ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY

(Department of Secondary Teacher Education)

Assignment No.2
Submitted to: Naila Roohi
Course code 8603
Course: Curriculum Development
Name: Javeria Arshad
Roll no: CE604166
Q.1: Describe the nature of aims and objectives in curriculum development.
Explain your answer with practical examples?

Answer:

Meaning of curriculum

The term curriculum refers to the lessons and academic content taught in a school or in a specific
course or program. In dictionaries, curriculum is often defined as the courses offered by a school,
but it is rarely used in such a general sense in schools. Depending on how broadly educators define
or employ the term, curriculum typically refers to the knowledge and skills students are expected
to learn, which includes the learning standards or learning objectives they are expected to meet;
the units and lessons that teachers teach; the assignments and projects given to students; the books,
materials, videos, presentations, and readings used in a course; and the tests, assessments, and
other methods used to evaluate student learning. An individual teacher’s curriculum, for example,
would be the specific learning standards, lessons, assignments, and materials used to organize and
teach a particular course.

What is curriculum development

Curriculum development is the multi-step process of creating and improving a course taught at a
school or university. While the exact process will vary from institution to institution, the broad
framework includes stages of analysis, building, implementation, and evaluation.
In K-12 schools, curricula are often developed at a local or state level to result in standardized
learning outcomes across different schools. At the college level, instructors may get more
individual flexibility to develop their own curricula. Either way, the individual or group is
responsible for planning a course (and choosing strong corresponding course materials) that
effectively accomplishes educational goals and meets student needs.
Ideally, the curriculum development process should be one of continuous improvement rather than
a linear or stagnant approach. Plans for instruction should be frequently reviewed, revised, and
updated as new and different needs arise. Change may be required due to subject-area discoveries,
innovations in instructional best practices, or shifts in course delivery such as the pivot to remote
teaching.

Curriculum Aims: All students know what they need to achieve to succeed in life. Staff and
students have high expectations and strive for excellence. Learning and teaching takes place in a
safe and purposeful environment. Students are encouraged to have enquiring minds and seek
opportunities to become global citizens. Likewise, what are educational aims goals and
objectives? Aims are concerned with purpose whereas objectives are concerned with achievement.
Usually an educational objective relates to gaining an ability, a skill, some knowledge, a new
attitude etc. rather than having merely completed a given task.

Similarly, you may ask, what are the goals of the curriculum?

Curriculum goals are general, broad statements that lead towards long-term outcomes.
These goals are typically designed to be met by students after a longer period of time such as a
year of schooling or a series of courses in a discipline.

What is the difference between aims objectives and goals?

Key Differences Between Aim and Objective The term aim is described as the ultimate goal,
which an individual or the entity strive to achieve. Aim refers to the general direction or intent of
an individual/company. On the other hand, the objective is the specific goal of an individual or
company.

