ete training pro

Third Edition

pgglP a

George Dlntiman
Bob Ward d
 Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2017 with funding from
Kahle/Austin Foundation

https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780736046497
YAS ACPL ITEM
DISCARDED

George Blough Dintiman, EdD

Professor Emeriti, Virginia Commonwealth University

Cofounder of National Association for Speed and Explosion

Robert D. Ward, PED

Director Sports Science, AdvoCare
Former Strength and Conditioning Coach, Dallas Cowboys

Human Kinetics
 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Dintiman, George B.
Sports speed / George Blough Dintiman, Robert D. Ward. — 3rd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-7360-4649-6 (soft cover)

1. Physical education and training. 2. Sprinting. 3. Speed. I.

Ward,
Robert D., 1933- II. Title.

GV7 1 1.5.D56 2003

613.7'07— dc21
2003008731

ISBN: 0-7360-4649-6

Copyright © 2003 by George Blough Dintiman and Robert D. Ward

Copyright © 1997 by George B. Dintiman, Robert D. Ward, and Tom Tellez
Copyright © 1988 by George B. Dintiman and Robert D. Ward

All rights reserved Except for use in a review, the reproduction or utilization of this
. work in any form
or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including xerog-
raphy, photocopying, and recording, and in any information storage and retrieval system, is forbidden
without the written permission of the publisher.

Notice: Permission is granted to instructors and agencies who have purchased Sports Speed, Third
Edition to reproduce the scoresheets that appear in the book. The reproduction of other parts of this
book is expressly forbidden by the above copyright notice. Persons or agencies who have not purchased
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We thank St. Mark’s School of Texas in Dallas for assistance in providing the location for the photo
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This book is dedicated to the memory of the incomparable Tom Tandry (Sep-
tember 11, 1924-February 12, 2000), football coach of the Dallas Cowboys
from 1960 to 1989; Bob Hayes (December 20, 1 942-September 18, 2002),
Olympic 100-meter gold medalist and NFL wide receiver; and John Unitas
(May 7, 1933-September 11, 2002), NFL Hall of Fame quarterback and one of
the greatest legends of the 20th century. All three men turned the NFL upside
down with their talent. Coach Landry brought his industrial engineering skills
and integrity to NFL football to achieve greatness. Bob brought his bullet-like
sports speed to the game and introduced fear into unfortunate defensive backs
assigned to cover him. John brought his magic golden arm and competitive
spirit to popularize the NFL and the game of pro football. Their innovations
will live on in the way football is played today and in the future.
Preface vi

Acknowledgments viii

Chapter 1 Playing Speed 1

Chapter 2 Assessing Speed 6

Chapter 3 Foundation Training 40

Chapter 4 Strength and

Power Training 67

Chapter 5 Ballistics and Plyometrics 92

Chapter 6 Sport Loading 128

Chapter 7 Speed Endurance 146

IV
Chapter 8 Recoverv and Nutrition 157

Chapter 9 Sprint-Assisted Training 184

Chapter 10 Starting and Stopping 199

Chapter 11 Cutting and Accelerating 218

Chapter 12 Sprinting Form

and Technique 231

Chapter 13 Sport-Specific
Training Programs 240

Bibliography 263

Index 268

About the Authors 272

 PREFACE

Although we have entered a new sports millennium, the single greatest con-
cern of athletes and coaches in soccer, football, basketball, baseball, rugby,
lacrosse, field hockey, and most other team sports has not changed. In fact,
new awareness that the right kind of training can produce dramatic changes
has increased emphasis on the improvement of playing speed, or the speed
of all movement in sports, including starting, stopping, cutting, accelerating,
changing direction, delivering or avoiding a blow, sprinting, and split-second
decision making during sports competition. Sports Speed Third Edition takes, ,

a new approach, providing a complete program for the improvement of each

phase of movement in team sports. Each section has been thoroughly updated
and new chapters have been added.
Sports Speed doesn’t focus on helping athletes accelerate faster and sprint
vacuum or a straight line. Seldom will athletes have the luxury of
faster in a
running this way during competition. This new book provides a complete
program to improve playing speed for specific sports. It is designed to train
athletes for the movements and skills that must be performed at high speed
in their sports. It covers all aspects of training to help athletes perform every
skilland movement required during competition faster and quicker.
Chapter 1 examines the art and science of playing speed in team sports
and describes the overall plan for the use of our holistic speed improvement
program in team sports. Chapter 2 examines all aspects of assessing speed to
identify each athlete’s strengths and weaknesses in order to accurately determine
the major focus points for a specific sport. The assessment program includes
separate tests for various sports such as those administered at the NFL, NBA,
MLB, and pro soccer combines. Existing tests have been updated and refined,
and new tests have been added to measure starting, stopping, cutting, and
other sport- specific conditioning factors. Chapter 2 provides a comprehensive
battery of tests for coaches and athletes in baseball, basketball, football, soccer,
and other team sports for a thorough evaluation of weaknesses and strengths
to assist in player selection and improvement.
Beginning in chapter 3, we cover all aspects of training to improve playing
speed, including foundation training (chapter 3), strength and power training
(chapter 4), ballistics and plyometrics (chapter 5), sport loading (chapter 6),
and speed endurance (chapter 7). Chapter 8 deals with recovery technologies
that will accelerate recovery from workouts. These technologies include the
nutritional aspects of recovery between workouts and competition to help
athletes return to the next practice session and game with their energy systems
in high gear.

vi
 Preface vii

A complete sport- specific sprint- assisted training program is presented in

chapter 9. Chapters 10, 11, and 12 cover the key aspects of starting and stop-
ping, cutting and accelerating, and sprinting form and technique. Many new
drills and training techniques are presented.
Finally, chapter 13 includes a record-keeping system that keeps careful tabs
on exactly what was done at each workout to identify the areas where additional
work is needed and to compare test scores at the end of both the four- week and
eight- week training periods. Chapter 13 also presents periodized sport- specific
speed programs to help athletes in various sports focus on a complete approach,
workout by workout, leading up to the start of the competitive season. The
entire speed improvement program is based on the concept of periodization,
which is easily adapted to any team sport.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS t

