TS

L
SA
N D
A
E S
AS
S,B
I D
AC
pH
pH-
This is a measure of how acidic or basic a substance is.
▪ pH of a solution can be increased by adding a base (alkali).
pH of a solution can be decreased by adding an acid or an acid salt.
▪ The pH scale is a number scale that indicates if a solution is acidic, alkaline
or neutral.
• Acidic solutions have a pH of less than 7
• Basic solutions have pH of more than 7
• Neutral solutions have pH of 7
The pH scale-
DEFINITIONS
The pH meter –
This measures the pH of a solution accurately.
Indicator papers and indicator solutions can only determine whether a
solution is acidic, alkaline or neutral.
Indicators are dyes that are one colour in acidic solution and another
colour in alkaline solutions.
Universal indicators are mixtures of indicators. They give approximate pH
values of solutions.
DEFINITIONS
Indicator Litmus Methyl Screened Phenolphthal
orange methyl ein
orange
Colour with red red Light red colourless
acid
Colour with blue yellow green pink
base
ACIDS
Acid- An acid is a substance that reacts with a base to give salt and water only.
Can also be defined as a substance that contains hydrogen and dissolves in
water to produce hydrogen ions.
It is also a substance that donates protons according to the Bronsted -Lowry
definition or accepts a pair of valence electrons to form a bond according
to the Lewis definition
Properties of Acids
Have sour taste
Turns blue litmus red
Have pH of less than 7
They are electrolytes that is they conduct electricity in aqueous solution
ACIDS
Strengths of acids- Acids may be strong or weak
Strong acids –
Strong acids are completely ionized in aqueous solutions. Their aqueous
solutions conduct electricity well
Eg. HC l (aq) H+(aq) Cl- (aq)
H2SO4 (aq) 2H+ (aq) + SO42- (aq)
Examples of strong acids include
Hydrochloric acid HCl
Sulphuric acid H2 SO4
Nitric Acid HNO3
Phosphoric acid H3PO4
ACIDS
Weak Acids-
These are only partially ionized in aqueous solution. Their aqueous solutions
conduct electricity to a small extent
Examples are
Ethanoic acid also known as vinegar and acetic acid CH3COOH
Lactic acid found in sour milk C3 H6 O3
Ethanedioic acid C2H2O4

CH3COOH (aq) H+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq)

ACIDS
Reactions of acids
React with metals to form salt and hydrogen gas
Hydrochloric acid + Zinc Zinc Chloride + hydrogen gas
2HCl (aq) + Zn(s) ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Reacts with metal oxides and hydroxides to form salt and water only
Hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide sodium chloride + water
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
CuO (s) + HNO3 (aq) NaNO3 (aq) + H2O (l)
Reacts with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to form salt , water and carbon
dioxide gas
Hydrochloric acid + sodium carbonate sodium chloride + water + carbon
dioxide
2 HCl (aq)+ Na2CO3(aq) 2NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (aq)
ACIDS

NaHCO3 (aq) + HNO3 (aq) NaNO3 (aq) + H2O (aq) + CO2

(aq)
ACIDS
Every day examples of acids (weak acids)
Citric acid found in fruits eg oranges and lemons
Also contain ascorbic acid known as vitamin C -
Methanoic acid in ants
Lactic acid build up in muscles
Rainwater is slightly acidic because of the carbon dioxide that dissolves in it.
( carbon dioxide dissolved in water, carbonic acid is also found in fizzy drinks
eg. Soda, beer. It is the carbon dioxide that causes the fizzing )
HCl found in our stomach. Kills bacteria and gives the stomach the correct pH
needed for it to digest food.
Acids Cont’d
Vitamin C or Ascorbic acid is neutralized with sodium
hydrogen carbonate
Vinegar or ethanoic acid is used in food preservation
because of its low pH
Lime juice is used to remove rust stains
Ants stings can be treated or neutralized by using a base
Basicity of acids
The basicity of an acid is the number of hydrogen ions that are dissociated in
aqueous solutions.
Monobasic - Produce one free H+ ion in aqueous solution.
eg. HCl, CH3COOH, HNO3,
HCl H+ + Cl -

HNO3 H+ + NO-3

CH3COOH H+ + CHCOO-3
Dibasic Acids
These produce 2 free hydrogen ions in aqueous solution
Eg. Sulphuric acid and carbonic acid

H2SO4 (aq) 2H+ (aq) + SO 2-

4
(aq)
Tribasic Acids

These yield three free H+ ions per molecule of acid in aqueous solution.
Examples are phosphoric acid and citric acid

H3PO4 (aq) 3H+(aq) + PO3-4 (aq)

phosphoric acid strong acid
BASES

A base is the oxide or hydroxide of a metal.