In the research literature various useful evidences can be found to help to design a good curriculum
organization. However, there are no standard solutions. The effectiveness of certain ideas depends
on the particular context of the curriculum: the discipline, the type of instruction, the culture in the
teachers’ team, the aims etc. A number of research-based evidences that are relevant in making
decisions about the organization of a curriculum in higher education are presented below.
Breves and Van den Anker have identified six quality criterions which should be met when
(re)designing a curriculum:
Relevance: The curriculum is based on state-of-the-art academic knowledge and understanding of
contextual need and wishes
 Consistency: The structure of the curriculum in logical and coherent
 Practicality: The curriculum is usable in the context it is designed for
 Effectiveness: The curriculum leads to the desired outcomes
 Scalability: The curriculum is successfully implemented scale
 Sustainability: The curriculum remains successful over extended periods of time
1. An important result of learning research is that mastering the relevant learning objectives
depends on the amount that the students are involved in activities that are likely to result in
their achieving those outcomes. (Darns and Shell). Learning in higher education is considered
to be an active learning process. From the research into learning specific principles are
formulated how the teacher can engage the study to study actively in order to master the
learning objectives or aims. (Shell, ….). In the other posts a detailed insight is given of the
available evidences form the research into learning.
2. According to Dear and Van Merriënboer and Kirschner complex learning is a crucial
component of the curricula of modern higher education. Professionals have to learn complex
skills and competencies during their studies and they will never stop learning throughout their
careers. The authors stress the importance of a holistic design approach. ‘Often complex
content and tasks are continually reduced to simpler or smaller elements’. ‘Holistic design
approaches attempt to deal with complexity without losing sight of the separate elements and
interrelationships between those elements’. The learning and testing activities should be
focused on the complex learning of the students. Besides the professional competencies or
complex skills, the metacognitive learning skills should have a place in the learning process:
how to study, how to profit maximal from a lecture, a working group, a practical, how to
prepare a thesis, etcetera.
1. Bovill et al concludes that in the existing research, the curriculum is identified as a key driver
for improving the students’ engagement, and thereby success from the first year onwards’. This
means that a good designed and described curriculum is an important condition to realize a
good learning process.
2. Gibbs has formulated an important the principle Constructive alignment that aims, learning
objectives, learning and testing activities should be in line with each other.
3. Dearn, 2010; Diamond, 1998; O’Brian, 2015; Verloop and Lowyck, 2003 and the AACU, 2002
stress that the different courses in a curriculum should build on each other. The students
develop insight in the content and master the main competencies step-by-step in the
consecutive courses. These developments can be described with help of learning tracks for the
main competencies and the main content. The learning track in a curriculum can be explained
with help of a scheme, or another visualization to show the steps in the learning process in the
involves courses.
4. Possibilities for personal development are important as well. For example, most students need
half a year or more to learn and work as a student. They need to learn how to plan, how to
study course material (written texts and digital), how to learn from video-presentations, how
to work systematically, and how to learn new study skills because of blended learning. Also,
strengthening of the social bonding with the educational institute is likely to result in better
study progress and less dropout.
5. Curriculum models: Various curriculum models are introduced in higher education. Examples
of the models are:
 Problem based education, project education, research based education.
 Theme oriented, interdisciplinary oriented, disciplinary oriented, competency based.
 Applying cognitive, constructive, social critical vision
Valcke (2007) and Onstein (2014) describe these models. XXX gives also examples of models for
master program. Which model(s) will be use, depends strongly on the vision of the curriculum
committee. There are not one standard solutions. The models showed possible organisations. Often
there are evaluation studies available. How to choose from among the mentioned models and how
to design a good curriculum? For this there is no simple solution. The success of a model depends
strongly on the context in which the curriculum will be used. The curriculum committee should
discuss the possibilities and decide which model or combinations of models will we used. During
the development and the implementation of the education the quality of the curriculum should be
evaluated.

Q. 2: Discuss the process adopted for curriculum development in Pakistan.

Which techniques are used for curriculum evaluation? Discuss with examples?

Answer:

Curriculum Development in Pakistan

Educational planning, Policy making, curriculum development, Islamic education and

maintenance of educational standards are the liabilities of Ministry of Education under the
Constitution of Pakistan 1973 (National assembly of Pakistan, 2004). National Bureau of
Curriculum and textbooks of Ministry of Education under Federal Act (No X of 1976) authorized
competent authority to facilitate in preparing curriculum from class I to XII, scheme of studies,
manuscripts of textbooks; to approve manuscripts of textbooks before their execution and to direct
any person or agency in writing to amend, delete or remove any portion or whole curriculum.

The same are also responsible for introduction of approved textbooks to various classes in schools
regarding implementation of education policy approved by Ministry of Education.

According to Iqbal (2011) the curriculum reform in Pakistan is combined effort of Ministry of
Education and four provincial curriculum centers and they accomplish it with collaboration of
following organizations/ agencies.

 Departments of Educations.

 Curriculum Research and development centers.

 Education Extension centers.

 Textbook Boards.

 Teacher Training Institutions.

 Examining Boards.

 Universities.

Most of curriculum reforms in Pakistan have been initiated by Federal Government on the
recommendations of Educational policies, Educational Conferences or National Educational
Commission. The detail is given below:

1. In 1959 (recommended by National Education Commission1959).

2. In 1967 (Modernization of Science and Mathematics Curricula).

3. In 1973 (suggested by Education Policy 1972-80)

4. In1978 (recommended by National Education Conference 1977).

5. In 1979 (Primary Education Project).

6. In 1989 (Science Education Project)

7. In 1994 (Middle schooling project)

8. In 2000-2002 (National Educational policy 1998-2010)

9. In 2006 (National Curriculum Council)

The science curriculum revision in Pakistan started in late sixties and major science curriculum
reforms (for class IX-X) occur in 1968, 1990, 2002 and 2006. Development of curriculum is an
ongoing process and the costs associated with the curriculum and textbooks are to be met with the
regular budget. The costs associated with the publishing of textbooks come under the responsibility
of textbook boards and private publishers (Govt. of Pakistan, 2000).

