SSC-3: Emerging Scenario in School Education (Secondary and

Senior Secondary)
Unit-1
Bit-1: Secondary Education in India: Structure, Scope, and Functions
Secondary education in India plays a pivotal role in shaping the future of students and preparing
them for higher education or professional careers. It helps in the development of both academic
skills and vocational abilities. In the Indian context, secondary education is a key stage in the
educational system, bridging the gap between primary education and higher education.

1. Structure of Secondary Education

Secondary education in India is divided into two distinct levels:
a. Lower Secondary (Class 6 to Class 8), Age Group: Students are generally between
the ages of 11 and 14 years, Grades: Classes 6 to 8.

Curriculum: The subjects are relatively general, similar to primary education, with an emphasis on
languages, mathematics, science, and social studies. Some states may also include subjects like
arts and physical education.

b. Upper Secondary (Class 9 to Class 12), Age Group: Students between the ages of
14 and 18 years, Grades: Classes 9 to 12.

Curriculum: At this stage, students have the option to choose specific streams of study, which allow
for specialization. The three main streams are:

Science: Includes subjects like Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Mathematics, Computer Science, and
more.

Commerce: Includes subjects like Accountancy, Business Studies, Economics, Mathematics, etc.
Humanities/Arts: Includes subjects like History, Geography, Political Science, Sociology,
Psychology, Economics, and other elective subjects.

In India, Secondary education is recognized as classes 9 to 10, while Higher Secondary Education
refers to classes 11 and 12, culminating in the Senior Secondary Certificate (SSC) or Higher
Secondary Certificate (HSC).

Examinations: At the end of Class 10, students sit for the Secondary School Certificate (SSC) or
Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE) exams. The result of this examination helps
students decide their stream for Class 11. At the end of Class 12, students appear for the Senior
Secondary Certificate or Higher Secondary Certificate exams, which determine their eligibility for
college or university admission.
 2. Scope of Secondary Education in India
The scope of secondary education in India is wide, offering opportunities for academic, vocational,
and personal growth.

• Academic Scope: Secondary education provides a solid foundation for higher education.
The curriculum is designed to ensure that students have a broad base of knowledge across
various disciplines. The specialization in subjects in classes 11 and 12 ensures that students
are well-prepared for undergraduate courses in fields like engineering, medicine, business,
humanities, etc.
• Vocational Scope: In addition to academic education, the scope of vocational education at
the secondary level is gaining importance in India. Vocational education programs are
designed to provide practical skills that can lead to employment in various sectors. The
National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC) has been involved in developing
vocational training programs that are integrated into secondary education, particularly for
students in rural and semi-urban areas.Some states also offer subjects related to industrial
training, design, fashion, hospitality, and other job-oriented skills at the secondary level.
• Personal Development: Secondary education in India helps in the development of
students’ personalities by focusing on the overall growth of an individual. This includes
extracurricular activities like sports, arts, music, drama, and debates, as well as social and
cultural activities that build leadership, confidence, communication, and teamwork skills.
• Cultural Scope: India’s diverse culture is reflected in the secondary education system,
with schools offering a range of cultural studies, including history, geography, literature,
and social studies. This helps students understand their heritage, culture, and society,
preparing them to become responsible citizens.

3.Functions of Secondary Education in India

The functions of secondary education in India are multi-faceted, with the focus being on holistic
development, academic excellence, and preparation for future opportunities.
A. Academic and Professional Preparation: One of the primary functions of secondary
education in India is to prepare students for higher education and professional careers. By
offering specialized streams in science, commerce, and humanities, secondary education
provides a foundation for undergraduate education in a variety of fields. It also helps
students build critical thinking, problem-solving, and research skills that are essential for
success in higher education and the workforce.
B. Skill Development: focuses not only on academic learning but also on developing
practical skills through vocational training. The vocational education programs aim to
address the skill gap and equip students with employable skills, ensuring they are ready for
the job market after completion of their education. Programs under the National Skills
 Qualification Framework (NSQF) are aimed at integrating skill development into the
mainstream curriculum.
C. Socialization and Citizenship: plays a vital role in socializing students and preparing
them to participate actively in society. By learning about history, politics, economics, and
ethics, students are made aware of their rights and responsibilities as citizens. Schools
emphasize social values, respect for diversity, and the importance of democracy.
D. Equity and Inclusiveness: Secondary education is also designed to address the issue of
equity. The government has introduced various programs to ensure that students from
economically and socially disadvantaged backgrounds have access to education. This
includes reservations in educational institutions, scholarships, and financial assistance for
lower-income groups.In addition, the Right to Education (RTE) Act, passed in 2009,
ensures that children between the ages of 6 and 14 have access to free and compulsory
education, which has indirectly supported the transition into secondary education.
E. Economic Development: Education plays a crucial role in the economic development of
India. Secondary education provides the workforce with skilled individuals, both academic
and vocational, who are essential for various sectors like agriculture, industry, technology,
and services. Vocational training programs also help to reduce unemployment rates by
equipping students with employable skills.
F. Holistic Development: Secondary education plays a key role in the overall development
of a student’s personality. It emphasizes the development of intellectual abilities, physical
fitness, emotional intelligence, and social awareness. Through co-curricular activities,
students develop skills such as leadership, discipline, communication, teamwork, and
creativity.
G. Preparation for Global Challenges: With the world becoming more interconnected,
secondary education helps students understand global issues such as climate change,
technology, human rights, and sustainable development.

Conclusion

In the Indian context, secondary education plays a crucial role in shaping the future of students,
providing them with both academic and vocational opportunities. Its structure ensures a broad-
based education with the flexibility to specialize based on individual interests and career goals.
The functions of secondary education go beyond academic learning, addressing social, economic,
and cultural development to prepare students to become well-rounded individuals and active
contributors to society. It is essential for ensuring access to higher education, employment, and
overall national development.
Bit-2: Status of secondary education during British Period
The status of secondary education during the British colonial period in India was shaped by the
policies and interests of the British Empire, which largely influenced the development of
educational institutions. British rule in India lasted for almost two centuries (1757-1947), and
during this time, the education system underwent significant changes, most of which catered to
colonial needs and not the development of the Indian populace at large. Below is a detailed
description of the evolution of secondary education during the British period:

I. Pre-British Education System (Before 1757)

Before British colonial rule, education in India was largely informal and regionally varied. The
education system was diverse, with schools functioning in religious institutions (temples, mosques,
and gurukuls), in local communities, and through traditional systems.
The curriculum was primarily based on religious texts (Hindu, Muslim, and Buddhist traditions),
philosophy, logic, and grammar. It was largely based on the oral transmission of knowledge and
catered to a limited elite, often from the Brahmin and Rajput communities.

Secondary education, in the form of higher learning, was mostly restricted to a select group of
people, especially in urban and religious centers.

II. Early British Rule and Education (1757 – 1800s)

During the early British period, education was not a major focus of the British East India Company.
British colonial interests were concentrated more on trade and consolidation of power.The English
language began to be introduced primarily to serve the needs of the British administration. English-
medium schools were set up mainly in urban centers, but education was limited to a small section
of society.The majority of Indians remained illiterate, and secondary education was confined to
the children of the wealthy elites and a few urban centers.

III. The Education Policy of 1813 and 1835

Charter Act of 1813: The British government allowed for a limited promotion of education,
allocating Rs. 1 lakh (a substantial sum at the time) to promote education in India. However, this
did not have a significant impact on the mass education system, and secondary education was not
a priority.Macaulay’s Minute on Education (1835): A major shift occurred with Lord Macaulay’s
Minute of 1835, which called for promoting English education to create a class of Indians who
would serve the British colonial administration. This policy was aimed at producing a clerical class
familiar with the English language, who could manage colonial affairs. Secondary education at
this stage was focused on English language, literature, and Western knowledge, rather than
indigenous subjects.As a result, schools began to be established in major cities like Calcutta,
Bombay, and Madras, but they remained limited in scope and access, primarily serving the elite.

IV. Wood’s Despatch (1854) and Expansion of Education

The Wood’s Despatch of 1854 was a significant turning point in the development of the Indian
education system. It recommended the establishment of a network of schools and colleges across
the country, with a focus on providing Western-style education.The Despatch suggested a
hierarchical education system consisting of elementary, secondary, and higher education levels.

Secondary Education: The Wood’s Despatch proposed the creation of secondary schools that
would prepare students for higher education and government service. It called for the
establishment of middle schools, high schools, and other institutions that could provide secondary
education. The goal was to prepare a small, educated group to serve the British administration.
These schools, however, were mainly located in urban centers and served the children of the elite
classes.The curriculum was largely Europea”, with an emphasis on English literature, history, and
science, while Indian culture and history were not adequately covered.

V. Development of Secondary Education Under the British

Types of Schools: The British established a system of schools to cater to different sections of
society. Missionary-run schools, government-run schools, and private schools emerged, but access
to these schools remained restricted.

Missionary and Government Schools: These were the main providers of secondary education in
urban areas. Missionary schools offered a mix of religious and Western education, while
government schools focused primarily on producing a class of English-speaking clerks.

Indian Elites: Secondary education became increasingly accessible to the upper classes, including
the Brahmins, Rajputs, and other well-off communities, who were seen as ideal candidates for
colonial administration. The curriculum was heavily focused on English, mathematics, and the
sciences, often with little attention given to Indian languages or cultural studies.
Gender Disparity: Education for girls was highly limited. Secondary education for women was
practically non-existent, and girls’ schools were few and far between. The British did not make
efforts to include women in formal education, leaving this to be addressed later by social reformers
and religious missionaries.

VI. The Indian Education Act of 1863 and the Hunter Commission of 1882

Indian Education Act of 1863: This act emphasized the expansion of the school system, but again,
secondary education was mostly confined to the elite. The government was still largely focused on
promoting education that would serve colonial interests.

Hunter Commission (1882): The Hunter Commission of 1882 was a government body that
investigated the state of education in India. It found that education was inaccessible to most of the
 population and that the curriculum was insufficient in terms of practical usefulness for the majority
of Indians.

The commission recommended expanding the number of schools and making secondary education
more accessible, but it was still very much geared towards serving the needs of the colonial
administration rather than empowering the general population.

VII. Expansion and Growth of Secondary Education (Late 19th Century – Early 20th
Century)

By the late 19th century, secondary education expanded somewhat, but it still served a small,
privileged segment of society.Schools were set up in more urban areas, and the curriculum was
increasingly standardized to focus on English, history, and science.