We would like to thank John G. Turek, head cross-country and track and field
coach at St. Mark’s School of Texas for organizing and conducting the photo
sessions and Wisteria Nicole Gillham, Garland Hampton, and Innis Buggs who
volunteered their time and energy to be photo subjects for this book.
George wishes to thank his wife Carol Ann Dintiman and his daughter Lynne
R. Dintiman for their assistance; colleague and friend Dr. Sergei Beliaev, sport
scientist and CEO of supersportssystem.com for sharing his futuristic think-
ing and new concepts of training elite athletes; Fred Caro, former Edinboro
University of Pennsylvania football and wrestling coach; Outer Banks of North
Carolina “think tank colleagues Henry Blaha, Don Brown, Charles Butler,
Dick Kerr, William Howell, Frank Karkuff, Ed Miller, and Clay Richardson;
and Bev Tucker MD for his excellent free and willing medical advice.
Bob wishes to thank Dan Inosanto, martial artist and friend, who laid the
foundation for the application of martial arts to other sports; Dr. Reg McDaniel
of Mannatech, Inc., for scientific support; Larry McBryde of Southwest Ergo-
nomics for biomechanical consultation; Steve Davison for moving science to
the athletic conditioning program by providing Inertial Impulse Systems to
train for explosive movement off the field; Randy White for his unparalleled
commitment to being a master in his art; Tex Schramm, who supported a coach-
ing environment at the Dallas Cowboys and encouraged creative thinking; Dr.
Ralph Mann for his insight and tenacity in taking sport into the 21st century;
Dr. John Cooper, educator and friend, for launching me on a lifelong journey
toward sport analysis with practical observations and science as companions;
Dr. Jim Counsilman, sport scientist and swim coach from Indiana University,
for his creative application of the sciences to sport; Bert Hill, friend, collegiate
and professional conditioning coach, and present director of endorsements
for AdvoCare for his knowledge and support; Charley Baker, friend and track
coach, who helped me apply the sport speed concepts to masters competition;
Dr. Barry Sims for nutrition materials; Todd Nadeah of Smart Vest for sport
loading programs; Dr. Sam Symmauk for his guidance on chiropractics; Gary
Butler for the section on massage; and the many other heroes, friends, athletes,
and coaches who contributed to my understanding of how to play faster in any
sport. Finally, to my wife Joyce, I give thanks beyond measure.
In addition, we thank the people at Human Kinetics who committed them-
selves to the careful review, editing,and production of this book, in particular
Ed McNeely and Cynthia McEntire. They provided us with valuable insight
and guidance in all phases of the creation of this book, from the first written
word to the last details of organization, design, illustration, and production.

viii
 .. .
Chapter 1

hrough the years, coaches and athletes recognized the importance of speed
r and quickness but were convinced that they were genetic qualities no one
could improve. As a result, speed training did not exist for team sports but
was relegated to track coaches and those interested in sprinting events. Even
among sprint coaches, emphasis was placed on the improvement of form and
conditioning (wind sprints and other interval sprint training programs) to
produce an athlete with upper- and lower-body movement in tune with the
kinesiological principles of sprinting and then condition that athlete through
repeated sprints longer and shorter than the distance of the sprinting event.
At the university and pro levels, team coaches recruited fast, quick athletes
rather than trying to improve speed and quickness in athletes with superior
playing skills.

As long as the United States continued to win the 100-, 200-, and 400-meter
dash in the Olympics, American training techniques went unquestioned, and
the use of the old methods continued. When Valeri Borzov won the 100-meter
dash in the 1972 Olympics, dethroning American sprint supremacy, the United
States realized that there was more to improving speed than genetics and con-
ditioning. As early as 1963, however, we began to challenge and test both the
genetic theory and the two-prong approach to speed improvement involving
form and muscular endurance training. We recognized that sprinting speed was
increased not only by improving form (the start and mechanics of sprinting),
holding maximum speed longer, and reducing the slowing effect at the end
of a sprint (interval sprint training) but also by improving acceleration and
taking faster and longer steps. None of the training programs in use during
the 1960s had much impact on the latter tw o target areas, yet these were the
tnost important.
Although weight training and weightlifting seeped into organized sports
programs in the United States from various spots around the country, Bob Hoff-
man, the world s foremost weightlifting coach, probably had the greatest influ-
ence on our respective work in speed improvement and in today’s conditioning
programs. As early as the 1960s, we and others were independently testing our
own conditioning and speed improvement theories. Our work during this time
began to focus on analyzing the effectiveness of training the neuromuscular
system. If the muscles involved in sprinting were forced to move faster than
ever before through methods such as sprint-assisted training, speed-strength
training, and high-speed stopping, starting, cutting, and accelerating, could
we permanently increase the number of steps an athlete takes per second and

1
2 Sports SPED

improve stride length? During his speed camps in the 1960s, Dr. George Din-
timan towed athletes behind a motor scooter and automobile to force faster
and longer steps. Dr. Dintiman began publishing his work on improving speed
(Dintiman 1964, 1970, 1980, 1984) and, with Bob Ward, published the first
edition of Sports Speed in 1988 and the second edition in 1997.
In the mid-1970s, Boh Ward joined the Dallas Cowboys to become the first
NFL strength and conditioning coach with full coaching status. Dr. Ward revolu-
tionized the way football players were evaluated and selected and the way they
concentrated on strength training, speed training, and general conditioning.
Many of his special training techniques are still used by NFL teams.
The rest is history. Genetics is now considered only one factor in determin-
ing maximum speed potential. It is also widely accepted that athletes do not
reach their potential unless they use a complete approach to improving playing
speed. Athletes and coaches in practically all sports now follow our holistic
speed improvement program. Speed coaches have been hired at all levels of
competition, even professional levels, and the sports world is aware that, with
the proper training, athletes can dramatically improve both speed and quick-
ness. Together, in this book, we have developed a comprehensive program
designed to improve playing speed in any sport.