Curriculum in Pakistan was never revised under the light of experiments and research.
Development of research facilities and evaluation was intended to be focused during the five-year
plans. Also it is emphasized by researcher that the status of science education in Pakistan is not as
effective as early fifties. He proposed several suggestions in his 6th plan to eliminate the
deficiencies in textbooks, laboratory instruments, curriculum, teacher’s competencies and
resources of libraries.

He presented an action plan for this purpose. The findings of his study revealed that the major
obstacles facing the science education are overly crowded classrooms, lack of
equipment’s/instruments and poor guidance. Teacher’s present methods of teaching were also
criticized by him. Another curriculum revision is still in progress since 2006. This curriculum
revision is initiated by Education minister of Pakistan. A new National Curriculum Council has
been appointed by Education Minister for the purpose of curriculum revision.

Curriculum Development Mechanism in Pakistan

The provincial curriculum centers revise or develop a curriculum whenever it receives a proposal
from the Curriculum Wing of Ministry of Education for a curriculum to be framed or revised. The
main steps mostly followed in curriculum development are highlighted below:

 Provincial centers are requested to develop draft curriculum for various subjects by the
Curriculum Wing.

 Committees of teachers and subject specialists are called in by the Provincial centers.

 Initial draft of curricula for various subjects is prepared by provincial curriculum centers.
 Curriculum prepared by provincial committees and is then sent to the Curriculum wing.

 A National curriculum committee representing from all provinces is appointed to develop one
draft of curriculum.

 Curriculum draft is circulated in institutions for micro testing and for comments to the relevant
teachers and specialist.

 The draft is reviewed again with respect to the comments by the National Committee of
Curriculum.

 The suggestions and recommendations are sent to the Ministry of Education where Secretary
Education accords the approval.

 The approved curriculum is sent to the textbook boards for the production of textbooks.

The working of Curriculum wing is closely collaborated with the research organizations, Board of
Intermediate and Secondary Education, textbook boards and Education departments in the
province. When curriculum is needed to be revised the Curriculum Wing prepares a proposal and
submits to Educational Secretary for approval. After analyzing the proposal and considering the
financial matters involved in the process the Educational Secretary gives final approval. The next
step is the selection of National Curriculum Committee (NCC). The members of this committee
should be professors of universities, college teachers, renowned educationists and relevant school
teachers; again list of proposed members of committee are sent to Educational Secretary for
approval.

Figure: Process of national curriculum development in Pakistan under Federal Control of

Curriculum, Textbook and Maintenance Act 1976
Desk officer (Assistant Educational Advisor) of Curricular Wing organize meeting of NCC. The
committee analyzes the existing curriculum, feedback from various stakeholders and international
curriculum documents. Keeping in view the results of need assessment, aspirations of Government
and public identify the main focus areas.

At the next step NCC justifies the need of curriculum revision and after considerable discussions
prepares guidelines for curriculum revision. Changes in the scheme of studies for new curriculum
if required are decided by the committee and final draft is submitted to the Educational Secretary
for approval.

Curriculum Wing proposes National Subject Committees. On approval from education secretary
these committees analyze the existing curriculum, identify and make changes in curriculum of
each subject. The final draft is then sent to the provincial educational institutions for their
comments. Review committees appointed by Curriculum Wing and approved by education
secretary from all provinces of country. They critically review the curriculum in the light of
comments from different stake holders and NCC and finalize the curriculum document.
Curriculum Wing issue notification for its implementation after final approval from Education
Secretary. Provincial textbook boards invite authors/publishers to prepare the textbooks according
to revised curriculum through national press.

The manuscripts of textbooks are presented to the review committees at textbook board level for
selection. The best available selected manuscripts after necessary corrections are then sent to the
Ministry of Education for final approval. National textbook review committees for each subject at
national level review the textbooks and give its recommendations.

After necessary changes these manuscripts are sent to the provincial government for comments.
On receiving these manuscripts along with comments again presented to Textbook Review
Committees for final approval. After final notification from Ministry of Education Textbook
Boards publish these books and implement at school level.

Mostly the members of National Curriculum Committee, Subject committee and Review
committee have rarely worked at school level. They can only identify and realize the needs of
subject and have only the theoretical knowledge about the subject. They are unable to recognize
needs and problems of child regarding learning. Teachers although are the members of committee
could not play their role effectively or proper importance is not given to them in decision making.