The Nationalist Movement: By the early 20th century, the nationalist movement began to demand
more widespread education, both for economic development and to create an educated citizenry
capable of challenging British rule. Leaders like Swami Vivekananda, Gopal Krishna Gokhale,
and others advocated for education for all, including the rural poor and women.However, British
policies still remained focused on serving the colonial state, and secondary education was still
largely inaccessible to the general population, especially in rural areas.

VIII. The Indian Education Policy of 1913

The Government of India Act of 1913 focused on expanding the education system but continued
to emphasize the creation of a trained class of educated Indians to support the British government.
Secondary education was still seen primarily as a means to serve colonial interests.The curriculum
continued to be Westernized, and the teaching of Indian culture and history was limited.

Challenges and Limitations

Limited Access: Access to secondary education was primarily limited to urban areas and the elite,
with very few opportunities for the general population, especially in rural areas.
Exclusion of Women: Secondary education for girls was severely restricted. Although missionary
groups made some efforts, female literacy rates remained very low.

Economic and Social Barriers: The majority of Indians were excluded from secondary education
due to poverty, caste discrimination, and geographical barriers.

Conclusion
Secondary education during the British period in India was deeply influenced by colonial policies
that prioritized the creation of a class of educated Indians to serve British interests. The system
was limited in scope, excluding the majority of the population, especially women and rural
communities. The curriculum was heavily focused on Western knowledge and values, with little
regard for Indian languages, culture, or history. Though there were some efforts to expand
education, the British system largely served the colonial state rather than the broader Indian
society, leaving a significant gap in educational access and equity.

Bit-3: Secondary education during post independence period:

Recommendations of Secondary Education Commission(1952-53)
and the Education Commission (1964-66) with reference to structure,
aims , curriculum and evaluation.
Post-independence, the Secondary Education Commission (1952-53) and the Education
Commission (1964-66) (Kothari Commission) significantly shaped secondary education in India,
focusing on structure, aims, curriculum, and evaluation. The Mudaliar Commission recommended
a 7-year secondary education with diversified courses and vocational emphasis, while the Kothari
Commission advocated for a 10+2+3 pattern with a national curriculum framework.

Secondary Education/ Mudaliar Commission

The Secondary Education commission known as Mudaliar Commission was appointed by the
government of India in term of their Resolution to bring changes in the present education system
and make it better for the Nation. Dr. A. Lakshmanswami Mudaliar was the Vice-Chancellor of
Madras University.After the Independence India needed a change in the education system. Number
of Secondary Schools were increasing in India it was much a need to take care the students of
secondary school.

Structure of secondary education

✓ Secondary education should be 7 years.
✓ It should be for children of 11 to 17 years.
✓ It suggested to end intermediate college and merge class 11 with secondary schools and
class 12 with B.A.
✓ The commission divided secondary education into two parts.
✓ Degree courses should be of three years.
✓ One year Pre-university course for high school students to enter in university.
✓ Recommended a 7-year secondary education, divided into a 3-year junior secondary stage
and a 4-year higher secondary stage.
✓ Suggested abolishing intermediate classes and integrating class 11 with high school and
class 12 with the university, leading to a 3-year degree course.

Aims of secondary education

• To produce ideal citizens with national and social consciousness.
• To develop vocational skills for earning a livelihood.
• To foster leadership qualities and cultivate human virtues.
• To promote character building and democratic citizenship.

Recommendation of Secondary Education Commission

1.To produce ideal citizens:The commission has realized that no nation can progress without
national feelings along with social feelings. Therefore, it has been laid down that the purpose of
education should be to produce ideal citizens who inspire by strong national and social feelings
are prepared to shoulder their responsibilities and duties, and can easily offer any sacrifice for the
sake of the nation. Such citizens should have co-operated feelings directed toward universal
brotherhood, which describes the national spirit.

2.To develop the capacity for Earning Money: after having received secondary education one
should able to earn enough money for maintaining himself, for the developing this capacity
vocational subjects should be introduced into the curriculum

3.Quality of Leadership: Secondary education should develop the quality of leadership in

students. This quality is very necessary for the sake of democracy and for the development of the
country as a whole.

4.To develop Human Virtues: Man is a social animal so he should have the spirit of cooperation,
discipline, humility, love, kindness, and the feelings of brotherhood. The curriculum should be
developed to have such subjects which may inculcate these virtues in students.

5.Duration of Secondary education: Recommended that secondary-level education should be

for children between 11 to 17 years of age. It has divided this seven years of education into two
parts (i) Junior High School stage for 3 years and (ii) High School for 4 years

6.Secondary Education reforms and changes

• To open Multi-purpose schools according to the varying interest and needs of students.
• The multi-purpose school should be open near the industrial institute. The students of these
two types of institutions should learn from each other.
• Agriculture should be made a compulsory subject for the school in the village.
• In big cities, Technical areas should be established on the demand of the local public
• Home science should be made compulsory for girls and another subject should be common
for both boys and girls.
7.Medium of instruction: The Mother tongue or the state language should be made the medium
of instruction in this connection the commission expresses the following ideas-

• The students should be taught at least two languages at the junior high school stage
• students should learn at least three languages the national language, the mother tongue or
the regional language, and the foreign language

8.Curriculum of Secondary Education: The commission has emphasized the necessity of re-
organizing the secondary school curriculum in order that the aims of education may be realized.
In this connection, the commission wants that:

• The curriculum should be recognized according to the interest of the students.

• meeting the social aspirations
• keeping in view the demands of the times and those of the countries.
• student’s time and leisure may not be wasted.

The Subject of Lower Secondary Education: In lower secondary education subjects should be
mathematics, general science, language, social studies, physical education, art, handicraft, and
music.

Subjects for secondary education: In secondary education, subjects should be Humanities, Science,
Agriculture, Fine arts, Industrial Subjects, Commercial subjects, and Home Science.

9.Selection of textbook: textbook should be selected on the basis of its merits and utility. For this
purpose, the commission has recommended the appointment of a High power committee that will
select books for all the classes.The standard of production, printing, and paper used and pictures
and illustrations incorporated and suitable content will be the basis of selection.

10. Character formation:This is useful not only for the individual but also for the nation.
Therefore, raising the character of the nation, the character of the students should be well-formed.

11. Health Education: All the students should be medically examined at least twice a year. They
should be given the knowledge of basic Hygiene, Cleanliness, and other health-related knowledge.

12. Method of Teaching: The teaching in secondary and higher secondary education emphasis
should be shifted from verbalism and memorization to learning through purposeful, concrete,
realistic situations and for this purpose, the principle of activity method and project method should
be used in school.

13. Examination System: The number of external examinations should be reduced by introducing
objective tests.School records should be maintained indicating the progress of each pupil from
time to time.

Evaluation
In place of numerical marks, grades should be awarded. Only one public examination should be
there at the end of secondary stage. Externals Examinations should be reduced. Subjects with
marks should be shown in the certificates Supplementary examinations should also be held.

Conclusion
The Secondary Education Commission (1952-53) was a great landmark in the history of the Indian
Education System. The Commission was appointed to examine secondary education in India and
suggest measures to improve it. The commission was headed by Dr. Lakshmanaswamy Mudaliar
submitted its report in 1953. The reports made several recommendations for the improvement of
secondary education in India, including the introduction of a common school system, the
establishment of new schools, teacher training, and the promotion of scientific and technical
education. The recommendation of the Secondary education commission had a profound impact
on the Education System of India and continues to shape it to this day.

Education Commission/ Kothari Commission (1964-66)

The Government of India established the National Education Commission (1964–1966), also
known as the Kothari Commission, as an ad hoc commission to review all facets of the Indian
educational system, develop a general pattern of education, and provide recommendations for
guidelines and policies to advance education in India. The head of the University Grants
Commission at the time, Professor Daulat Singh Kothari, was chosen to lead this educational
committee. The committee’s core group included 17 people in addition to him. Twenty
international education professionals from various countries made up the Kothari Education
Commission’s consultation panel. They helped the Commission create a more effective
educational framework. It was the first commission in India to deal with the country’s education
system comprehensively.

Aims
Education should be related to the life ,needs and aspirations of the people so that the national
objectives may be achieved.

(a)Education for increasing productivity

(b)Education for social and national integration

(c)Education for modernization

(d)Development of Democracy and Cultivation of social,moral and spiritual values

Structure:
 • Recommended a 10+2+3 structure for the education system, with 10 years of general
education, followed by 2 years of higher secondary education and 3 years of university
education.
• Advocated for a common school system and free and compulsory education up to the age
of 14.

Curriculum:
▪ Emphasized the importance of science and mathematics education.
▪ Recommended the introduction of work experience as an integral part of the school
curriculum.
▪ Suggested the establishment of school complexes and neighborhood schools.

Evaluation:
Recommended the establishment of a system of continuous evaluation to assess students’ progress
throughout their academic careers.

Kothari Commission Recommendations

The Kothari commission report was submitted on 29th June 1966 to M.C.Chagla, the then minister
of education. The information consists of 4 volumes in which 19 chapters are dealt.

The Kothari Commission proposed a total of 23 recommendations to reform the education system
in India. These recommendations encompassed various aspects of education, including:

1) Identifying shortcomings in the current education system.

2) Establishing clear goals for education.
3) Enhancing teaching methodologies.
4) Improving textbooks.
5) Designing a well-rounded curriculum.
6) Elevating educational standards and structures.
7) Ensuring the well-being of students.
8) Focusing on women’s education.
9) Providing guidance and counseling services.
10) Addressing challenges in supervision and inspection.
11) Implementing the three-language formula.
12) Incorporating distance education.
13) Adhering to selective admission criteria.
14) Expanding vocational education.
15) Integrating moral and religious education.
16) Granting autonomy to universities.
 17) Enhancing teacher education.
18) Promoting adult education.
19) Defining the aims and functions of universities.
20) Tackling administrative issues.
21) Incorporating work experience in education.
22) Addressing higher education enrollment.
23) Improving evaluation methods.

These recommendations put forth by the Kothari Commission aimed to reshape and enhance the
educational landscape of India comprehensively.

Implemented Recommendations of Kothari Commission

The Government of India implemented some of the important recommendations of the Kothari
Commission by including them under the National Policy on Education. Some of them are as
follows,

• Adoption of 10+2+3 years pattern of educational structure.

