 65-80 80 Good Good
o0l 80-110 105 Good Poor
lylon 90-140 105 Good Poor
90-175 135 Good Fair
n 120-175 135 Excellent ~ Good |
260-370 290 Excellent Excellent

Source: From Danielson. [9-10]

}
Collected
dust out air in Example 9-3: Determining filter cloth area A fabric filter s to be constructed using bags
(a) that are 0.3 m in diameter and 6.0 m long. The baghouse is to receive 10 m?/s of air, and
the appropriate filtering velocity has been determined to be 2.0 m/min. Determine the
number of bags required for a continuously cleaned operation. .
]
SoLuTION

1. Determine the cloth area required. 1

10m*s x L2 = 600
m i |
min
SomYmin _ o0
2 m/min
2. The area of one bag is:
aDH =7 x 03m x 60m = 565 m?
3. The total number of bags is
300 m?
T 53.05, Use 54 4

Fabric filters have many applications. They have a high collection efficiency
ver a broad range of particle sizes, extreme flexibility in design, the ability to
Figure 9-10 Baghouse filter. (a) Typical simple fabric filter baghouse design. (From U.S. EPA [9-15] indle large volumes of gases at relatively high speeds, reasonable operating
() Bagh ouse filters for removal of lead oxide particulates ) sure drops and power requirements, and the ability to handle a diversity of
from Columbus, Georgia, plant of Chloride,
Inc. (Co urtesy of American Air Filter, an Allis-Chalmers Company.) lid materials. [9-50] They are particularly useful in many high-volume operations
ich as cement kilns, foundries, steel furnaces, and grain-handling plants.
534
 ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR AIR POLLUTION CONTROL 537

to plates
ey
i to wires Aot
9-7 ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS (ESP) = i electrode (wire)
Electrostatic precipitators can be classified as low-voltage two-stage units or high:
voltage single-stage units. Low-voltage two-stage units operate at 6000 to 12,000 V
and areemployed mainly in conjunction with air-conditioning systems for hospitaly
and commercial installations. [9-28] They are used mainly to collect liquid
particles and are not generally recommended for control of solid or sticky material
Low-voltage precipitators have a separate ionizing zone located aheud
of the collection plates, as seen in Fig. 9-11. The charged wires are located 2.5 0
5cm (1 to 2 in) ahead of the parallel grounded plates. The corona discharge
between the wires charges the particles suspended in the air flowing past thei
The grounded collector plates are less than 2.5 cm (1 in) apart and alternately
charged positive and negative. Liquid collects on the plate surfaces and drains by
gravity to a collection chamber. Low-voltage precipitators have design capacitios
approaching 10 m*/s (20,000 ft*/min), with an air velocity of about 0.5 m/s (100
ft/min). [9-28]
High-voltage single-stage precipitators operate in the 30,000- to 100,000-V
range and are used at large industrial plants such as coal-fired utility boilers. Fouf
basic steps are required in the operation of a high-voltage single-stage electro
Discharge
static precipitator such as the one pictured in Fig. 9-12: (1) electrical charging of ‘ electrode
the particulates, (2) collection of charged particles on a grounded surface, (1) f )
neutralization of the charge at the collector, and (4) removal of the particulate for
disposal. [9-28, 9-33]
The electrical charge is imparted to the particulate by passing the particley
through a high-voltage direct-current corona. The high-voltage field ionizes the

Tonizer Collector
stage stage
) Particle

molecules in the air stream, which in turn become attached to the particulate
tter and give them a negative charge, as shown in Fig. 9-13. After being charged,
negative particles move toward the positive electrodes and are collected there.
ir charge is neutralized at the moment of collection, and they can be removed
m the collection surface by rapping, washing, or plain gravity. The energy used
z o e
separating particulates from a waste gas stream by means of an electrostatic
ipitator is expended solely upon the particulate, not on the gas stream itself,
Particle—3° i Pl e is the case in most other collection or control devices. [9-50]
Fi emitter plates (+) Electrostatic precipitators have wide application. They are extremely efficient
Field
i
? (-) .
HEELUERE
emitter wires and =
¥ 6000-8000 V. percent or higher)
higher) fc for a wide
vids range of
of pa: particle sizes;
izes even submicron-size
i electrostaic field i ‘
g 10,000-12,000 V Grounded
collector plates (-)
Figure 9-11 Low-voltage two-stage electrostatic precipitator. (From Control Techniques . . . [9-24] )
 538 AR
ENGINEERED SYSTEMS FOR AIR POLLUTION CONTROL 539

High-voltage discharge electrode drift velocity w is the velocity at which the particle approaches the collection
te. It is analogous to the terminal settling velocity in gravity settling, except the
ing force is the electrical charge instead of gravity. The drift velocity can be
Charging field
ressed by
' = ad, 9-6)
re the parameter @ has units of s~ and is a function of the charging field, the
ier gas properties, and the ability of the particles to accept an electrical charge.
value of a is considered a constant for a given system but varies with system
riables. The numerical value of w ranges from 0.04 to 0.2 m/s [9-50] and must be
ulated or determined experimentally for any given system.
The sizing of electrostatic precipitators is illustrated in the following example.
1
Grounded (+) collecting surface © Example 9-4: Determining plate-area requirements for an electrostatic precipitator An
electrostatic precipitator is to be constructed to remove fly-ash particles from stack
gases flowing at 10 m?/s. Analysis of a similar system shows that the drift velocity can
be taken as
=30 x 10°d, m/s
Discharge electrode tension weight
Determine the plate area required to collect a 0.5 um particle with
(a) 90 percent efficiency
(b) 99 percent efficiency
Figure 9-13 Schematic view of a plate-type electrostatic precipitator. (From Control Tech
niques ... [9-28.) SoLuTion

1. Using Eq. (9-6)

particles can be collected. They can handle large volumes of gas—25to 1000 m*/x
w=20x10°s"' x50 x 107" m
(_50,000 to 2,0(]),000 ft*/min)—have low pressure drops, and can operate cofls
tinuously with little maintenance. They can be used to collect acid or tar ‘misty, =015m/s
but they cannot be used with explosive materials. [9-28]
Iymial installation cost is high, and electrostatic precipitators generally
2. Using Eq. (9-5) for 90 percent efficiency
require a great deal of space for an industrial operation. Higher efficiency levels 090 = l—exp(—gA)
may be attained by increasing the surface area, but increases must be substantiil
in higher ranges. Electrostatic precipitation systems only operate at peak efficiency
within a limited temperature range, and they may use excessive power if buildup of e 0.15m/s

collected material causes “spark over.” They ‘may also become inefficient if buildup
of collected material suppresses the corona discharge from the negative electrode 1 — 09 = exp(—0.015 I/m?4)
The size-efficiency relationship for an electrostatic percipitator is a curvilinear 23 = 0015 1/m*4
fync‘ion similar to that for a cyclone. The equation relating efficiency to particle
A=153m?
size is a follows:
3. For 99 percent efficiency
pupmigaill (;)
Aw | 1 =099
=099 = exp(—0015
= I/m? A A)
Qo 461 = 0015 1/m> 4
where A = area of the collection plates, m?
A=307m?
w = drift velocity of the charged particles, m/s
Because the efficiency equation is a logarithmic function. an increment 10 99.9 percent
flow rate of the gas stream, m?/s efficiency would again double the required area