It is noted that after 18th amendment 2010 in the constitution of Islamic Republic of Pakistan
curriculum designing and selection of textbooks is devolved to provinces.

Procedure Adapted for Curriculum evaluation

In curriculum development major role is played by National Curriculum Committee, Subject

committee and Review committee. These committees comprise renowned school teachers, subject
specialists,’ universities teachers, college teachers, renowned educationists and textbook board
officials. Mostly following procedure is adopted in Pakistan for the development of a new
curriculum.
a. Formulation of objectives:

Objectives are formulated keeping in view the recommendation of National Education Policy,
results of research studies carried out at provincial curriculum centers and in the light of
suggestions from Boards of Intermediate and Secondary Education. Initial draft of objectives is
distributed to all stake holders for their comments. Several other factors are kept in mind during
final selection in addition to the suggestions of stake holders. An objective should be clear to
understand, achievable, measurable and can be translated in to behavioral objective.

b. Selection of schemes of studies:

Scheme of studies is generally an outline of subjects to be taught at a particular level. Several

factors such as curriculum objectives, social needs, student needs and mental level, nature of
subject, classroom environment, instructional material available etc. need to be considered during
selection of scheme of studies. In Pakistan changes in the scheme of studies for new curriculum is
decided by the National Curriculum Committee and Educational Secretary gives its final approval.

c. Syllabus designing:

Subject experts, serving teachers and psychologists prepare syllabus of each subject in consultation
with provincial curriculum centers. During this process it is ensured that student needs, mental
ability and developmental stages be considered. The syllabus design should reflect curriculum
objectives, scheme of studies and teaching methods prescribed in curriculum document.

d. Selection of Content and teaching material:

Preparation of textbooks, teachers’ guides and teaching kits is the responsibility of provincial
textbook boards. When a revised curriculum is approved by Ministry of Education the textbook
board advertises through national press for the preparation of textbooks and relevant material.
Provincial / National publishers submit the manuscripts for approval.

e. Approval:

National review committee including five to six members review the textbook considering that the
book truly reflects the curriculum objectives, curriculum guidelines and does not contain any
material conflicting Islamic ideology of Pakistan.
f. Monitoring and evaluation of curriculum:

At this stage teacher deliver the curriculum in actual classroom setting. Difficulties in delivering
curriculum, gaps in teaching and learning are identified and are used for curriculum improvement
in future. Unfortunately monitoring and evaluation of curriculum mechanism either not exist or do
not function properly in Pakistan.

Essential Curriculum Development Steps Needing Emphasis

1. Needs assessment: if not conducted, wonderful curriculum could be developed, but the
appropriate needs of the target audience may not be met.
2. Involving youth: the target audience and volunteers (or staff) who will be the implementers
of the curriculum must be involved (i.e., they participate as full members of the curriculum
development team).
3. Recruiting and training volunteer facilitators: competent and skilled curriculum
implementers are critical (the printed word cannot teach experiential group process, it doesn't
provide feedback).
4. Evaluating and reporting on the impact of the curriculum: is critical for securing human
and financial support from key policy decision makers and for assessing whether the
curriculum has achieved the intended outcome.
Two types of evaluation are included in the Phases and Steps illustration: (1) Formative provides
feedback during the process of developing the curriculum, and (2) Summative answers questions
about changes (impact) that have occurred in learners because of their learning experiences.
Summative evaluation provides evidence for what works, what does not work, and what needs to
be improved. In every step of the curriculum development process, the most important task is to
keep the learner (in this case, youth) in mind and involve them in process. For example, the
curriculum team members, who have direct knowledge of the target audience, should be involved
in conducting the needs assessment. From the needs assessment process, the problem areas are
identified, gaps between what youth know and what they need to know are identified, and the
scope of the problem is clarified and defined. The results may prompt decision makers to allocate
resources for a curriculum development team to prepare curriculum materials.
Q. 3: Analyze the curriculum of teacher education programs in distance education. Identify
essential communication skills for teacher that should be a part of curriculum and how?

Answer:

Teacher Education Research and teacher education are essential to the development of effective
distance education programs. Moore and Thompson offer the following three features most
influential in requiring such research and training.

 Distance education uses technologies that are unfamiliar as the primary media of
communication for teaching to most teachers and administrators.
 Distance education requires teachers to specialize in the various functions of
teaching, especially those of: counselor, content expert, facilitator of interaction,
course designer, and learner.
 Distance education requires planning, development, production and distribution on
a larger scale than is familiar to most teachers and administrators, and requires
major intervention by policy makers at national and state levels.