• Free and compulsory education should be provided to all children up to the age of 14,
fulfilling Article 45, a directive principle of the Indian Constitution.
• Implementation of three-language formula and development of Sanskrit and regional
languages.
• Adoption of a common school system for equalization of educational opportunity across
the country.
• High priority is to be given to science education and research. Also, importance should be
given to the development of education for agriculture and industry.
• To improve the physical fitness and sportsmanship of the students, gaming and sports
activities should be promoted.

UNIT-2: PROGRAMMES AND STRATEGIES

Bit-1: Universalisation of Secondary Education: RMSA- purpose,
structure and interventions
Classes IX and X constitute the secondary stage .The normal age group of the children in secondary
classes is 14-16 .The rigor of the secondary and higher secondary stage, enables Indian students to
compete successfully for education and for jobs globally. Sarva Siksha Abhiyan (2001), Rashtriya
Madhyamik Siksha Abhiyan 2009-10 , Sarva Siksha Mission 86th Amendment to the Constitution
of India making free and compulsory education to children between the ages of 6 to 14 (estimated
to be 205 million children in 2001) a fundamental right(Article- 21A) launched with the objective
to enhance access to secondary education and to improve its quality.

Vision
 ▪ To provide a secondary school within a reasonable distance of any habitation,
▪ Which should be 5 kilometer for secondary schools and 7 -10 kilometers for higher
secondary schools.
▪ Ensure universal access of secondary education by 2017 (GER of 100%), and Universal
retention by 2020,
▪ To provide access to secondary education with special references to economically Weaker
sections of the society, the educationally backward, the girls and the disabled children
residing in rural areas and other marginalized categories like SC, ST, OBC and
Educationally Backward Minorities (EBM).

Goal and Objectives

In order to meet the challenge of Universalisation of Secondary Education (USE), there is a need
for a paradigm shift in the conceptual design of secondary education. The guiding principles in
this regard are: Universal Access,Equality and Social Justice, Relevance and Development of
Curricular and Structural Aspects.The concept of ‘common school’ will be encouraged.

1.Access

Expansion of existing Secondary & Higher Secondary Schools

Upgradation of Upper Primary Schools based on micro planning exercise with all necessary
infrastructure facilities and teachers.

Ashram Schools will be given preference while upgrading upper primary schools.

Up gradation of Secondary Schools in Higher Secondary Schools based upon the requirements.
Opening of new Secondary Schools/ Higher Secondary Schools in un served areas bas on the
school mapping exercise. All these buildings will have mandatory water harvesting system and
will be disabled friendly.
Rain harvesting systems will be installed in existing school buildings also.
Existing school buildings will also be made disabled friendly.

New schools will also be set up in PPP mode

2.Quality : Providing required infrastructure like, Black Board, furniture, Libraries, Science &
Mathematics laboratories, computer labs, toilet cluster. Appointment of additional teachers and in-
service training of teachers. Bridge course for enhancing learning ability for students passing out
of class VIII. Reviewing curriculum to meet the NCF, 2005 norms.Residential accommodation for
teachers in rural and difficult hilly areas. Preference will be given to accommodation for female
teachers.

3.Equity : Free lodging/ boarding facilities for students belonging to SC,ST,OBC and minority
communities Hostels/ residential schools, cash incentive, uniform, books, separate toilets for
girls. Providing scholarships to meritorious/ needy students at secondary level. Inclusive
education will be the hallmark of all the activities. Efforts will be made to provide all necessary
facilities for the differently abled children in all the schools. Expansion of Open and Distance
Learning needs to be undertaken, especially for those who cannot pursue full time secondary
education, and for supplementation / enrichment of face-to-face instruction. This system will also
play a crucial role for education of out of school children.

RMSA

The Government of India launched the Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) in March
2009. It was a plan to increase access to secondary education and bring about an improvement in
its quality. As a centrally sponsored scheme, RMSA has the goal of universalizing secondary
education, whereby quality education can be available, accessible, and affordable for all young
people in the age group of 14-18 years. It addresses varied systemic, infrastructural, and academic
issues so as to help bridge the educational disparity prevalent in rural and urban areas and among
different socioeconomic groups.

Purpose

The goals and objectives that the RMSA aspires to achieve for the all-round transformation of
secondary education in the country are manifold. These are:

1) Universal Access: To provide secondary school education within a reasonable

distance of every habitation.
2) Equity: To ensure that all socio-economic groups, more specifically the
marginalized and disadvantaged sections, have access to quality education.
3) Gender Parity: To ensure that gender parity in the secondary level is maintained by
stimulating girls’ enrollment.
4) Quality improvement: Improvement in learning environment through updated
infrastructure, new teaching aids, and training of teachers.
5) Skill development: Integration of vocational education such that the students gain
practical skills for better employability.

Structure:

▪ Centrally Sponsored Scheme: RMSA was a centrally sponsored scheme implemented by

the Ministry of Human Resource Development (now Ministry of Education).
▪ State-Level Implementation:The scheme was implemented at the state level, with the states
being responsible for planning, implementation, and monitoring.
▪ Focus on Public Schools: RMSA primarily focused on improving secondary education in
public schools.
 ▪ Targeted Interventions: The scheme focused on providing additional classrooms, science
laboratories, libraries, and other infrastructure to strengthen secondary schools.
▪ Teacher Training and Development: RMSA also invested in teacher training and
development programs to improve the quality of teaching and learning.
▪ Equity and Inclusion: RMSA focused on addressing the needs of marginalized groups,
including girls, children from Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and other
backward classes.

Interventions:
1.Upgradation of Upper Primary Schools (UPS) to Secondary Schools: RMSA supported the
upgradation of UPS to secondary schools to increase access to secondary education in underserved
areas.

2.Strengthening of Existing Secondary Schools: The scheme provided financial and technical
support to strengthen existing secondary schools by improving infrastructure, providing resources,
and enhancing teaching and learning practices.

3.Additional Classrooms, Labs, and Libraries: RMSA funded the construction of additional
classrooms, science laboratories, libraries, and other facilities in secondary schools.

4. Teacher Training and Development: The scheme provided in-service training and professional
development opportunities for teachers to improve their skills and knowledge.

5.Curriculum and Textbook Development: RMSA supported the development and revision of
curricula and textbooks to ensure that they are relevant and aligned with national standards.

6.Scholarships and Hostels: RMSA provided scholarships and hostels to support the education of
students from marginalized groups.

7.Community Mobilization: RMSA also emphasized community mobilization to create awareness

about the importance of secondary education and to encourage parents to send their children to
school.

Bit-3: Vocational education at the senior secondary stage: Importance

(recommendation of the Education Commission (1964-66) and NEP
1986/92; Objective, implementation strategy and assessment
Vocational Education at the Senior Secondary Stage
Importance of Vocational Education: Vocational education at the senior secondary stage plays
a vital role in national development and individual empowerment. Its importance can be
highlighted as follows:
 1. Bridges the Skill Gap: It equips students with employable skills required by various
sectors like agriculture, industry, services, healthcare, etc.
2. Employment-Oriented: Prepares students for the world of work immediately after
school, reducing dependence on higher academic education.
3. Self-Employment & Entrepreneurship: Encourages students to take up self-
employment, start small businesses, or work in family enterprises.
4. Reduces Dropout Rate: Offers an attractive alternative to general academic education,
especially for those who are not inclined towards further formal education.
5. Meets Manpower Needs: Supports the growing needs of technically skilled manpower
for economic development.
6. Promotes Dignity of Labour: Changes societal attitudes by making vocational
education respectable and valuable.
7. Reduces Pressure on Higher Education: Helps reduce unnecessary enrollment in
general higher education courses.

Recommendations of the Education Commission (1964-66) — Kothari

Commission
The Kothari Commission made foundational recommendations regarding vocational education:

▪ Vocationalization of Higher Secondary Stage: About 50% of students should be diverted to

vocational courses after class X.
▪ Diversification of Courses: Vocational education should cover a wide range of fields such
as agriculture, commerce, health services, industry, and household industries.
▪ Terminal and Further Education: Vocational education should serve both as a terminal
course (direct employment) and as a stepping-stone for higher technical/professional
education.
▪ Curriculum Linked to Industry: Courses should be designed according to local industry
and community needs.
▪ Collaboration with Employers: Industries and businesses should be involved in the
planning and implementation of vocational courses.
▪ Development of Infrastructure: Suggested establishing well-equipped vocational
institutions and training centers.

Recommendations of NEP 1986 & Revised Policy 1992

The National Policy on Education (1986) and its revised version (1992) strongly emphasized the
vocationalization of secondary education. The key recommendations were:

❖ Diversification of Secondary Education: To suit the varied aptitudes and abilities of

students.
❖ Expansion of Vocational Education: Initially target 10% of enrollment at the senior
secondary level and increase gradually.
 ❖ Industry Linkage: Strong and direct linkage between vocational courses and the world of
work.
❖ Skill Development: Vocational education should provide specific skills for productive
employment.
❖ Enhance Quality: Improve quality and relevance of courses with modern infrastructure and
qualified trainers.
❖ Private Sector and Community Participation: Encourage active participation of private
industries, NGOs, and community organizations in providing training facilities and
resources.
❖ Flexibility: Allow multiple entry-exit points and integration with general education.

Objectives of Vocational Education

➢ Develop Employable Skills: To enable students to gain specific skills required for wage
employment or self-employment.
➢ Promote Self-Employment: Encourage students to create their own job opportunities.
➢ Reduce Academic Pressure: Provide alternative pathways other than purely academic
courses.
➢ Enhance Local Development: Serve the needs of local industries, communities, and
markets.
➢ Personality Development: Develop a positive attitude towards work, responsibility, and
innovation.
➢ Promote Vocational Mobility: Create pathways for vocational students to progress to higher
levels of learning (polytechnics, skill development centers, etc.).

Implementation Strategy
A. Curriculum Development: Courses designed based on job market trends, industry
needs, and employability.Competency-based and practical-oriented syllabi.
B. Industry Partnership: Collaboration with industries, employers, and sector skill
councils for internships, apprenticeships, and on-the-job training.
C. Training of Teachers: Special in-service training for vocational teachers and
instructors.Exposure to industrial practices and new technologies.
D. Infrastructure: Establishment of workshops, laboratories, production centers, and
training facilities. Modern tools, equipment, and technology-based learning
materials.
E. Diversification of Vocational Courses- Courses in sectors
like:Agriculture,information technology, health & paramedical,Tourism &
Hospitality, Retail, Banking & Finance, Engineering and Manufacturing, Home
Science and Handicrafts.
F. Flexible Structure: Credit-based modular courses.Entry and exit flexibility with
certification at different levels.
 G. Linkage with Higher Education: Clear pathways for students to join higher
technical or vocational courses after completing the +2 vocational stream.