A Holistic Approach to SpeeH Improvement

Every athlete can improve starting, stopping, and cutting speed, acceleration,
and overall playing speed. Although it is true that genetics is important, keep
in mind that heredity only deals the cards; environment and training play the
hand. Regardless of genetic
makeup, any athlete can get
faster with proper training.
On the other hand, even
genetically gifted athletes
will not reach their poten-
tial unless they follow the
complete playing speed
improvement program de-
scribed in this book. This
holistic program includes
all aspects of conditioning
and sport-specific speed
co training; progresses
it

1 from a solid foundation

of strength, power, and
|
X aerobic fitness to ballistics,
plyometrics, speed strength,
Athletes in all sports can improve playing speed. speed endurance, and
 3

sprint-assisted training.Every aspect of speed improvement is emphasized in

a 12-month macrocycle and an 8-week preseason microcycle designed to help
athletes reach near-peak performance at the start of the competitive season.
Regardless of the sport, there are only five ways to improve playing speed
and anticipatory awareness of the athlete over short distances:

1 . Improve starting from a stationary three-point, four-point, or

ability
standing position or moving posture (walking, jogging, or striding) and
acceleration to maximum speed.

2. Increase stride length.

3. Increase the number of steps taken per second (stride rate).

4. Improve speed endurance.

5. Improve sprinting form and technique.

These areas are not equally important to athletes in all sports. Basketball, soccer,
rugby, lacrosse, and held hockey players, and defensive backs and linebackers
in football, for example, are generally moving at one- quarter to one-half speed
when they go into a full-speed sprint, rather than from a stationary position
such as a baseball player or football player in another position. For these ath-
letes, starting technique is not nearly as important as acceleration, stride rate,

stride length, and speed endurance. For baseball and football players, starting
techniques from the batting box, held positions, and turf are important. Al-
though improving speed endurance will not make an athlete faster, it will keep
the athlete from slowing down because of fatigue after repeated short sprints

A baseball player has to have great starting speed to be able to acceler-

ate quickly from the batter’s box.
 4 Sports SPEED

or at the end of a long sprint of 80 yards or more. This quality is important

to most team sport athletes.
Study table 1 1 carefully. The key speed improvement areas for each sport,
.

listed in order of importance, will help you understand the test scores in chapter
2 and focus on the programs for your sport. If, for example, test scores indicate
the need to improve starting technique for a defensive back on a football team,
ignore that finding and concentrate on areas that are critical to this position.
Table 1.2 identifies the specific training programs that will bring about the
changes necessary to improve speed for your sport in the five key areas identi-

Table 1 .1 Speed Improvement Attack Areas for Team Sports

Sport Attack areas by priority Comments

Baseball 1 . Starting, accelerating, A baseball player will not approach

stopping, and cutting maximum speed unless he hits a triple or
2. Stride rate an inside-the-park home run. Starting ability
3. Stride length and acceleration should receive major
4. Speed endurance emphasis. Speed endurance comes into
5. Sprinting form play on a triple, on an inside-the-park home
run, or when baserunning from first to home.

Basketball 1. Starting, accelerating, Most explosive action occurs after some

stopping, and cutting movement bounce, slide) has occurred.
(jog,

2. Stride rate Maximum speed is not reached. High-speed

3. Speed endurance starting, accelerating, stopping, and cutting
4. Stride length should receive the major emphasis. A high
5. Sprinting form level ofspeed endurance is needed to main-
tain speed and quickness as a player makes
repeated short sprints throughout the game.

Football 1 . Sufficient force Starting and accelerating from a three-point,

2. Starting, accelerating, four-point, or standing position for 5 to 25
stopping, and cutting yd. is critical to every position. High-speed
3. Stride rate stopping and cutting is performed by every
4. Speed endurance player throughout the game. A player sprints
5. Stride length faster in the open field by increasing stride
6. Sprinting form rate and length. Speed endurance training
prevents players from slowing down be-
cause of fatigue at the end of a long run or
after repeated short sprints.

Soccer 1. Starting, accelerating, Soccer is a game of starting, accelerating

stopping, and cutting for 15 to 25 yd., and high-speed stopping
2. Stride rate as a player approaches the ball or an op-
3. Stride length ponent. Speed endurance prevents players
4. Speed endurance from slowing down after repeated short
5. Sprinting form sprints.
 Playing Speed 5

Table 1 .2 Speed Improvement Through Training Programs

Area of improvement Training program

Sufficient force Sport-specific starting form training

Improved starting, accelerating, Muscle imbalance training
stopping, and cutting Start, stop, and cut training
Speed-strength training
Sport loading
Sprint-assisted acceleration training

Increased stride length Speed-strength training

Muscle imbalance training
Plyometrics
Sport loading
Sprint-assisted training
Form training
Flexibility training

Increased number of steps taken Sprint-assisted training

per second (stride rate) Quick feet training
Muscle imbalance training
Speed-strength training

Improved sprinting technique Form training

Speed-strength training

Improved speed endurance Pickup sprints, hollow sprints, and

interval sprint training
Sport loading
Maximum effort training
Ballistics

Note: Assuming the athlete already possesses an acceptable level of strength, power, and body fat.