Can also be defined as a substance that reacts with acids to form salt and
water only.

Examples of bases include magnesium oxide, sodium hydroxide, potassium

hydroxide ammonia
Bases
Reactions of bases
magnesium oxide + hydrochloric acid magnesium chloride + water
MgO (aq) + 2 HCl (aq) MgCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)

sodium hydroxide + nitric acid sodium nitrate + water

NaOH (aq) + HNO3 (aq) NaNO3 (aq) + H2O (l)
Alkalis

Soluble bases are called alkalis.

Soluble bases dissolve in water to produce hydroxyl ions or OH- ions.

Soluble bases include KOH, NaOH and Na2O

(Please note that Cu2O, Fe2O3 and Cu(OH)2 are insoluble)

Alkalis - Characteristics

- slippery to the touch eg soap. (The soapy feel of alkali are as as result of
the conversion of oils on the skin to soap)
- conductors of electricity in aqueous solutions
- neutralized by acids to form salt and water only
- turn red litmus blue and phenolphthalein goes from colourless to pink
Strong and Weak Alkalis

Strong alkalis are completely ionized in aqueous solutions

eg. NaOH (s) + H2O (aq) Na+ (aq) + OH-- (aq)

Weak alkalis are only partially ionized in aqueous solutions.

An example of a weak base is ammonia, NH3
Ammonia

Turns red litmus blue.

Soluble in water
Can be identified
- sharp smell(smells like urine)
- forms dense white fumes with hydrogen chloride
The reaction of bases with ammonium salts
Bases react with ammonium salts to give ammonia gas. water and salt
eg.

sodium hydroxide _ ammonium chloride sodium chloride +

ammonia gas + water

NaOH(aq) + NH4Cl(aq) NaCl (aq) + NH3(g) + H2O (l)

Oxides
An oxide is a compound that is formed between oxygen and one other element.

Basic oxide- These are mainly oxides of metals. They react with acids to give salt
and water only

CuO (s) + H2SO4 (aq) CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)

MgO(s) + 2 HCl (aq) MgCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)

Oxides
Soluble basic oxides

These are oxides of group 1 elements including Na and K

They are alkalis since they dissolve in water

Na2O (s) + H2O (l) 2NaOH (aq)

Oxides
Acidic oxides-
are oxides of non-metals in their higher oxidation states
dissolve in water to form acids (acid anhydrides)
egs. sulphur dioxide SO2
sulphur trioxide SO3
carbon dioxide CO2
nitrogen dioxide NO2
Oxides
Acidic oxides- Acids
SO2 (aq) + H2O (aq) H2SO3 (aq) sulphurous acid
SO3 (aq) + H2O (aq) H2SO4 (aq) sulphuric
acid
CO2 (aq) + H2O (aq) H2CO3 (aq) carbonic
acid
2NO2 (aq) + H2O (aq) HNO2 (aq) + HNO3 (aq)
nitrous acid nitric acid
Oxides
Amphoteric Oxides-
Can react with both acids and bases to form salts
Can be formed by some metals including lead, aluminium
and zinc
PbO(s) + 2HNO3 (aq) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + H2O (l)
PbO(s) + 2NaOH (aq) Na2PbO2(aq) + H2O (l)
sodium plumbate
ZnO(s) + H2SO4 (aq) ZnSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)
ZnO (s) + 2NaOH (aq) Na2ZnO2 (aq) + H2O (l)
sodium zincate
Oxides
Neutral oxides-
oxides of non- metals in their lower oxidation states
react with neither acids or bases

egs. carbon monoxide CO

nitrogen monoxide NO
dinitrogen oxide N2O
Salts
This is formed when metal ions or ammonium ions take the
place of the replaceable hydrogen(s) in an acid.

Naming of salts
A salt gets its first name from the metal and its surname from
the acid.
Exception to the rule- Ammonium salts do not contain a metal.
Made when an acid reacts with ammonia(an alkali).
Egs. ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3 )and ammonium chloride
NH4Cl
Salts cont’d
Naming of salts- Each acid has its own salt

Acid Its salt Example

hydrochloric acid, HCl chlorides sodium chloride, NaCl

sulphuric acid, H2SO4 sulphates copper sulphate CuSO4

nitric acid, HNO3 nitrates potassium nitrate, KNO3

Salts cont’d
Two types of salts; normal and acid salts

Normal salts

This is formed if all the replaceable hydrogen of the acid is

removed.
2NaOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) Na2SO4 (aq) +2H2O(l)
2KOH (aq) + H3PO4 (aq) K3PO4 (aq) + 3H2O (l)
Salts Cont’d