There is a growing realization that traditional techniques of teaching are not as effective in the
distance education environment. The need for distance teacher education is one which is echoed
more and more in recent literature, especially as communication technologies become more
sophisticated.

Scholl suggests that in reflection, teachers try to make sense out of uncertain and unstable
situations. To analyze what goes on in a distance classroom, the teacher should reflect on the
context, the learners, and the methods and procedures they employ (Wolcott, 1995). Reflective
distance teachers can overcome some of the difficulties that arise in distance instruction by placing
themselves in the situation of the distance learner. The distance learning environment is very
unique and requires considerable reflection. A distance teacher cannot expect the same
pedagogical principles that were successful in a traditional classroom to be successful without
adjustment in the distance learning environment.

Reflecting on my experience as a distance education teacher, it seemed that the technology landed
itself to a rigid "school math" interaction pattern. Richards refers to "school math" as the situation
where students do not communicate directly with one another, and in fact never address one
another. The teacher in "school math" remains in control and speaks every other turn. Distance
education teachers have to acknowledge the changed environment and its contextual influences.
Distance education teachers must also be aware of the capabilities of the medium and work within
them while adapting their instructional approaches to reflect the limitations of the medium.
Wolcott offers the following suggestions for ways that distance teachers might acquire a feel for
the context and experience of the distance learning environment.

Talking with distance teachers and reading about others' experiences. Observing distance
education classes, particularly from the students' point of view. Learning about the capabilities
and limitations of the equipment and practicing with it. Talking with administrative staff, technical
personnel, and site facilitators to become familiar with the routines and procedures.

Talking with distant students to identify their needs and concerns. Distance education teachers
must be aware of the psychological, social, and technical obstacles that distant learners face.
Distant students must take more responsibility for their own learning than in a traditional setting.
The distant students must also overcome the intimidation of using the technology to interact with
the class on a voluntary basis. Thach and Murphy saw the need for teacher development in distance
education, and believed that a list of competencies should be established that could be used to
prepare teachers for the distance learning environment. They felt that the identification of specific
competencies within the distance education field should be the initial step in creating an effective
professional development program. The literature to this point had been based on the opinions of
experts in the field. Thach and Murphy conducted a study of 100 distance educators and identified
the top ten competencies.

These competencies illustrated the dual importance of communication skills and technical skills
as follows:

(1) Interpersonal Communication,

(2) Planning Skills,

(3) Collaboration/Teamwork,

(4) English Proficiency,

(5) Writing Skills,

(6) Organizational Skills,

(7) Feedback Skills,

(8) Knowledge of Distance Education Field,

(9) Basic Technology Knowledge, and

(10) Technology Access Knowledge.

It is interesting to point out that Catchpole realized that there are no professional journals on faculty
development for distance education teachers. Essential communication skills for teacher that
should be a part of curriculum and how? Communication skills are central to success in school,
work and in life. We take a look at some of the ways you can integrate communication skills into
your primary and secondary classrooms.

Why are communication skills important?

Communication skills are central to success in school, work and life. Strong communication skills
upon entering higher education are linked to higher grades and graduation rates. In a recent Pearson
survey, employers ranked communication as the second most important skill for employees to
have, and one that is lacking in many entry level job applicants.
Communication takes many forms, from writing a paper or reading a book, to delivering a
presentation or engaging in conversation or debate but it’s important that the teaching of
communication skills is not confined to the ‘obvious’ disciplines of English Language, English
Literature or Modern Languages. They should be taught in all subjects as learners will need to
communicate about and in many different subject areas as they progress through their primary and
secondary education and on to university and the workplace.

What do we mean by communication?

Communication is defined as a social process of exchanging messages in order to create shared

meaning and achieve outcomes. Information exchange can be one-way, for example public
speaking, or it can be interpersonal, through a conversation. Various skills contribute to effective
communication, including understanding the context and purpose of a piece of communication,
crafting clear and cohesive messages, paying attention to one’s body language and using active
listening.

4 ways to teach communication effectively

Address both sending and receiving information – through production skills, such as speaking and
writing, and receptive skills, such as listening and speaking. Use different domains, channels and
diverse communicators to help your learners practise sending and receiving information.

Teach strategies for planning and revising pieces of written communication – by encouraging
learners to focus on the process, introducing planning activities and providing feedback to help
them hone their skills.