Your task is to master the training concepts associated with

fied in table 1.1.
each program. Keep in mind that speed improvement does require a holistic
approach. In other words, each training program is important and produces
results when used with other training programs to train all key areas associated
with the improvement of playing speed.
Move on to chapter 2 for a complete assessment of strengths and weak-
nesses and to identify the factors that keep athletes from sprinting faster in
their sports.
 liapter 2 is divided into two sections. First we introduce a comprehensive
and weaknesses and form
testing battery designed to identify strengths
the basis for a personal speed improvement program. Then we look at team
sport combine tests used by professional teams in baseball, basketball, foot-
ball, and soccer to aid in draft selection and player signings. Both test areas
concentrate on the unique aspects associated with playing speed, or the speed
at which skills are performed during competition in team sports.

Comprehensive Testing Battery

The first toward getting faster is to work with a friend or coach to test the
step
seven general areas of the comprehensive test battery: sprinting speed (starting
speed, acceleration, mph speed, and speed endurance, all in one 120-yard run);
and cutting; strength; stride
starting, stopping, length; flexibility; explosive
power and quickness; and body composition.
Evaluating these seven areas provides all the information needed to iden-
tify key strengths and weaknesses associated with speed improvement. Later
when developing a workout schedule, return to this chapter and complete the
advanced testing program for a more detailed analysis.
Test scores mean nothing unless the athlete gives maximum effort on every
trial. This provides meaningful scores that can be used to prepare an effective

speed improvement program based on individual needs. The more accurate

the test scores, the easier it is to identify the key factors that are limiting
show more
speed. Loafing or loading (providing only partial effort in order to
improvement on a later test) only hurts. The end result could be a program
that emphasizes areas where the athlete lias already reached optimum perfor-
mance. Locusing on these areas while neglecting weaknesses may not improve
sprinting or playing speed.
The following sections provide a thorough explanation of the purpose, pro-
cedure, and interpretation of results for each of the seven test areas. Make a
copy of the test score sheet (table 2.1) and record your scores.
Table Z.1 Test Score Sheet

Name: Age: Height: Weight:

Sport: Position: Testing date:

Weakness
Test Score Standard (yes or no)

Sprintingspeed and speed endurance

Stationary 40-, 80-, and 120-yard dash Everyone can improve Yes
20 yards (first timer) these times. Scores
40 yards (first timer) are used to find weak
Flying 40 yards (second timer) areas.
60 yards (third timer)
80 to 1 20 yards (second timer)
120 yards (third timer)

Speed endurance No more than .2

Flying 40-yard time minus second difference

80- to 1 20-yard time between times.

NASE repeated sprints No more than .3

(20, 30, or 40 yards) second difference

among the 10 trials.

Starting, stopping, and cutting Under 14.0 seconds

Start, stop, and cut test for junior high school;

««•* under 13.0 for high

school; under 12.0 for
college; under 1 1 .0 for
professionals.

(continued)

1
Table 2.1 (continued)

Weakness
Test Score Standard (yes or no)

Strength
Leg strength to body weight ratio Multiply body weight
Double-leg press by 2.5. Leg press
score should be
higher.

Hamstrings and quadriceps If right and left leg

Leg extension (quads) scores differ by
Right more than 10 lb., a
Left weakness exists in the
low scoring leg.

Double-leg curl (hamstrings) Score should be

Double-leg extension (quads) at least 80% of leg
extension score.

Single-leg kickback If right and left leg

Right scores differ by
Left more than 10 lb., a
weakness exists in the
low scoring leg.

Stride length
Stride length test For males, score
Right should be 1.14 times
Left height, plus or minus
4 inches. For females,
score should be 1.15
times height or 2.16
times leg length (see
also table 2.3).

Right and left leg

push-off stride length
score should not differ
by more than 5%.

Flexibility

Sit-and-reach test College-age males

should score at least
15.50; college-age
females should score
at least 16.25.

Practical ROM tests Successfully complete

each test.

8
 1

Weakness
Test Score Standard (yes or no)

Explosive power and quickness

Standing triple jump Males: at least 20 feet
(junior HS), at least 25
(senior HS), at least
28 (college and up).
Females: at least 15
(junior HS), at least 20
(senior HS), at least
23 (college and up).

Quick hands Males: at least 47

(junior HS), at least 60
(senior HS), at least
80 (college and up).
Females: at least33
(junior HS), at least 42
(senior HS), at least
57 (college and up).

Quick feet Males: at least 3.8

(junior HS), at least
3.3 (senior HS), at
least 2.8 (college and
up). Females: at ieast
4.2 (junior HS), at
least 3.8 (senior HS),
at least 3=4 (college
and up).

Right and left leg hops 2.5 and under is

Right excellent; 2.6 to 3.0 is

Left good; higher than 3.0

-
means strength power
training is needed.
A difference greater
than .2 between right
and left legs shows a
power imbalance.

(continued)

9
Table 2.1 (continued)

Weakness
Test Score Standard (yes or no)

Body composition
Skinfold tests See table 2.4 for
Biceps percent body fat.

Triceps Males who exceed

Subscapula 1 5% and females who

Suprailiac exceed 20% should

Total consult a physician
Percent body fat for advice before
beginning any weight
loss program.

Form and technique Form errors from video of 40-yard dash and
coach’s observations (side, front, rear views)
Starting form 1 .

2 .

Sprinting form 1.

2 .

3.

Aerobic fitness
1.5-mile run Males: less than 225
lb., 10:01 to 12:00 is

good, 8:30 to 10:00 is

excellent; 226 300

to
lb., score should be

|
12:01 to 14:00; 301 lb.

or more, score should

be 14:01 to 15:30.
Females: less than 1 50
lb., score should be
12:30 to 14:00; 151 to
200 lb., score should
be 14:01 to 15:30.

Stride rate and acceleration

Stride rate Use stride length and YES
flying 40 scores to find
stride rate using table
2.5.Everyone can
improve stride rate.