Acid Salts-
This is formed when only part of the replaceable hydrogen is
removed
NaOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) NaHSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)
Salts that are used in everyday life
Salt Colour and other Uses
characteristics

ammonium chloride white crystals dry cells(batteries),

fertilizers

ammonium sulphate white crystals fertilizers

calcium carbonate( marble, white but can be coloured decorative stones,

limestone) manufacture of cement and
lime

calcium sulphate, (gypsum) white cystals plastering walls, making

casts

magnesium sulphate ,( white crystals purgative

epsom salts)
salts used in everyday life

sal colour and other uses

characteristics

copper (II) sulphate blue crystals fungicides

sodium carbonate (washing white crystals or powder in cleaning, in laundry as a

soda) water softener, in the
manufacturer of glass
Preparation of salts.
The method that is used depends on whether salt is
soluble or insoluble
Insoluble salts can be prepared by precipitation

Soluble salts can be prepared by

1. Direct combination

2. Replacing the hydrogen ions of the acid directly or

indirectly by metal or ammonium radical or ion

;
Preparation of Salts
Method used depends on whether the salt is soluble or
insoluble
Preparing soluble salts
1. The action of acids and alkalis (neutralization reaction or
titration method)
NaOH(aq) + HNO3 (aq) NaNO3 (aq) + H2O (l)
sodium hydroxide nitric acid sodium nitrate water
(salts have many uses. copper sulphate can be used to treat
vines to kill pests. Why must grapes be washed well before we
eat them?)
Preparing soluble salts- Neutralization or
titration method
1. Pipette 25 cm3 of base such as NaOH into a conical flask.
2. Add two drops of phenolphthalein indicator and swirl
contents.
3. Titrate with acid such as HNO3 from the burette until a
colour change is seen .
4. Write the chemical equation for the reaction
5. NaOH (aq) + HNO3 (aq) NaNO3 (aq) + H2O (aq)
Preparation of salts
Preparing soluble salts
2. The action of acids on carbonates and hydrogen
carbonates to produce salt, water and carbon dioxide.
Test for carbon dioxide gas is limewater (calcium hydroxide)
goes cloudy or forms a white precipitate)
hydrochloric acid + copper carbonate copper chloride +
water + cabon dioxide
2HCl (aq) + CuCO3 (s) CuCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2
(g)
Please note - most carbonates are insoluble in water
Preparation of salts
Preparing soluble salts
3. The action of acids with metals to produce salt and
hydrogen gas.
Remember test for hydrogen gas is it outs a lighted splint-
popping sound
hydrochloric acid + zinc zinc chloride + hydrogen gas
2HCl (aq) + Zn (s) ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
4. Preparation of salts
Preparing soluble salts
Action of acids on ammonium radicals
Hydrochloric acid + ammonium hydroxide ammonium chloride + water
HCl (aq) + NH4OH(aq) NH4Cl (aq) + H2O (l)

Test for ammonia gas (turns red litmus blue)

Lime water(calcium hydroxide) + ammonium sulphate calcium sulphate
+ ammonia + water
Ca(OH)2 (aq) + ( NH4 )2 SO4 (aq) CaSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3 (g)
Preparation of salts
Preparing soluble salts
Explaining neutralization- When we neutralize an acid the H
ions from the acid combine with the hydroxide ions from the
base to form water

H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) H2O (l)

Preparation of Salts
Preparing insoluble salts
1 Ionic Precipitation reaction- forming an insoluble solid from two soluble salts
Get two small beakers. In one place KI (aq) and in the other place Pb(NO3)2
Add both solutions together and mix.
lead nitrate and sodium iodide or( potassium iodide) reacts to make a precipitate
lead iodide. Lead iodide must be rinsed with water to wash away any soluble salt.
In this reaction the precipitate is separated from the solution by filtration
lead nitrate + sodium iodide lead iodide (yellow solid) + sodium nitrate
Pb(NO3 )2 + NaI (aq) PbI2 (s) + NaNO3 (aq)
Preparation of salts
Solubility of salts
All salts of ammonium, sodium and potassium are soluble in
water
salt solubility

chlorides soluble except for lead chloride and silver

chloride

sulphates soluble except for barium sulphate,

sulphate and lead sulphate
carbonates insoluble except those of sodium,
potassium and ammonium

nitrates all soluble

Preparation of salts
Please note
hydrochloric acid gives salts called chlorides
sulphuric acid gives salts called sulphates and
nitric acid gives salts called nitrates
Preparation of salts
Hydrated and anhydrous salts
Hydrated salts are salts with water of crystallization eg
CuSO4. 5H2O meaning hydrated copper (11) sulphate with 5
moles of water of crystallization or water molecules

Anhydrous salts are those salts without water of

crystallization eg anhydrous sodium sulphate Na2SO4