Use practice and feedback to teach oral communication skills – introduce learning objectives and
models of successful performance, use video recording tools and feed back to your learners with
rubric so they understand what good oral communication skills look like.

Focus assessments on real world tasks – consider common workplace communication tasks and
use rubrics. Introduce role play to help your learners practise and assess their communication
skills.
Communication across the curriculum

Communication Across the Curriculum (CxC) refers to utilizing oral and written assignments and
activities into courses in every discipline in order to both promote students’ communication skills
as well as help instructors meet their teaching goals. The main benefits of utilizing communication
assignments:

Communication assignments have been shown to improve student understanding of material and
increase student performance. Communication assignments prepare students for the skills needed
to succeed in their professional careers.

Q. 4: Discuss in detail the education system of United State of America and United Kingdom.
What procedure is followed in curriculum development and its implementation in these
countries?

Answer:

Many private international schools in Poland, most often international high schools, use curricula either
from the UK or the US, and their students take exams administered in each of these systems. We often
hear about GCSE, IGCE, A-Levels, SAT, ACT, and many people don’t know what these acronyms
mean and what their exams involve.

The education system in the UK

In Great Britain, England, Wales and Northern Ireland follow the National Curriculum, with some
variations. Scotland, on the other hand, has its own curriculum.

In the UK, children generally start formal education at the age of four, earlier than in the US.
Students take exams at key stages in their education. Then the two-year program starting at the
age of 14 ends with the GCSE (General Certificate of Secondary Education - O-Levels or ordinary
levels until 1988), and the next two-year program starting at the age of 16 is crowned with the
English “Baccalaureate”—secondary school diploma exams, i.e., A-Level exams. (Advanced
Level). Overall, it can be said that the system leads students towards increasing specialization.

GCSE
The GCSE (General Certificate of Secondary Education) is the main school-leaving certificate in
England, Wales, and Northern Ireland (Scotland has an independent national qualification system).
It’s generally highly valued by higher education institutions and employers.

In recent years, the UK government has introduced a GCSE reform program, including a grading
system that uses numbers (1-9) instead of letters (A-G).

GCSEs are available in approximately 50 subjects and are usually preceded by full-time five-
semester courses. GCSE exams are taken in May/June when students are in Grade 11 (Year 11)
and their results are published in August.

IGCSE

The International GCSE (IGCSE) is an internationally recognized exam at the same level as the
GCSE. It aims to adopt a broader approach to learning.

According to the University of Cambridge International Examinations (CIE) board, which is the
main governing body of IGCSE for independent schools in the UK, the exam "encourages an
inquiry-based approach to learning and develops the skills of creative thinking, analysis, and
problem-solving, giving students excellent preparation for the next stage of their education”.

Schools may offer any combination of subjects for which each student receives a separate
certificate. There are over 70 subjects, including over 30 language courses, offering a variety of
options for students with a wide range of abilities, including those whose first language is not
English.

A-Levels

The A-Level diploma was introduced in Great Britain in 1951, and its idea is to educate the best
candidates for leading universities.

The A-Levels are taken between the ages of 16 and 18 and are much more difficult than the GCSEs.
They can’t be taken without having passed GCSEs in similar subjects. If you want to go to
university, you have to take both exams.

The education system in the US

In the US system, less emphasis is placed on examinations and students study general subjects
until the end of high school, which is Grade 12, the UK equivalent of Year 13. In the United States,
most children attend preschool part-time, but state-provided education does not start until
Kindergarten (Year 1 in the UK). In the early years, children are gradually introduced to learning,
with a strong emphasis on socialization as well as developing basic language and math skills. It’s
generally accepted that from kindergarten through Grade 3. children acquire basic knowledge that
is then applied and developed more rigorously in Grade 4. The US system is typically divided into
three levels:

• Basic: Elementary school (K - Grade 5),

• Middle school (Grades 6-8)

• High school (Grades 9–12).

Students are assessed at the end of each grade when they move on to the next, but the exams are
not nationally standardized and have traditionally had relatively little influence on their
progression to the next grade. They can, however, help to determine at what level a student can
choose a course in the next grade—more or less advanced. However, there are no exams in the US
comparable to GCSE or A-Levels.

In the United States, math and science are taught sequentially rather than simultaneously. A student
in Grade 9 can study physics in one year, followed by a year of chemistry in Grade 10. Likewise,
students’ progress from algebra to geometry, trigonometry, calculus, and so on.

At the end of high school, US students apply for college education based on a number of elements:
their grades in all four years of high school averaged as GPA (Grade Point Average), results from
various exams, teachers’ opinions, and personal achievements and extracurricular/volunteer
activities.