Assessment of Vocational Education

➢ Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE): Assessment of both theory and
practical components.Evaluation throughout the course duration.
➢ Skill Testing: Skill-based tests to evaluate practical competencies. Use of standardized skill
assessment tools.
➢ Project Work & Internships: Assessment of project reports, on-the-job training, and
internships.Evaluation based on actual work performance.
➢ Certification: Certificates issued jointly by the Education Board and relevant Industry/Skill
Council. Certification recognized for employment and further education.
➢ Placement and Employability Tracking: Success of vocational education is judged by
students’ placement and self-employment records.
➢ Feedback Mechanism: Continuous feedback from employers, students, and trainers for
improving the courses.

Bit-4: Vocational education at the senior secondary stage: importance

(recommendation of the Education Commission (1964-66),
Adisheshiah Committee Report,1978 and NPE 1986/92), Objectives;
National Vocational Education Qualification Framework (NVEQF);
Institutional arrangements , implementation strategies; Issues and
Challenges in Odisha
Importance of Vocational Education

Vocational Education is a type of education which prepares students for specific trades, crafts and
careers at various levels. At the senior secondary stage (classes XI and XII), it helps students
develop practical skills, technical knowledge, and work-oriented attitudes that enable them to
become job-ready after school or pursue higher vocational training. Ki

The importance of vocational education has been consistently highlighted by various committees
and policies in India, notably:
Education Commission (Kothari Commission) 1964-66: Recommendations regarding
Vocational Education.
 ✓ About 25% of the total students at the senior secondary level should be diverted to
vocational courses.
✓ The Commission observed that general education alone could not fulfill the needs
of students and the economy.
✓ It recommended the creation of a diversified curriculum at the +2 stage, including
vocational streams.
✓ The aim was to equip students with employable skills and reduce the dependency
on higher education.
✓ It emphasized that vocationalization is essential to link education with productivity
and national development.

“We should place emphasis on vocational education so that a substantial segment of students get
useful employment after schooling itself.” — Kothari Commission.

Adiseshiah Committee Report (1978)

This committee was set up by the Ministry of Education to develop a scheme of vocationalization
at the +2 stage.

Key Recommendations:

• The committee recommended that at least 50% of students should be diverted to vocational
streams.
• Introduce work-centered education to provide employment-oriented and skill-based
courses.
• Vocational courses should be directly linked to the local and regional employment market
needs.
• The committee suggested flexibility in curriculum design and practical training through
collaboration with industries, agriculture, and service sectors.
• Emphasized equal dignity of vocational and general education.

National Policy on Education (NPE) 1986 / Modified in 1992: Major Policy Directives:
➢ The NPE (1986) stressed the importance of vocational education as an essential part of
senior secondary education.
➢ It proposed that vocational education will be a distinct stream, intended to prepare students
for gainful employment, and it should cover 25% of the students by 1995.
➢ Encouraged public-private partnerships, use of modern technology, and involvement of
industry in curriculum development and training.
➢ It also focused on horizontal and vertical mobility (allowing students to move between
vocational and general streams).
➢ The NPE 1992 review reaffirmed the importance of the vocational stream and called for
further strengthening of infrastructure, teacher training, and resource mobilization.
Objectives of Vocational Education at the Senior Secondary Stage

1. Develop Employable Skills- To impart skills and knowledge that make students
employable immediately after completing secondary education.
2. Reduce Pressure on Higher Education - To reduce unnecessary pressure on universities by
providing alternative career paths.
3. Promote Self-employment and Entrepreneurship
4. Meet Manpower Needs of the Economy- To provide skilled manpower in various sectors
like agriculture, industry, business, and services.
5. Provide Diversified Education- To offer courses in multiple vocational areas depending on
regional needs, e.g., agriculture, commerce, health, tourism, etc.
6. Link Education with Productivity- To make education more productive and relevant to the
socio-economic development of the nation.
7. Ensure Dignity of Labor- To instill positive attitudes toward work and respect for all types
of occupations.
8. Prepare for Lifelong Learning: To enable students to adapt to technological changes and
continue skill development throughout their life.

National Vocational Education Qualification Framework (NVEQF)

The process of development of a National Vocational Education Qualifications Framework
(NVEQF) is presently underway. The NVEQF would set common principles and guidelines for a
nationally recognized qualification system, covering schools, vocational education institutes and
institutes of higher education with qualifications ranging from secondary to doctorate level,
leading to international recognition of national standards. Students would have the scope for
vertical and horizontal mobility with multiple entry and exits. This would be especially useful to
promote the creative genius of every child including children with special needs. The corner stone
of the NVEQF would be the close partnership and collaboration with the industry/ potential
employers at all stages starting from identification of courses, content development, training and
provision of resource persons, assessment, accreditation, certification and placement Extensive
consultations with the State Govts have been carried out. A group of State Education Ministers
from 12 States has been constituted to prepare the NVEQF. The working document on NVEQF
prepared by a Coordination Committee was presented to the Group of State Education Ministers
on 30thMay 2011. Detailed discussions were held on the issues and concerns from the perspective
of the States. Further consultations are continuing to prepare a roadmap for implementation of the
NVEQF. There was unanimous endorsement of the Framework being developed by the Central
Advisory Board of Education (CABE) in the 58th meeting held on 7th June 2011.

The National Vocational Education Qualification Framework (NVEQF) was launched by the
Government of India to integrate vocational education into mainstream education. Later, it was
merged with NSQF (National Skills Qualification Framework). However, the concept and
structure of NVEQF still provide the foundation for vocational education and training reforms.
It aims to:

• Promote skill-based education alongside general education.

• Establish clear pathways for students to acquire vocational skills and transition into higher
education or employment.
• Create a structured qualification system linking school education, vocational education,
and higher education.

Institutional Arrangements for NVEQF

To implement NVEQF effectively, several institutional arrangements are put in place at the
national, state, and institutional levels:
National level

• Ministry of Education (MoE) – Coordinates the overall policy framework and ensures
alignment with national education and employment policies.
• National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC) – Facilitates private sector participation
and industry collaboration.
• Sector Skill Councils (SSCs) – Industry-led bodies responsible for defining job roles,
training needs, and skill standards.
• All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) – Integrates vocational education with
technical and higher education institutions.
• National Council for Vocational Education and Training (NCVET) – Regulates vocational
education and standardizes qualifications.

State Level

• State Skill Development Missions (SSDMs) – Implement state-specific vocational

education programs.
• State Councils of Vocational Training (SCVTs) – Regulate vocational education within
states and approve curricula.
• Industrial Training Institutes (it is) and Polytechnics – Serve as key institutions for
vocational training.

Institutional Level

• Vocational Training Providers (VTPs) – Offer skill-based programs in collaboration with

industries.
• Schools and Higher Educational Institutions – Implement vocational courses at various
levels, integrating them with general education.
• Community Colleges and Training Centers – Provide local-level training with practical
industry exposure.
Implementation Strategies of NVEQF
The successful execution of NVEQF depends on various strategies, including curriculum design,
industry collaboration, and infrastructure development.
Curriculum and Training Development

1. Competency-Based Curriculum – Designed in consultation with industry experts to ensure

practical relevance.
2. Modular Approach – Divides courses into modules, allowing multiple entry and exit
options.
3. Credit-Based System – Ensures flexibility in learning and recognition of prior learning
(RPL).
4. Integration with General Education – Allows students to move between vocational and
academic pathways seamlessly.

Industry Collaboration

1. Apprenticeships and Internships – Provide real-world exposure and work-integrated

learning.
2. Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) – Industries participate in training, curriculum design,
and certification.
3. On-the-Job Training (OJT) – Ensures hands-on experience in various sectors.
Infrastructure and Technology

1. Establishing Skill Development Centers – Modern labs and training centers for hands-on
learning.
2. Use of Digital Platforms – Online vocational courses and blended learning models.
3. Mobile Skill Training Units – Bringing education to remote areas through mobile labs.

Quality Assurance and Certification

1. National Skills Qualification Framework (NSQF) – Standardizes qualification levels from
Level 1 (entry-level) to Level 10 (doctoral-level).
2. Industry-Recognized Certifications – Enhances employability through standardized
assessments.
3. Monitoring and Evaluation – Continuous assessment through feedback mechanisms and
audits.

Issues and Challenges in Odisha

Despite the potential benefits, several challenges hinder the effective implementation of NVEQF
in Odisha:

A. Institutional and Administrative Challenge

 1. Lack of Awareness and Acceptance – Many students and parents prefer traditional
academic routes over vocational education.
2. Coordination Issues – Poor integration between different departments such as education,
skill development, and industry.
3. Shortage of Qualified Trainers – A lack of trained faculty affects the quality of vocational
education.
B. Infrastructure and Funding Constraints
1. Limited Training Facilities – Many rural areas lack well-equipped vocational training
centers.
2. Insufficient Financial Support – Funding gaps delay the expansion of vocational programs.
3. Inadequate Digital Infrastructure – Poor internet connectivity limits access to online
vocational courses.

C. Collaboration and Employment Issues

1. Mismatch Between Skills and Industry Needs – Courses may not align with local industry
requirements.
2. Lack of Apprenticeship Opportunities – Industries are often reluctant to invest in skill
development.
3. Limited Employment Prospects – Many trained individuals struggle to find relevant job
opportunities.

D.Social and Cultural Barriers

1. Stigma Around Vocational Education – Perceived as inferior to traditional degree

programs.
2. Preference for Government Jobs – Many youths focus on government employment rather
than skill-based private sector jobs.
3. Gender Disparities – Limited participation of women in vocational training programs.

Recommendations for Improving NVEQF Implementation in Odisha

To address these challenges, the following measures can be taken

1. Institutional Framework: Establishing State Vocational Education Councils for better

coordination.Training and capacity building for vocational educators.Strengthening
Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) to involve industries more actively.
2. Enhancing Infrastructure and Funding: Expanding Skill Development Centers in rural
areas. Providing subsidies and financial aid to students opting for vocational courses.
Leveraging digital platforms to expand vocational training opportunities.
3. Industry Integration and Employment Linkages: Aligning vocational courses with state-
specific industries such as textiles, tourism, agriculture, and IT. Strengthening the
apprenticeship system with financial incentives for industries. Creating job placement cells
to connect students with potential employers.
 4. Changing Social Perceptions: Awareness campaigns to highlight the benefits of vocational
education. Encouraging participation of women and marginalized communities in
vocational programs. Integrating vocational education with mainstream school curricula
from an early stage.