Acceleration No more than .7

difference between
stationary 40-yard
time and flying 40-
yard time.

to
 Weakness
Test Score Standard (yes or no)

Advanced testing
NASE Future 40 Score provides an
estimate of potential
for improvement.
Add .3 second to
approximate how
fast the 40-yard dash
should eventually be
completed.

Single-leg extension Find 1 RM for each

Right arm and leg. Scores
Left for right and left

should not differ by

Single-leg curl more than 10%.
Right
Left

Single-leg kickback
Right
Left

One-arm barbell curl

Right
Left

One-arm military press

Right
Left

If your scorea test area didn’t meet the minimum standards, check the training
in

programs that you need to follow to eliminate the weakness.

Test Training programs

Sprinting speed and speed endurance Speed endurance training

Speed-strength training

Starting, stopping, and cutting High-speed quickness training

Strength Speed-strength training

Plyometrics

Stride length Sprint-assisted training

Plyometrics
Speed-strength training

Flexibility Concentrated stretching program

(continued)

11
 12 Sports SPllO

Table 2.1 (continued)

Test Training programs

Explosive power and quickness Speed-strength training

Plyometrics

Body composition Consult a health professional

Form and technique Form training

Stride rate Sprint-assisted training

Plyometrics
Speed-strength training

Start and acceleration Sport loading

Sprint-assisted training
Form training
Plyometrics
Ballistics
Speed-strength training

Muscle balance Speed-strength training

Plyometrics

Sprinting Speed and Speed Endurance

Two used to analyze sprinting speed and speed endurance: the sta-
tests are
tionary 40-, 80-, and 120-yard dash and the National Association of Speed
and Explosion (NASE) repeated sprints. Both tests look at sprinting speed,
but the NASE repeated sprints are more sport- specific. We will start with the
stationary 40 -, 80- and 120 -yard dash.
,

STAT IONARY 40-, 80-, AND 120-YARD DASH

The stationary 40-, 80-, and 120-yard dash provides information on numerous phases
of sprinting speed and quickness including the start, acceleration, maximum speed
(miles per hour and feet per second), and speed endurance (sustained speed).
Mark a 120-yard route with flags and finish tapes at 20, 40, 60, 80, and 120
yards (figure 2.1). Timers are stationed at 40, 80, and 120 yards. Each timer has a
stopwatch that permits two separate times (split). If available, an electronic timing
system can be used.
Assume a three-point football stance or a four-point track stance. Sprint full
speed for the entire120 yards, running through each tape without slowing or
changing form. Continue sprinting for 10 yards beyond the last tape.
The first timer (40 yards) and third timer (120 yards) start their watches on your
first muscular movement forward. The first timer stops his watch when the flag

draped over the 20-yard mark moves (split time) and again when the flag at the
40-yard mark moves. The third timer stops his watch when the flag at the 60-yard
mark moves (split time) and again when you cross the finish line (120 yards).
 j I

13

I
————I
Timer 1

h
Timer 2
— — I

\
—- —
Timer 3
— —
h——- —
Timer 4
i

H——— —Timer 5
—
t t t t t t t
20 40 60 80 100 120
start
yards yards yards yards yards yards

Figure 2.1 Setup for the stationary 40-, 80-, and 120-yard dash.

The second timer (80 yards) starts his watch when the flag at 40 yards moves
and stops it for a split time when the flag at 80 yards moves. This is the flying 40-
yard dash. He stops it again when you cross the finish line (120 yards).
The first timer records the 20-yard and 40-yard times on the test score sheet
(table 2.1). The third timer records the time from the start to the 60-yard mark
(split) and the start to the 120-yard mark on the test score sheet. The second timer
records the time from the 40-yard mark to the 80-yard mark and the time from the
80-yard mark to the 120-yard mark.
Keep in mind that everyone can improve in the 40-yard dash, so no matter what
your time was, it will get better with training. The importance of this test also varies
for athletes in different sports.
With only one 120-yard sprint, you already know a lot about yourself. You can
now evaluate your 40-yard dash time and speed endurance. Additional information
from the 1 20-yard sprint will be used later to determine acceleration time and steps
per second (stride rate).

SPEED ENDURANCE

The speed endurance score compares your flying 40-yard time (40- to 80-yard
dash time) to your 80- to 1 20-yard dash time. If both scores are the same, or almost
the same, it means you are in excellent anaerobic condition to repeatedly sprint
a short distance during a baseball, basketball, football, soccer, rugby, lacrosse, or
field hockey game without slowing down. If your flying 40 time and your time from

80 yards to 120 yards (also a flying 40) differ by more than .2 second, write yes in
the Weakness column for speed endurance on the test score sheet.

NASE REPEATED SPRINTS

The NASE repeated sprint test of 20, 30, or 40 yards is a more sport-specific test to
evaluate speed endurance for team sports that require repetitions of short sprints.
14 Sports SPEED

Table 2.2 Guidelines for Sprint Distances and Rest Intervals for Different Sports

Average sprint Typical interval between

Sport distance (yd.) sprints (sec.)

Baseball, softball 30 30 to 60

Basketball 20 10 to 15

Football 10 to 40 25 to 30 (huddle time)

Soccer, lacrosse, rugby,

field hockey 10 to 40 5 to 15

Tennis 5 to 10 3 (same point)

to 5
20 to 30 (between points)
60 (between games)

Use the guidelines in table 2.2 to determine the length of the sprint and the rest
intervalbetween each of the 10 repetitions for your sport.
Complete 10 repetitions of the average distance sprinted in your sport. After
each repetition, rest the typical number of seconds that occur between sprints dur-
ing competition. Record each score in the order they are completed. Ideally, the
best and worst times should not differ by more than .3 second. If a greater differ-
ence exists, write yes in the Weakness column.

Starting, Stopping, and Cutting

The start, stop, and cut test measures your ability to start and accelerate
quickly, to execute high-speed stops and backward and forward sprints, and
to make a 90 -degree cut.