SAT and ACT

Colleges in the United States, however, often expect more information about prospective students
than what the GPA and high school diploma can offer. Therefore, many students choose to take
the SAT (also known as the Scholastic Aptitude Test) or the ACT (the American College Test),
both of which are nationally recognized tests taken at the end of high school.
"Almost all highly-rated US universities require applicants to submit results from one of the US
admission tests—SAT or ACT," says Jon Tibbett, head of recruiting at consulting firm Dukes
Education and Jon Tibbett Associates. "A good test score is critical to a successful application."

ACT is another standardized test for high school students wishing to study at universities or
colleges in the US. Like the SAT, it assesses the general academic aptitude of high school students
and the ability to study at the college level. The tests are multiple-choice and cover four areas:
English, math, reading, and science. They also include an optional written test that measures the
student's short essay skills. International students can take the ACT and SAT from outside the US
to gain access to American universities and colleges.

Advanced Placement

Advanced Placement (AP) is another teaching and assessment program designed to help US higher
education institutions assess students for admission. It’s developed and administered by the
College Board, the organization responsible for SAT testing. AP is specifically designed to be
closely related to the first year of the student’s study in the US, so students typically take the
program to demonstrate an interest in a field or subject they hope to pursue at the college level.

According to the Fulbright Commission, AP is more rigorous and in-depth than standard high
school courses offered in US schools and compares favorably with A-Levels and International
Baccalaureate (IB), both of which are considered the highest standard of qualification for
university admission. While AP is not necessary to enter an American university, students can
demonstrate commitment to the field they hope to study by taking AP courses. And especially for
the most competitive universities, successfully completing these courses may give them better
chances for admission.

What procedure is followed in curriculum development and its implementation in these

countries?

The curriculum development process systematically organizes what will be taught, who will be
taught, and how it will be taught. Each component affects and interacts with other components.
For example, what will be taught is affected by who is being taught (e.g., their stage of
development in age, maturity, and education). Methods of how content is taught are affected by
who is being taught, their characteristics, and the setting. In considering the above three essential
components, the following are widely held to be essential considerations in experiential education
in non-formal settings:

The curriculum development model it begins when an issue, concern, or problem needs to be
addressed. If education or training a segment of the population will help solve the problem, then
curriculum to support an educational effort becomes a priority with human and financial resources
allocated. The next step is to form a curriculum development team. The team makes systematic
decisions about the target audience (learner characteristics), intended out-comes (objectives),
content methods, and evaluation strategies. With input from the curriculum development team,
draft curriculum products are developed, tested, evaluated, and redesigned -if necessary. When the
final product is produced, volunteer training is conducted. The model shows a circular process
where volunteer training provides feedback for new materials or revisions to the existing
curriculum. Phases and steps in curriculum development) further illustrates how the 12 essential
steps progress from one to the next. It also shows the interaction and relationships of the four
essential phases of the curriculum development process:

(I) Planning, (II) Content and Methods, (III) Implementation, and (IV) Evaluation and
Reporting. It is important to acknowledge that things do not always work exactly as depicted in a
model!

Each phase has several steps or tasks to complete in logical sequence. These steps are not always
separate and distinct, but may overlap and occur concurrently. For example, the curriculum
development team is involved in all of the steps. Evaluations should occur in most of the steps to
assess progress. The team learns what works and what does not and determines the impact of the
curriculum on learners after it is implemented. Each step logically follows the previous. It would
make no sense to design learning activities before learner outcomes and content are described and
identified. Similarly, content cannot be determined before learner outcomes are described.
In the experience of the author, and confirmed by other curriculum specialists, the following
curriculum development steps are frequently omitted or slighted. These steps are essential to
successful curriculum development and need to be emphasized.