Conclusion
The National Vocational Education Qualification Framework (NVEQF) plays a crucial role in
bridging the skill gap and improving employment prospects in India, including Odisha. While
challenges like funding constraints, industry collaboration, and social stigma exist, effective
institutional arrangements and strategic interventions can enhance its implementation.
Strengthening infrastructure, aligning courses with industry needs, and promoting awareness can
make vocational education a valuable asset for Odisha’s economic growth.

Unit4:Issues,ChallengesandStrategies
Bit-1:Access,enrolment,retention,achievement,equity and
equality(education of girls,disadvantaged and children with diverse
needs )
Access and Enrollment in Education
Access in education basically refers to the provision of facilities and opportunities in education.
Enrolment of students in education implies admission or registration of students in education.
Access is a pre-condition for enrolment in education. Access for school education implies adequate
provision of school facilities for children. This provision may be defined in terms of number of
schools required for the children, infrastructure facilities in the schools, location of schools in a
reasonable distance from the residence of the children, adequate teaching learning facilities in the
schools and so on. After arranging the adequate number of schools and facilities in the schools, the
next point is to see whether adequate numbers of children are admitted or not in the schools.

The 86th amendment of Indian Constitution (2002) provides right to education to all children in
the age group of six to fourteen years as a fundamental right. The Right of Children to Free and
Compulsory Education Act (2009) mentions that all Children in the age group of six to fourteen
years shall have the right to free and compulsory education till the completion of elementary
education in a neighborhood school. Free and compulsory education always requires equal access
in education for all children irrespective of differences in gender, caste, class, colour, race, culture,
place of birth or residence, etc.
The flagship programmes like Samagra Shiksha (an overarching programme which subsumes the
three schemes i.e. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan and Teacher
Education) and Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan including many other programmes of
government are in operation in the country for promoting access, enrolment achievement, etc. in
education at different levels of education extending from the level of basic education to the level
of higher education.

There is need to increase access and enrolment in different levels of education. Appropriate
provision for access and enrolment in education must be made for the students coming from
disadvantaged sections with respect to their residence or location, gender, physical deformity,
social and cultural background, etc. For example, a student with physical disability must be
provided a barrier free institutional climate where he/she would not find much difficulty in his/her
movement and access to various school facilities. A girl child should not feel unprotected and
should not be deprived from getting many benefits in an educational institution because of her
gender.Hence, there is need to maintain parity and equity in access and enrolment in education for
all categories of children.

Issues of Access and Enrolment

• Location of the institutions: Scattered settlement around educational institutions, uneven
routes to educational institutions, too much distance of the residence of students from the
educational institutions, etc. become the cause for decreasing enrolment of students in
educational institutions.
• Less number of institutions: If adequate numbers of educational institutions are not
established in geographically disadvantaged and remote areas, then the enrolment in
education in those areas are hampered.
• Poor facility in the institutions: Institutions having poor quality of classrooms, teaching
learning materials, teaching learning processes, laboratories, teachers, playgrounds,
sanitation, drinking water, etc. cannot attract large number of students to be enrolled in the
institutions.
• Poor condition of the family: In poor family, the children start to earn from their tender
age to support economically to their family, and that is why they hardly attend educational
institutions.
• Costly education: Except elementary stage, in all other stages (i. e. secondary stage, higher
secondary stage, etc.), education is a costly affair. Even elementary education in public
schools is a costly affair. If education does not become affordable then it becomes out of
reach of many students.
• Pressure of domestic work: The children of some families like single parent family,
family having old age parents, nuclear family, poor family, etc. remain busy in household
works/domestic works or in earning money in many circumstances. They act as the helping
hand for their family members, and therefore, they do not attend the educational
institutions.
 • Illiteracy and lack of awareness of parents: Many parents do not value the education of
their children because of their own illiteracy and lack of awareness towards education.
Such parents engage their children in household activities, firms, business, etc. instead of
sending them to educational institutions.
• Social and cultural norms: Social and cultural norms relating to blind belief, superstition,
etc. of family members affect negatively on education of the children of the family. For
example, in many cultures, a boy is given preference over girl for getting education.

Strategies for Enhancing Access and Enrolment

1. Arranging proper transport and communication facilities to the educational institutions.
2. Establishing the number of educational institutions according to requirement.
3. Creating adequate facilities in educational institutions which include facilities of physical
infrastructure (i.e. building, class, library, laboratory, furniture, etc.), teaching learning
material, teaching learning process, students’ evaluation and so on.
4. Providing age appropriate admission facility for the out of school children.
5. Establishing residential and/or mobile educational institutions wherever required.
6. Providing awareness and counseling for the parents regarding the education of their
children.
7. Making education affordable for the students. Further, adequate funding must be given for
education.
8. Opening alternative modes to formal education like distance education, non-formal
education, open education, etc. to meet the educational demands of those students who
cannot enter into formal education.
9. Making special provision in education for children of disadvantaged areas like rural areas,
slum areas, mountain areas, jungles, etc.

RETENTION IN EDUCATION
Retention of a student in education generally implies a condition or situation in which the student
remains/participates in a level of education or a course of learning in which he/she is admitted till
he/she completes the level of education or course of learning. If a child is admitted in elementary
school and leaves the school before he/she completes his/her elementary education in the school,
then he is treated as not retained till completion of his/her elementary education. Retention is
strongly influenced by drop out in one end and promotion in another end.

Drop out: Drop out of a student in education implies to a situation in which the student leaves a
level of study or course of learning before he/she completes the level of study or course of learning.
Drop out is opposite of retention. Drop out or discontinuation in education is a kind of wastage in
education.

Promotion: Promotion of a student in education refers to a context in which the student

successfully completes a level of study or course of learning within a stipulated time. If a student
takes more than the given/stipulated time to complete a particular level of study or course of
learning, then it is called stagnation. Stagnation is a kind of detention or repetition in education.
Stagnation or repetition adversely affects promotion.

After enrolled in a particular level of education (for example, senior secondary level of education),
a student must be retained in it and successfully complete it in order to have his/her senior
secondary education fruitful or successful. High drop out in education system makes the system
failure in many extents. Higher is the dropout rate in education system, greater is the wastage in
the system.

Issues of Retention
1. Institutional facilities: Lack of proper facilities in terms of classrooms, playgrounds,
toilets, water supply, hostels, etc. in the institutions decreases the retention of students in
the institutions. Further, lack of quality education in institutions in terms of curriculum,
pedagogy, teacher competency, etc. adversely affects the retention of students in the
institutions.
2. Institutional environment: If the environment of the institutions is hostile, autocratic and
affected by narrow politics, then the students feel disturbed in such environment and this
reduces the retention rate of students in the institutions. Corporal punishment to the
students decreases the rate of retention of students in the institutions.
3. Teacher shortage and absenteeism: Shortage of teachers and high absenteeism of
teachers in institutions reduce the quality of teaching learning in the institutions. Less
quality of teaching learning in institutions reduces the retention of students in the
institutions.
4. Curriculum load: Many students, especially the students of first generation and students
belonging to disadvantaged sections, cannot cope up or adjust with the curriculum of the
institutions in many times. When the curriculum becomes unrealistic and over loaded for
students, the students cannot adjust with it and drop themselves from the institutions.
5. Lack of parental interest and involvement: Some students discontinue their school
education because of lack of parental interest and involvement towards their education.
Retention of students in higher education also to a considerable extent is determined by the
interest and involvement of their parents towards their education.
6. Financial constraints: Poor and needy parents may not send their children for getting
education because of their financial problems. Even if they send their children for getting
education, but, in many cases, they force their children to leave the education before
completion of the education (with respect to a particular level of education or course of
learning) because of their financial constraints.

Strategies for Enhancing Retention

 • Providing quality education in terms of better institutional infrastructure and environment,
curriculum, teaching learning process, evaluation system and so on.
• Appointing required number of competent and committed teachers and reducing teacher
absenteeism.
• Regularly conducting parents and teacher meeting for better participation of students in
education.
• Monitoring the attendance of students from time to time in institutions.
• Evaluating the performance of students continuously. Further, arranging the
• remedial classes for weaker students.
• Providing guidance and counseling services as well as mentoring services to
students for motivating and retaining them in learning.
• Providing mid-day lunch (or mid-day meal) to students if possible.
• Making institutional climate learner friendly, secured and democratic.
• Providing multiple assistances to the deserving students in forms of study materials, text
books, stipend, scholarship, dress, travelling incentive and many other incentives.
• Providing financial assistance to the poor parents through student support services in order
to motivate them to send their children to institutions for education.

Quality in Education
Quality refers to ‘how far the features and characteristics of something meet the demands of
its stakeholders’. Quality is defined in terms of worth or value of something. An educational
system is called more qualitative when it offers better education in terms of physical
infrastructure, teaching learning process, learning outcome, etc.; and on the contrary, an
educational system is called less qualitative when it offers poor standard of education in terms
of physical infrastructure, teaching learning process, learning outcome, etc. If an educational
institution provides quality education in terms of its better physical infrastructure (like
classroom, laboratory, library, etc.), rich curriculum, better learning process, student friendly
evaluation, etc., then there is maximum chance for increasing enrolment, retention,
participation and achievement of students in that institution.

Quality Issues in Education

• Focus or objective related issues: If the focuses or objectives of education in institutions
are not set in pace with current change and development in society and individual life,
advances of knowledge, etc. then the quality of education of the institutions is affected
adversely. Narrowly defined and unevenly set objectives of education in institutions
decrease the quality of the institutions.
• Resource issues: Lack of different resources in institutions like lack of adequate
classrooms, laboratory, library, drinking water and sanitation, playground, sitting facility,
etc. adversely affect the quality of the institutions.
 • Curriculum and learning material related issues: Problems in curriculum such as:
unrealistic curriculum, over burdened curriculum, curriculum that includes irrelevant
contents, poorly designed curriculum in respect of time and subjects of study. lower down
the quality of education. If the learning materials are not supplied in time or not available
in market in time, then the quality of education is also hampered. Further, supply of poor
standard learning materials like poors standards text books, work books, educational aids
and kits, reference materials, etc. decrease the quality of education.
• Teaching learning process related issues: If the teaching learning process is not joyful
and learner centered then it makes the educational process less qualitative and less
effective. Large sized classes, heterogeneous classes, multi-grade classes, etc. require
special pedagogical focus, and if same pedagogy is used in these classes without
considering the nature of the classes, then quality of teaching learning in these classes are
hampered.
• Assessment related issues: Lack of continuous and comprehensive assessment and
feedback of students’ behaviour in education decreases the quality of education. Further
lack of individual attention to each student; remedial inputs to the weak students; and
advanced exercise and task to bright students, etc. weaken the quality of the education in
different ways.
• Teacher related issues: Teacher absenteeism and lack of adequate number of qualified and
competent teachers poorly affect the quality of education. Lack of properly motivated and
committed teachers towards their profession also affects the quality of education very
badly.
• Management and supervision related issues: Lack of proper management of different
aspects of institutions like management of time (for example, class schedule, academic
calendar, etc.), material resources (for example, teaching learning materials, teaching
learning aids, etc.), human resources (for example, teachers supporting staff for teaching,
etc.) and different activities (for example, classroom teaching learning, evaluation, etc.)
reduces the quality of education in the institutions. Further, lack of planned supervision and
monitoring of different activities of the institutions decreases the quality of education of
the institutions.