START, STOP, AND CUT TEST

Mark a 1 Q-yard square in the gymnasium or on the athletic field (see figure 2.2).
off

Assume a two-point (standing) or three-point starting stance in the bottom left of the
square (point A). Sprint forward for 1 0 yards before corning to a complete stop inside
a two-by-two-foot box in the upper left corner of the 10-yard square (B). Execute
the stop by planting your right foot then left foot, then sprint backward toward the
starting area. Plant your left foot inside box C. Execute a side shuffle for 10 yards
to the right. At box D, plant your right foot to allow a powerful push-off and sprint
to box E. Plant your left foot in box E to stop, push off, and execute a final forward
sprint to the finish line (F).
The timer starts the watch with your firstmuscular movement and stops it when
you cross the finish line. The best time of two trials is recorded.
Your time provides an indication of explosive stopping and starting action,
power, acceleration, agility, and quickness for team sports. Accelerating from a
stationary position and executing two high-speed stops and starts, a backward
 Assessing Speed 15

Timer

A - Start F - Finish

Figure 2.2 Setup for the start, stop, and cut test.

sprint, and two high-speed cuts and sprints simulate conditions that commonly
occur during competition.

Strength

LEG S TRENGTH TO BODY WEIGHT RATIO

The objective of the leg press to body weight ratio test is to find the maximum
amount of weight you can press for one repetition. Record this amount on the test
score sheet (table 2.1).
Adjust the seat on a Universal®, Nautilus®, or similar leg press station or free
weight squat stand until your knees are bent at right angles. The objective is to
identify the amount of weight you can one repetition (1 RM), and record that
lift for

lift in pounds. On your first attempt, use an amount of weight equal to two times

your body weight. If that amount is too little, rest three to four minutes and add
weight before trying again. If that amount is too much, rest three to four minutes
and remove weight before trying again. Add or remove 10 pounds at a time until
you locate the amount, within 5 to 10 pounds, that you can leg press one time.
Divide your body weight into the total pounds lifted to find your leg strength to body
weight ratio.
16 Sports SPEED

Your leg strength to body weight ratio indicates how easily you can get and
keep your body moving at high speeds. This ratio is extremely important for speed
improvement over short distances. A good ratio is 2.5 to 1 or a leg press score ,

two and one-half times body weight. For example, for someone who weighs 150
pounds, a leg press score of at least 375 pounds (150 x 2.5 = 375) is a good
score. At college and professional levels of competition, ratios of 3 to 1 and 4 to 1
(three and four times body weight) are desirable. If your score is less than two and
one-half times your body weight, write yes in the Weakness column.

HAMSTRING AND QUADRICEPS STRENGTH

A speed-strength imbalance between two opposing muscle groups such as the

quadriceps (agonists) and the hamstrings (antagonists) may be a limiting factor
in the development of speed. Conditioning and training for team sports tradition-

ally cause greater strength increases in the quadriceps than in the hamstrings.
Hamstring strength is the weak link in sprinting and often needs to be increased.
Unfortunately, the majority of athletic movements and exercises such as the —
leg press, leg extensions, high knee lifts, jogging, sprinting, and numerous cal-
isthenics —strengthen the quadriceps while few exercises (leg curls) strengthen
the hamstrings. This imbalance is an important factor in limited sprinting speed
in athletes.
For both the leg extension test and the leg curl you want to find your 1 RM.
test,

Complete the leg extension test by sitting with your back straight while grasping
both sides of a Universal or Nautilus bench. Hook both feet under the leg press pad
and extend your legs. To complete the leg curl test, lie on your abdomen and hook
both heels under the leg curl pad. Grasp the sides of the seat or the handles with
both hands, and flex your legs to your buttocks.
Your task is to find your 1 RM in the same manner described in the leg press to
body weight ratio test. Begin with an amount of weight you know you can complete
for three to five repetitions as a warm-up. Add 5 to 1 0 pounds at three- to four-min-
ute intervals until you find the weight you can extend only once. Record the score
on the test score sheet (table 2.1).
Divide leg extension score, in pounds, into leg curl score to find your ratio. For
example if leg extension score is 100 pounds and leg curl score is 50 pounds, the
ratio is 50 divided by 1 00, or 50 percent. A score of less than 75 percent is low and
indicates the need to focus on strengthening the hamstrings.
Ideally, leg extension scores (quadriceps) and leg curl scores (hamstrings)
would be the same. In almost every athlete, however, the quadriceps are much
stronger than the hamstrings. The average leg curl score of 1 ,625 middle school
and high school football players tested was less than 50 percent of the leg ex-
tension score. Such an imbalance is associated with injuries such as hamstring
muscle pulls and reduced performance in sprinting short distances.
Experts also feel that the speed strength of the hamstring muscle group is the
weakest link in most athletes and should be improved to 80 to 100 percent of the
speed strength of the quadriceps group. A minimum of 75 to 80 percent is recom-
mended for the prevention of injury.
 17

—MW^— f
-
SINGLE-LEG KICKBACK
-
jg§ f4%$
'
I ;;'' v
'<
' ' v

The purpose of the single-leg kickback testexamine and compare the force
is to
you exert against an area similar to a starting block and the ground during the ac-
celerating phase of sprinting. It also allows you to compare the force exerted by
each leg.
Stand to the side of a leg press station, facing away from the leg pad. Place one
foot on the pad and bend your knee to a right angle before exerting as much force
as possible to reach a full leg extension. Repeat the procedure until you find your
1 RM, then switch legs.
If and left leg scores differ by more than 1 pound, write yes in the Weak-
right
ness column (table 2.1). Emphasize this exercise in your weight training routine
until sufficient improvement is noted.