Q.5: Write short notes on the following:

i. Application of Heuristic Problem Solving Method
ii. Integrated approach to curriculum development
iii. Aims of Curriculum Evaluation
iv. Individual Need and National Curriculum
Answer:
Application of Heuristic Problem Solving Method

A heuristic, or a heuristic technique, is any approach to problem solving that uses a practical
method or various shortcuts in order to produce solutions that may not be optimal but are sufficient
given a limited timeframe or deadline. Heuristics methods are intended to be flexible and are used
for quick decisions, especially when finding an optimal solution is either impossible or impractical
and when working with complex data.
 Heuristics are methods for solving problems in a quick way that delivers a result that is
sufficient enough to be useful given time constraints.
  Investors and financial professionals use a heuristic approach to speed up analysis and
investment decisions.
 Heuristics can lead to poor decision making based on a limited data set, but the speed of
decisions can sometimes make up for the disadvantages.
Integrated approach to curriculum development

In Florida, Ochre Lee, an education professor at the University of Miami, engages elementary
students in making little wind and rain machines. Students focus on the “big ideas” such as
evaporation, condensation, and thermal energy. The Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test
(FCAT) does not test science; however, Lee's students have shown more than 100 percent gains in
comprehension and writing on the FCAT. Their success in language is particularly impressive
because many of the students come from different ethnic backgrounds, and many of them speak
English as their second language. Lee claims that when she teaches science concepts she also
teaches students to think and write in the structured, coherent ways required on standardized tests.
In public schools in Asheville and Buncombe, North Carolina, students learn math skills through
clog dancing and explore the solar system through modern dance.
In these schools, teachers deliver the core curriculum through the arts. This approach is based on
the research report Champions of Change: The Impact of the Arts on Learning. This report offers
clear evidence that sustained involvement in particular art forms—music and theater—is highly
correlated with success in mathematics and reading. Furthermore, at-risk students do particularly
well both academically and personally in these types of programs.
Students participate in a micro society in an after-school program at Amistad Academy in New
Haven, Connecticut. This program prepares middle school students from a poor minority
population for colleges, careers, and citizenship. They attend traditional classes during the regular
school day, and after school for a few hours a week, they belong to a microscociety—holding jobs,
paying taxes, running businesses, making laws, and punishing lawbreakers. The purpose of the
program is to make school more relevant and fun while building transferable life skills. The school
raised its average test scores two and a half levels in math and one and a half levels in reading. In
1998, a study of 15 micro society schools in six states found that at two-thirds of the schools,
students posted gains on standardized reading and math tests that were as much as 21 percent
greater than those of their peers.
In these three examples, student achievement is a primary focus. Teachers maintain accountability
while designing learning experiences that are relevant to student interests. Interestingly, two of the
schools serve populations of diverse students. In each case, teachers have developed intriguing
curriculum that pushes beyond the boundaries of traditional disciplines to produce positive results.
Comprehension, for example, is comprehension, whether taught in a language class or a science
class. When students are engaged in learning, whether they are taking part in the arts or role playing
in a micro society, they do well in seemingly unconnected academic arenas. These are only a few
of the countless examples of students involved in interdisciplinary studies at all grade levels. The
examples highlight the potential of integrated curriculum to act as a bridge to increased student
achievement and engaging, relevant curriculum.

Aims of Curriculum Evaluation

To determine the outcomes of a programmer.

1. To help in deciding whether to accept or reject a programmer.
2. To ascertain the need for the revision of the course content.
3. To help in future development of the curriculum material for continuous improvement.
4. To improve methods of teaching and instructional techniques.

Individual Need and National Curriculum

English educator, Dr. Todd Blake Finley, PhD has prepared a free Unit Plan document to lead
first-year teachers step by step through the curriculum-building process. In this he lays out eight
stepping stones to building a solid curriculum focused on student needs at all learning levels.
 Describe your vision, focus, objectives, and student needs.
 Identify resources.
 Develop experiences that meet your objectives.
 Collect and devise materials.
 Lock down the specifics of your task.
 Develop plans, methods, and processes.
  Create your students' experience.
Most teachers will tell you that they don't plan their lessons or build curriculum on their own. In
fact, oftentimes supportive computer software, online programs, or basic planning maps are used
as a guide. Here are a couple of online resources recommended by teacher and curriculum
developer Lily Jones:
 Planning to Change the World plan book
 Planbook.com
Online programs are especially encouraged as they enable teachers to access curriculum anytime,
and make modifications for future use. If you're on a budget, look for free resources online (i.e.
Finley's Unit Plan) or ask fellow teachers for a curriculum sample to use as a guide.
Don't forget to build in assessments and time for feedback when developing your curriculum. You
will need to be able to measure how well students are doing. Set aside time to engage students in
conversations about the day's lesson and assignments. Find out what they liked or did not like and
what they might want to do differently. Encourage students to speak up if they didn't understand
some of the material presented as well.
At the end of the day, it's not about the curriculum or plan itself. It's about the students and how
well they understood the lessons presented. It's about the presentation of the material and the
student's ability to understand, retain, and apply it.