Strategies of enhancing Quality in Education

❖ Increasing institutional infrastructure in terms of buildings, classrooms, furniture, learning
materials, laboratories, libraries, sanitation facilities, etc.
❖ Setting goals and objectives of education according to the changing needs of the learners
in the society.
❖ Bringing curriculum reforms in order to make the curriculum need based for the students.
❖ Adopting diversified learner centered pedagogical techniques according to the demand of
the different teaching learning contexts.
 ❖ Using innovative practices including ICT based materials in teaching learning for
enhancing quality in education.
❖ Assessing different aspects of behavior of the learners continuously.
❖ Appointing adequate number of competent and committed teachers and providing
continuous training to the teachers according to the needs of the educational system.
❖ Strengthening teacher education system in the light of the changing need of teachers and
teaching pedagogy.
❖ Providing an effective leadership and management style to the education system for
effective management of different resources of education.
❖ Securing active involvement and support of community members in education.
❖ Promoting research and innovation in institutions for achieving quality in the different
aspects/parameters of the institutions.
❖ Making the institutional climate democratic and institutional activities decentralized for
overall growth and development of the institution.

EQUALITY AND EQUITY IN EDUCATION

Equality in education refers to a state or condition in education in which all individuals or
stakeholders of the education are given same kind of opportunity or treatment in the education
regardless of the differences among them. On the other hand, equity in education refers to a state
or condition in education in which Individuals or stakeholders of the education are provided
opportunity or treatment in the education according to their needs, interests, abilities or capacities,
etc. Providing same education to all children is an example of educational equality whereas
providing education to each child according his/her needs, interests and capacities is an example
of educational equity. Providing the same amount of stipend to all children is an example of
educational equality, but, providing the amount of stipend to children by considering their
performances in learning, class or stage of study, socio-economic background, etc. is an example
of educational equity. Implementing the same curriculum in educational institutions of different
regions of a country is considered under educational equality whereas implementing the different
curricula in educational institutions of different regions of a country according to the requirements
of the regions of the country is considered under Educational equity.

Dimensions and Causes of Inequality

✓ Prevailing social disparities: Narrow interpretation of Prevailing social disparities in

terms of race, caste, class, culture, religion, etc. creates inequality in education System.
✓ Gender disparity: Prevailing social customs, traditions, superstitions, etc. relating to
gender affect education of people of different genders. Girls and transgender children enjoy
low socio-economic and educational positions in comparison to boys.
✓ Difference in physical and mental ability: Children who have physical, sensory and
intellectual challenges or who have disability are deprived to get adequate facilities for
 their education in many cases. This creates inequality in educational opportunity or
attainment.
✓ Difference in home environments: Difference in home environment creates gross
inequality in educational status. For example, a child of a poor family living in slum area
may not get equal opportunity in education like a child belonging to a high status family
living in core area of a city. The educational aspirations and motivation of a child are
determined according to his/her family background.
✓ Standard of institutions: Children studying in high standard institutions (in terms of
physical infrastructure, curriculum, teaching learning process, teacher, etc.generally show
better performance in education in comparison to the children studying in poor standard
institutions. So, the difference in standard of institutions creates inequality in education.
✓ Poverty: Huge educational inequality is created due to poverty. Poor parents bear the
education fees and costs of study materials for their children and because of this their
children either leave educational institutions or show poor performance in the educational
institutions.
✓ Regional imbalances: All the regions of India are not equally developed because of
historical geographical, political and other reasons. Further, many differences are found
between rural areas and urban areas in terms of their progress and development.Educational
opportunities are found less in underdeveloped regions in comparison to developed
regions.
✓ Lack of consciousness of people: Educational inequality is created because of lack of
consciousness of people towards education. Conservative attitude, false ideas, wrong
beliefs and ignorance towards education create a lot of inequality in education.
✓ Faulty educational administration: Because of corruption and nepotism in educational
administration, and faulty educational administration, the inequality in education is not
reduced properly.

Measures for Achieving Equality and Equity

▪ Providing education to all people of the society in accordance with their needs, interests
and capabilities.
▪ Promoting universal and/or compulsory education up to a certain level of education (for
example, up to elementary level or secondary level or any other level of education).
▪ Providing compensatory education for them who couldn’t attain a particular target level of
education in an appropriate age for it.
▪ Implementing all the Constitutional directives of equality and/or equity in education. For
example, implementing Article 21A of the Constitution (free and compulsory education to
all children of the age of 6-14 years), Article 29 of the Constitution (protection of language,
script, and culture of minorities) and so on.
▪ Special provision in education like reservation in education, scholarship/stipend in
education, etc. for weaker sections of the society like schedule castes,schedule tribes, other
 backward classes, economically weaker sections,minority communities, women, persons
with disability, etc.
▪ Special provision in education for children belonging to disadvantaged areas like slum
areas, remote rural areas, rough hills, delta areas, jungle areas,rough mountains, etc.
▪ Promoting a core or common framework of education for the people of the whole country.
▪ Adopting a fair and impartial policy in admission as well as treatment in all the educational
institutions.
▪ Establishing many alternative institutions to formal education institutions like non-formal
education institutions, correspondence education institutions, etc. for meeting the
educational demand of the masses.
▪ Parental awareness must be created in order to make the parents aware to send their
children to educational institutions.
▪ Provision/arrangement of individualized instruction, remedial teaching, guidance and
counselling services, etc. should be made in educational institutions for promoting equality
and equity in education in the institutions.
▪ The administrative system of the education needs to be reformed by removing existing
corruption in the system, removing monotony in the system, developing commitment
towards the system and removing narrow politics in the system.
▪ Needs of Diverse Groups in Educational Setting

Needs of Diverse Groups in Educational Setting

Within the diverse nature of Indian socio-cultural set up, many hierarchies and disparities are found
among Indian people. Uneven economic distribution among the people of India characterizes
economic disparity in Indian society. Schedule caste, schedule tribe and people with disabilities
are most vulnerable section in the society from different fronts. Other backward class and
economically weaker section people enjoy very low socio-economic and educational status in the

society. There are religious minorities, linguistic minorities and many other minority groups who
are in disadvantaged position in society in educational front and many other fronts. Women and
girls enjoy very low social status in comparison to men and boys. Discrimination against women
and girls is easily visible in home, public places and even government offices. Transgender people
are only recently recognized by the Supreme Court of India (in 2014) and they also enjoy a low
social position in comparison to people of other genders. Persons with disability of hearing, vision,
locomotor, intellectual or developmental are unfortunately aren’t treated equally like other
members of the society because of their disability.Education system doesn’t function in isolation
of the society. All the social issues and problems affect education system in different ways in a
society/nation. For example, the participation of schedule castes, schedule tribes, other backward
classes and economically weaker section people is very low in education because of their low
socio-economic status in society. The access and success levels of religious minorities and other
minority groups in education aren’t satisfactory. The linguistic minority people face difficulty in
protecting their own language and culture through education. Girls’ enrolment and success in
education are not satisfactory in comparison to enrolment and success of boys in education. Girls
especially from minority communities, schedule castes, schedule tribes and poor families have
very low representation in education. Transgender people have also very negligible representation
in education. Children with disability have low participation in education because of lack of
opportunities to participate in education and lack of required resources in our educational
institutions. Hence, in educational system, diverse groups have diverse needs. Since the nature of
problems of each group of people is unique and special, so, each group of people should be given
special kind of facility and / or treatment in education for their better educational attainment.
Addressing the Needs of the Diverse Groups

All the aspects of an educational setting which include objectives of teaching learning, curriculum,
teaching learning materials, teaching learning process, educational evaluation, educational
environment, etc. must be designed in an inclusive style for catering diverse needs of students
coming from different sections of the society. For example, the teacher should be secular while
dealing the students of different religions in the class, girls should feel secured in the institution,
sign language and Braille should be included as the part of curriculum and pedagogy for deaf and
blind children respectively in class, etc. remedial instruction and special coaching, mentoring, etc.
may be provided to the academically weaker students. Students with disability may be given more
time and assistance to complete the assigned task if they require the same. The entire environment
of the institution must be inclusive for all the students coming from different family, community
and social backgrounds.

For the educational upliftment of different weaker sections of the society, there are certain
schemes, plans, programmes, activities, etc. that are in operation in our country from time to time.
For example, Pre-Matric and Post-Matric Scholarships, National Overseas Scholarship, Babu
Jagjivan Ram Chhatrawas Yojna, Free Coaching, etc. are some schemes/programmes launched for
the educational development of schedule caste students. The educational schemes/programmes
that are in operation for schedule tribe students are- Eklavya Model Residential School, Pre-Matric
and Post-Matric Scholarships, Ashram Schools, etc. for catering the educational interests of other
backward classes, the special schemes /progammes found are- Pre-Matric and Post-Matric
Scholarships, National Fellowship, Free Coaching, Dr. Ambedkar Scheme of Interest Subsidy on

educational Loan, etc. Pre-Matric and Post- Matric scholarships, Maulana Azad National
Fellowship, Padho Pardesh- Scheme of Interest Subsidy on Educational Loans for Overseas
Studies, Naya Savera- Free Coaching, etc. are some schemes/ Programmes operating for providing
educational assistance to minority students. The schemes/programmes of Free Coaching, National
Overseas Scholarship, Pre-Matric and Post Matric Scholarships, National Fellowship, Assistance
to disabled persons for purchase /fitting of Aids, etc. are provided to the persons with disability for
their better education. The schemes / progammes like Sukanya SamriddhiYojna, National
Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary Level (NPEGEL) and Kasturba Gandhi Balika
Vidhyalaya (KGVB) among many other schemes /programmes work significantly for the
educational development of girls. Some weaker sections of the society like schedule castes,
schedule tribes, other backward classes, economically weaker sections and people with disability
are provided reservation in education at the national level. Schedule castes, schedule tribes,
backward classes, women and persons with disability are also provided reservation in education
in some states in the country depending upon the policy of the states.