Stride Length

Finding your ideal stride length an important part of achieving maximum

is

speed potential. Understriding or overstriding may adversely affect your overall

speed in short distances. Speed can be improved by increasing stride length
and maintaining the same stride rate (steps per second).

mmmmm

STRIDE LENGTH TEST

mmmm

Place two markers 25 yards apart on a smooth dirt surface approximately 50 yards
from the starting line. (The soft dirt surface will allow the runner’s footprint to be
seen. Runners reach maximum speed before arriving at and sprinting through the
25-yard area.) On the first trial, two helpers identify your footprints and measure and
record your stride length to the nearest inch from the tip of the left toe to the tip of

the right toe. On the second trial, the measurement is taken from the tip of the right
toe to the tip of the left two unique aspects of stride length and
toe. This provides
permits a comparison of the push-off power from the left foot on one trial and from
the right foot on the other trial, which helps determine imbalances.
Find your ideal stride length from table 2.3 for your age group. Locate your
height in inches on the vertical column. Your ideal stride length appears to the right
under your age group. If your measured stride length on either trial is less than this
range, you need to engage in a program to increase stride length.
Compare the stride length of the two trials: one with a left foot push-off and one
with a right foot push-off. If one is more than 2 to 3 inches longer than the other, you
are generating more push-off power on that foot. This difference should also show
up on your leg kickback test. If your stride length is greater than this range and you
are sprinting without overstriding, do not change your stride. If your score indicates
that you are overstriding, the form drills in chapter 12 will help you achieve the
most efficient stride length. Sprint-assisted training, form training, piyometrics, and
speed-strength training will increase stride length.
Table Z.3 Estimate ot Ideal Stride Length by Age and Bender

Stride length (in.)

Height (in.) Males (9 to 16) Males (17+) All females

50 53 to 61 59 to 67 54 to 62
51 54 to 62 61 to 69 55 to 63
52 55 to 63 62 to 70 56 to 64
53 56 to 64 63 to 71 57 to 65
54 58 to 66 64 to 72 58 to 66
55 59 to 67 66 to 74 59 to 67
56 60 to 68 67 to 75 60 to 68
57 61 to 69 68 to 76 62 to 70
58 62 to 70 69 to 77 63 to 71

59 63 to 71 71 to 79 64 to 72
60 64 to 72 72 to 80 65 to 73
61 66 to 74 73 to 81 66 to 74
62 67 to 75 74 to 82 67 to 75
63 68 to 76 76 to 84 68 to 76
64 69 to 77 77 to 85 70 to 78
65 70 to 78 78 to 86 71 to 79

66 71 to 79 79 to 87 72 to 80
67 72 to 80 81 to 89 73 to 81

68 74 to 82 82 to 90 74 to 82
69 75 to 83 83 to 91 75 to 83
70 76 to 84 85 to 93 76 to 84
71 77 to 85 86 to 94 78 to 86
72 78 to 86 87 to 95 79 to 87
73 79 to 87 88 to 96 80 to 88
74 80 to 88 89 to 97 81 to 89

75 82 to 90 91 to 99 82 to 90
76 83 to 91 92 to 1 00 83 to 91

77 84 to 92 93 to 101 85 to 93
78 85 to 93 95 to 1 03 86 to 94
79 86 to 94 96 to 1 04 87 to 95
80 87 to 95 97 to 1 05
81 88 to 96 98 to 1 06
82 90 to 98 100 to 108
83 91 to 99 101 to 109
84 92 to 1 00 102 to 110

18
 19

Flexibility

To achieve maximum speed potential, you must possess an adequate range of

motion in the shoulders, hips, and ankles. Flexibility in these areas is affected
by joint structure. Ball-and-socket joints (hip and shoulder) have the highest
range of motion (ROM); the wrist is one of the least flexible joints with an ROM
of 80 degrees, less than the 130 degrees of the knee joint. Additional factors
that affect ROM include excess muscle bulk (decreases ROM); age (decreases
flexibility); gender (females are more flexible than males); connective tissue
such as tendons, ligaments, fascial sheaths, and joint capsules: injuries (restrict
movement); and existing scar tissue (decreases ROM).
Flexibility testing is essential for the preparation of an individualized speed
improvement program based on weaknesses. Flexibility tests also reveal ex-
cessive range of motion or joint laxity that may predispose athletes to injury.
Once an optimum level of flexibility is developed, athletes should focus on
other training areas while maintaining this flexibility.

Because flexibility is joint-specific, a single test does not provide an accurate

assessment of ROM. It is also impractical to measure the ROM of every joint.
In addition, the flexibility of some joints is not critical to sprinting speed. The
following tests, which can be completed easily with little equipment, provide
important information on ankle flexion and extension, shoulder flexibility, and
hamstring flexibility.

SIT-AND-REACH TEST

The sit-and-reach test measures the flexibility of the lower back and the hamstring
muscle group, the group muscles located on the back of the upper leg. An optimal
of
level of flexibility in both areas is important for the improvement of playing speed.
After warming up to elevate body temperature as indicated by perspiration, re-
move your shoes and sit on the floor with your hips, back, and head against a wall,
legs fully extended, feet in contact with a sit-and-reach box. Place one hand on top
of the other so the middle fingers are together. Slowly lean forward as far as pos-
sible. Without bouncing, slide your hands along the measuring scale on top of the
box. Your hands should reach at least slightly beyond your toes.
Complete four trials and record your best score to the nearest one-quarter inch.
If a sit-and-reach box is not available, you can build one by attaching a yardstick to

the top of a 12-by-1 2-inch square box. The yardstick extends exactly 9 inches from
the front of the box where the feet are.
The sit-and-reach test provides an indication of hamstring flexibility. If your score
falls below the 50th percentile for your age, flexibility training is needed five or six

times a week. Males 17 years or older should score at least 13.50; females 17
years or older should score at least 13.75.
20 Sports SPEED