For the active and universal participation of diverse groups in education, whole hearted and
continuous efforts are needed both at the government and general public levels. Every educational
institution must provide adequate space and facility in its access, enrolment and participation to
all categories of students with special emphasis to the students coming from weaker sections of
the society. Only formulation of policies, programmes and schemes for inclusion of diverse groups

in education is not enough rather such policies, programmes and schemes must be implemented
meaningfully at the grass root level or client level for better attainment of equity and justice in
education.

Bit-2: Quality concerns in Secondary and Higher Secondary

education – infrastructure , classroom processes, teacher profile,
teacher preparation and teacher’s professional development
Every girl and boy in India has the fundamental right to quality education, an education one that
helps them to acquire basic literacy and numeracy, enjoy learning without fear and feel valued and
included irrespective of where they come from. – UNICEF

Quality education: Grade-appropriate education for all boys and girls.

In Indian context , good quality education helps in aligning the teaching practices as per the student
competencies. In this way it helps in improving the learning outcomes.
The parameters of determining the quality of education are determined primarily by the level of
knowledge, skills, and abilities of pupils, the effective organization of the educational process, the
level of implementation and the conditions created for it. Safe, healthy and gender sensitive
environment for students.Relevant material and curricula for the acquisition of basic skills. Well
managed classrooms and teaching approaches led by trained teachers Learning outcome that
encompass national goal, and are linked to one’s positive participation in society.

Quality Concerns in Secondary and Higher Secondary Education

The quality of education at the secondary and higher secondary levels is crucial for shaping
students’ future careers and higher education prospects. Several key concerns affect the quality of
education, including infrastructure, classroom processes, teacher profile, teacher preparation, and
professional development. Below is a detailed examination of each aspect:
1.Infrastructure
A well-equipped school infrastructure is essential for effective teaching and learning. Poor
infrastructure can hinder student engagement and academic achievement. The major concerns
include:

• Classroom Facilities

Overcrowded Classrooms: Many schools face a high student-teacher ratio, reducing individual
attention.

Poor Ventilation & Lighting: Lack of proper airflow and natural light affects concentration and
health.

Inadequate Furniture: Insufficient or poor-quality desks and chairs affect students’ comfort.

• Laboratories & Libraries

Lack of Science Laboratories: Practical experiments are essential in secondary education, yet many
schools lack fully equipped labs.

Library Deficiency: Limited access to books, journals, and digital resources hampers self-learning
and research.

• Digital Infrastructure

Limited Smart Classrooms: Many schools still rely on traditional chalk-and-talk methods without
integrating technology.

Poor Internet Connectivity: Digital education remains a challenge in rural and semi-urban areas.

• Sanitation & Basic Amenities

Insufficient Toilets: Poor sanitation facilities, especially for girls, lead to absenteeism.
Lack of Drinking Water: Many schools do not provide safe drinking water.

2.Classroom Processes
The way teaching and learning take place inside the classroom significantly affects student
outcomes. Key concerns include:

• Rote learning vs conceptual understanding: Teaching methods often focus on

memorization rather than conceptual clarity, discouraging creativity and critical thinking.
• Student Engagement : Many classrooms follow a teacher-centered approach, limiting
student participation. Lack of activity-based learning affects student curiosity and
understanding.
 • Assessment Methods: Heavy reliance on summative assessment (exams) rather than
formative assessment (continuous evaluation).Limited use of project-based learning,
practical assignments, and peer collaboration.
• Inclusivity & Differentiation: Neglect of slow learners: Teachers often do not cater to
different learning speeds and styles. Inaccessibility of resources for disabled students in the
school .

3.Teacher Profile
The quality of teachers directly impacts students’ academic success and overall development.
Concerns in this area include:

• Qualification & Subject Expertise: Many teachers lack subject specialization, especially
in rural schools.Non-permanent or contractual teachers often lack in-depth content
knowledge.
• Teaching Experience: Many newly appointed teachers lack classroom experience,
affecting their ability to manage students effectively. Insufficient mentoring for novice
teachers leads to ineffective classroom delivery.
• Gender Balance & Diversity: Female teachers are underrepresented in certain regions,
affecting gender-sensitive teaching approaches. Lack of diversity in teacher recruitment
affects inclusivity and representation.

4.Teacher Preparation
Quality education depends on how well teachers are trained before entering classrooms. Concerns
include:

• Outdated Teacher Education Programs: Many Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) and

Diploma in Education (D.Ed.) programs emphasize theoretical knowledge over practical
classroom skills. Training often lacks exposure to modern pedagogical methods, including
digital literacy.
• Lack of Internship & Practical Training: Many teachers do not receive real-world
classroom exposure before starting their careers. Micro-teaching sessions are often poorly
implemented, leaving teachers unprepared.
• Gaps in Inclusive Education Training: Special education training is missing in many
teacher preparation programs.Teachers are not adequately trained to handle students with
disabilities or learning difficulties.

5.Teacher’s Professional Development

Ongoing professional development ensures teachers stay updated with modern teaching strategies.
However, there are significant gaps in this area:
 • Limited In-Service Training: Irregular or insufficient teacher training programs prevent
professional growth. Teachers often lack opportunities for upskilling in new teaching
technologies and methodologies.
• Lack of Exposure to Innovative Pedagogies: Few training programs focus on student-
centered teaching, project-based learning, and experiential education. Digital tools and ICT
(Information & Communication Technology) in education are still underutilized.
• Motivation & Career Growth: Many teachers have limited promotion opportunities,
leading to stagnation in career growth. Low salaries and lack of incentives reduce
motivation to improve teaching quality.

Conclusion
The quality of secondary and higher secondary education depends on multiple interconnected
factors, including infrastructure, classroom engagement, teacher competency, and continuous
professional development. Addressing these concerns requires policy reforms, investment in
teacher training, and improvements in school facilities. Without these changes, students may
struggle to meet the demands of higher education and professional life.

Bit-4: Enabling learning environment, classroom processes, learning

assessment with reference to CCA and teacher quality – Use of
Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK)
Enabling Learning Environment

An enabling learning environment is essential for fostering student engagement, motivation, and
holistic development. It includes physical, psychological, and technological aspects that facilitate
effective teaching and learning.

Role of TPCK in an Enabling Learning Environment:

• Technology Integration: Smart boards, virtual reality (VR), and artificial intelligence (AI)-
based tools make learning more interactive and engaging.
• Inclusive Learning: Digital platforms and assistive technologies help accommodate diverse
learning needs, ensuring an inclusive classroom.
• Collaborative Learning: Online discussion forums, video conferencing, and cloud-based
document sharing enable students to collaborate beyond physical classrooms.
• Self-Paced Learning: Learning Management Systems (LMS) and e-books allow students
to progress at their own pace.

Classroom Processes
Effective classroom processes ensure that students actively participate in the learning experience.
The TPCK framework helps teachers integrate technology with pedagogy and content knowledge
to enhance instructional methods.

TPCK Applications in Classroom Processes:

• Blended Learning: A mix of traditional and digital methods using tools like Google
Classroom, Moodle, and Kahoot.
• Gamification: Incorporating game elements through applications like Quiz and Duolingo
to increase engagement.
• Flipped Classroom Model: Pre-recorded video lessons and interactive digital content allow
students to grasp concepts before classroom discussions.
• Personalized Learning: AI-driven adaptive learning systems recommend personalized
study plans based on student performance.

Learning Assessment
Assessment plays a crucial role in measuring student progress and guiding instructional
improvements. The TPCK framework ensures that assessments are dynamic, data-driven, and
student-centric.

TPCK in Learning Assessment:

• Formative Assessments: Digital quizzes, live polling, and discussion boards provide
immediate feedback and continuous evaluation.
• Summative Assessments: Online exams with automated grading improve efficiency and
reduce teacher workload.
• Digital Portfolios: Students showcase their learning through multimedia projects, blogs,
and presentations.
• Data Analytics: Learning analytics help educators track student performance and adjust
teaching strategies accordingly.

Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCA) and Teacher Quality

CCA is an approach that evaluates cognitive, affective, and psychomotor development, making it
essential to integrate TPCK for effective implementation.

Enhancing CCA through TPCK:

• Holistic Evaluation: Teachers use e-portfolios, digital storytelling, and creative

assessments to assess multiple skills.
• Performance-Based Assessment: Technology-driven projects and real-world applications
enhance experiential learning.
 • Peer and Self-Assessment: Digital platforms allow students to review and reflect on their
learning through structured feedback.

Improving Teacher Quality with TPCK:

• Professional Development: Ongoing TPCK training helps teachers stay updated with
emerging educational technologies.
• Reflective Teaching Practices: Video analysis and AI-powered feedback help teachers
refine their instructional techniques.
• Technology-Driven Lesson Planning: AI-based tools assist teachers in designing effective,
student-centered lesson plans.

Conclusion
The integration of TPCK in an enabling learning environment, classroom processes, and learning
assessments enhances the quality of education. By leveraging digital tools and pedagogical
strategies, teachers can implement CCA effectively while improving their instructional methods.
TPCK ensures that learning is engaging, inclusive, and adaptable to 21 st-century educational
demands.

What is TPACK?

Technology has become an increasingly important part of students’ lives beyond school, and even
within the classroom it can also help increase their understanding of complex concepts or
encourage collaboration among peers. Because of these benefits, current educational practice
suggests that teachers implement some form of technology in their classrooms – but many teachers
face difficulties in doing so. Cost, access, and time often form considerable barriers to classroom
implementation, but another obstacle is a lack of knowledge regarding how technology can best
be used to benefit students across diverse subject matter.

According to the TPACK framework, specific technological tools (hardware, software,

applications, associated information literacy practices, etc.) are best used to instruct and guide
students toward a better, more robust understanding of the subject matter. The three types of
knowledge – TK, PK, and CK – are thus combined and recombined in various ways within the
TPACK framework. Technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK) describes relationships and
interactions between technological tools and specific pedagogical practices, while pedagogical
content knowledge (PCK) describes the same between pedagogical practices and specific learning
objectives; finally, technological content knowledge (TCK) describes relationships and
intersections among technologies and learning objectives. These triangulated areas then constitute
TPACK, which considers the relationships among all three areas and acknowledges that educators
are acting within this complex space.
Content Knowledge (CK) – This describes teachers’ own knowledge of the subject matter. CK
may include knowledge of concepts, theories, evidence, and organizational frameworks within a
particular subject matter; it may also include the field’s best practices and established approaches
to communicating this information to students. CK will also differ according to discipline and
grade level – for example, middle-school science and history classes require less detail and scope
than undergraduate or graduate courses, so their various instructors’ CK may differ, or the CK that
each class imparts to its students will differ.

Pedagogical Knowledge (PK) – This describes teachers’ knowledge of the practices, processes,
and methods regarding teaching and learning. As a generic form of knowledge, PK encompasses
the purposes, values, and aims of education, and may apply to more specific areas including the
understanding of student learning styles, classroom management skills, lesson planning, and
assessments.

Technological Knowledge (TK) – This describes teachers’ knowledge of, and ability to use,
various technologies, technological tools, and associated resources.

Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) – This describes teachers’ knowledge regarding

foundational areas of teaching and learning, including curricula development, student assessment,
and reporting results. PCK focuses on promoting learning and on tracing the links among pedagogy
and its supportive practices (curriculum, assessment, etc.), and much like CK, will also differ
according to grade level and subject matter. In all cases, though, PCK seeks to improve teaching
practices by creating stronger connections between the content and the pedagogy used to
communicate it.

Technological Content Knowledge (TCK) – This describes teachers’ understanding of how

technology and content can both influence and push against each other. TCK involves
understanding how the subject matter can be communicated via different edtech offerings, and
considering which specific edtech tools might be best suited for specific subject matters or
classrooms.

Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK) – This describes teachers’ understanding of how

particular technologies can change both the teaching and learning experiences by introducing new
pedagogical affordances and constraints. Another aspect of TPK concerns understanding how such
tools can be deployed alongside pedagogy in ways that are appropriate to the discipline and the
development of the lesson at hand.
TPACK is the end result of these various combinations and interests, drawing from them – and
from the three larger underlying areas of content, pedagogy, and technology – in order to create an
effective basis for teaching using educational technology

Bit-4: Skill Development: Life skills and Vocational – scope ,

objectives and strategies
Skill Development in School Education (Secondary & Senior Secondary Level)

Skill development at the secondary (Classes 9-10) and senior secondary (Classes 11-12) levels is
essential for preparing students for real-world challenges. It includes life skills for personal and
social development and vocational skills for career readiness.
Scope of Skill Development in Schools

1.Life Skills Development:

• Enhancing students’ cognitive, emotional, and social capabilities.

• Preparing students for personal, academic, and professional success.
• Instilling confidence, resilience, and adaptability.
2. Skills Development:

• Providing job-oriented technical skills.

• Bridging the gap between academic learning and industry requirements.
• Encouraging entrepreneurship and self-employment opportunities.

Objectives of Skill Development in Schools

Life Skills Objectives:

• Develop critical thinking, decision-making, and problem-solving skills.

• Improve communication and interpersonal skills.
• Enhance emotional intelligence and stress management.
 • Build teamwork, leadership, and adaptability.
• Foster self-awareness and ethical values.

Vocational Skills Objectives:

• Introduce students to career-oriented practical skills.

• Develop technical and digital literacy.
• Promote entrepreneurship and financial management.
• Equip students with industry-specific knowledge for future employment.
• Encourage innovation and hands-on learning.

Strategies for Implementing Skill Development in Schools

1) Curriculum Integration: Incorporate life skills education as part of subjects like language,
social sciences, and moral education. Introduce vocational courses as electives or separate
modules aligned with students’ interests. It Include practical training, project-based
learning, and case studies.
2) Experiential Learning Approaches: Organize group activities, debates, role-plays, and real-
world problem-solving exercises. Encourage workshops on leadership, emotional
intelligence, and resilience. Provide internships, apprenticeships, and industry exposure
visits.
3) Use of Technology and Digital Tools: Promote e-learning platforms, coding programs, and
digital literacy courses.Use interactive simulations, virtual labs, and gamified learning
tools.
4) Industry Collaboration and Practical Exposure: Partner with local businesses, NGOs, and
vocational training institutes. Invite guest speakers, career counselors, and industry experts.
Organize career fairs, skill competitions, and entrepreneurship programs.
5) Government and Institutional Support: Implement National Skill Development Mission
(NSDM) and National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 guidelines for skill-based education.
Provide scholarships, certification programs, and vocational training incentives.
6) Assessment and Certification: Introduce practical-based evaluation alongside academic
tests. Offer government-recognized skill certification for vocational courses.
7) Quality Training:Focus on providing high-quality training programs that are relevant to
industry needs and meet international standards.
8) Focus on Practical Skills : emphasised practical, hands-on training that allows individuals
to develop the skills they need to succeed in the workplace.
9) Lifelong Learning:Promote lifelong learning and continuous skill development to ensure
that individuals remain competitive in the job market.
10) Accessibility and Outreach: Make skill development programs accessible to all, including
those in remote or underserved areas, through innovative approaches like virtual
classrooms and mobile training units.
 11) Capacity Building: Invest in capacity building for teachers and trainers to ensure that they
are equipped to deliver high-quality training.

Conclusion

Skill development at the secondary and senior secondary levels is crucial for holistic student
development, career readiness, and lifelong learning. A balanced approach integrating life skills
and vocational training will empower students for future challenges in higher education,
employment, and entrepreneurship.

Core life skills

1. Decision making
2. Problem solving
3. Creative thinking
4. Critical thinking
5. Effective communication
6. Interpersonal relationship skills
7. Self-awareness
8. Empathy
9. Coping with emotions
10. Coping with stress.

Bit-5: Monitoring and Sustainability of School Education Programs

School education programs play a crucial role in shaping the future of individuals and societies.
However, ensuring their effectiveness through monitoring and long-term sustainability presents
significant challenges. This document explores the key issues, challenges, and strategies related to
monitoring and sustaining school education programs.

Issues in Monitoring School Education Programs

Monitoring in education refers to the systematic tracking of school programs, teaching methods,
student performance, and resource utilization. However, several issues hinder efficient monitoring:

• Lack of Reliable and Real-time Data: Many education systems depend on outdated or
manually collected data, making it difficult to assess real-time progress. Poor data
management leads to ineffective decision-making.
• Inconsistent Evaluation Mechanisms: Different states, districts, and schools may have
varied monitoring frameworks, leading to inconsistent assessment standards. A lack of
standardized performance indicators makes it difficult to compare results across regions.
• Limited Accountability and Transparency: Weak governance structures often lead to
ineffective supervision of schools and programs. Corruption and mismanagement in
resource allocation hinder proper monitoring efforts.
 • Shortage of Skilled Personnel: Many schools, particularly in rural areas, lack trained
personnel to conduct proper evaluations and assessments. Teachers and administrators may
not have the technical knowledge required for data collection and analysis.
• Technological and Infrastructure Barriers: Limited access to digital tools in rural and
underprivileged schools affects real-time monitoring. Poor internet connectivity and lack
of electricity in remote areas further hinder progress.

Challenges in sustainability of school education programmes

Sustainability in education means maintaining and improving programs over time to ensure long-
term benefits. Several challenges impact sustainability:

o Financial Constraints: Many education programs rely on external funding, which may
not be available in the long run. Government budget constraints lead to inadequate
allocation for education programs, especially in developing regions.
o High Teacher Turnover and Lack of Training: Many teachers leave due to low salaries,
lack of career growth, and difficult working conditions. Inconsistent training programs
result in outdated teaching methods, affecting student learning.
o Limited Community Engagement: A lack of involvement from parents and local
communities weakens program implementation and sustainability. Socio-cultural factors
may prevent communities from actively supporting school programs.
o Changing Educational Policies and Leadership: Frequent changes in government
policies disrupt long-term education strategies. New administrations may introduce
policies that do not align with existing education programs, causing disruptions.
o Equity and Inclusion Issues: Children from marginalized communities, including girls
and differently-abled students, often face barriers in accessing quality education.
Socioeconomic disparities result in unequal educational opportunities.

Strategies for Effective Monitoring and Sustainability

Strategies for Effective Monitoring
▪ Use of Technology for Data Collection and Analysis: Implement digital attendance
systems, learning management systems (LMS), and AI-based assessment tools. Use mobile
apps and cloud-based platforms for real-time tracking of student and teacher performance.
▪ Training and Capacity Building: Train school administrators and teachers in data
collection, evaluation techniques, and digital tools. Conduct workshops to familiarize
stakeholders with best practices in monitoring.
▪ Community and Stakeholder Participation: Involve local community leaders, parents,
and NGOs in school monitoring to ensure transparency. Establish school management
committees that oversee the functioning of education programs.
 ▪ Independent Audits and Third-party Evaluations: Encourage regular external
evaluations to ensure unbiased assessments. Use third-party organizations to conduct
annual school audits and assessments.
▪ Decentralized Monitoring Systems: Empower local education officers with the authority
to monitor and report issues in schools. Encourage grassroots-level involvement to track
the effectiveness of programs.

Strategies for Sustainable School Education Programs

▪ Strengthening Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs): Collaborate with corporate

organizations, NGOs, and private donors to ensure continuous funding.Develop CSR
(Corporate Social Responsibility) initiatives that support school infrastructure, teacher
training, and student scholarships.
▪ Investing in Teacher Development: Improve teacher salaries and benefits to retain skilled
educators. Provide continuous professional development programs to keep teachers
updated with modern teaching methodologies.
▪ Policy Stability and Long-term Planning: Governments should develop long-term
education policies that are not affected by political changes. Ensure multi-year budget
allocations for education programs to prevent funding disruptions.
▪ Promoting Sustainable Infrastructure and Eco-friendly Practices: Schools should
adopt renewable energy sources like solar panels to reduce electricity costs. Encourage
digital learning to minimize paper use and promote environmental conservation.
▪ Strengthening Community Ownership and Participation: Encourage parental
involvement in school decision-making. Organize awareness programs to educate
communities on the importance of sustained education efforts.
Conclusion

Monitoring and sustaining school education programs require a multi-faceted approach.

Governments, educators, communities, and private stakeholders must collaborate to address the
issues and challenges in education. By leveraging technology, ensuring financial stability, and
fostering accountability, the long-term success of school education programs can be achieved.