PRACTICAL ROM TESTS

You can quickly assess the range of motion in the ankle, elbow and wrist, groin, hip,
neck, and shoulder in less than five minutes by self-administering these practical
tests. After performing the tests, record your scores on the test score sheet.
To test the ankle, lie on your back with both legs extended and the backs of your
heels flat on the floor. Point your toes down away from your shins, attempting to
reach a minimum of 45 degrees (halfway to the floor). Now point your toes toward
your shins to a minimum of right angles. Compare the flexion and extension of the
right and left ankles.
To test the elbow and wrist, hold your arms straight with palms up and little fin-
gers higher than your thumbs.
To test the groin, stand on one leg and raise the other to the side as high as pos-
sible. You should be able to achieve a 90-degree angle between your legs.
To test the hips, stand and hold a yardstick or broom handle with hands shoul-
der-width apart. Without changing your grasp, bend down and step over the stick
with both feet, one foot at a time, and then back again.
To test your neck, you should be able to use your chin to sandwich your flattened
hand against your chest.
To test your shoulders, stand and attempt to clasp your hands behind your back.
Reach over one shoulder with one hand and reach up from behind the other shoul-
der with the other hand. Repeat, reversing arm positions.
If you any of the practical tests, include stretching exercises
failed in your warm-
up that are designed to improve the ROM in these areas.

Explosive Power and Quickness

STANDING TRIPLE JUMP

The standing jump provides a noninvasive technique (without resorting to

triple

muscle biopsy) to estimate fast-twitch muscle fiber percentage in key areas. High
scores are associated with starting acceleration in sprinting and explosive power,
quickness, and speed over short distances.
From a standing long jump position, jump forward as far as possible using a two-
foot takeoff, landing on only one foot before immediately jumping to the opposite
foot, taking one final jump, and landing on both feet. Practice the standing triple
jump test at low speeds until you master the technique. The movement is identical
to the triple jump in track and field, except for the use of a two-foot takeoff (as in a
standing broad jump). You must jump off both feet to initiate the test for successful
completion. Record the best of five trials on your test score sheet.
The standing triple jump provides an indication of genetic potential to become
a fast sprinter. Don’t be discouraged if you have a low score; low scores can be
improved. Some athletes may score high in this test and still not record excellent
times in sprinting tests such as the 40-yard dash. These people may be very explo-
sive and quick
change direction and accelerate
to to full speed without possessing
the maximum speed of faster athletes.
 QUICK HANDS

The quick hands test provides information on the presence or absence of fast-twitch
muscle muscles involved in
fibers in the moving the arms and hands rapidly. This
test indicates your potential ability to use your upper extremities. Although heredity
plays a major role in the ability to move quickly, proper training can improve speed
and accuracy of upper extremity performance.
Find a padded surface that can be hit such as a boxing bag, football dummy, or
martial arts or boxing focus gloves. Stand with palms flat against the equipment,
arms extended. Step an inch or so closer so the length of your reach will empha-
size speed and not hitting force. Have someone time you for 20 seconds as you
strike the object with the palm of your hand as many times as you can. Focus on
executing a firm and quick hit. The timer should count the number of strikes as well
as tell you when to start and stop. Do the test twice and record the best trial on the
score sheet.
The quick hands test provides an indication of genetic potential to become a fast
player. This test shows how quickly you are able to strike your opponent. If your score
is below the standard, you can improve by performing the test daily in practice.

QUICK FEET

The quick feet test provides information on the presence or absence of fast-twitch
muscle fibers in the muscles involved in sprinting and indicates potential to execute
fast steps (stride rate) and quick movements. Although hereditary factors such as
limb length, muscle attachments, and proportion of fast-twitch fibers place a limit
on maximum potential, everyone can improve speed and quickness.
Place 20 two-foot-long sticks or a 20-rung stride rope on a grass or artificial
turf field. (A football field with each yard marked can also be used.) Space sticks

exactly 18 inches apart for a total distance of 10 yards. Pump arms vigorously
in a sprint-arm motion and use little knee lift while running the 10 yards without

touching the sticks. The timer starts the stopwatch when your foot first touches the
ground between the first and second stick and stops the watch when contact is
made with the ground beyond the last stick. Record the best of two trials.
- Like the standing triple jump and quick hands test, the quick feet test provides

an indication of genetic potential to become a fast sprinter. Keep in mind that low
scores can be improved.

RIGHT AND LEFT LEG HOPS

Right and left leg hops provide an excellent assessment of speed strength and
explosive power in each leg. High scores are associated with a higher stride length
during sprinting.
After a 15-yard flying start, begin a one-legged hop at the start tape and con-
tinue hopping 20 yards to the finish tape. Flags are used on start and finish tapes,
11 Sports SPEED

as in the flying 120-yard dash (see page 12). The test involves an all-out effort, first
on the dominant leg and then on the nondominant leg.
Right and left leg hops allow you to compare the explosive power of your domi-
nant and nondominant leg so that you can focus on the less explosive limb, if nec-
essary, to correct the imbalance. If your score fails to meet the standards, write yes
in the Weakness column.

Body Composition
The purpose body composition tests is to determine whether your body fat
of
percentage falls within an acceptable range. Excess fat and pounds restrict
speed and movement.
For optimum sprinting speed in sports competition, body fat should not
exceed 10 percent for men and 15 percent for women. Useless fat weight, an
added burden to be moved at high speed, slows down an athlete.
Unless underwater weighing equipment is available, the most accurate and
practical method of determining body fat percentage is through the skinfold
technique. Because a major portion of fat storage lies just under the skin,
measurements in millimeters can be used to predict total body fat.

SKINFOLD TESTS

Body can be measured by determining the thickness of four skinfolds. Firmly

fat

grasp a fold of skin and subcutaneous fat (just under the skin) with your thumb
and forefinger, pulling it away and up from the underlying muscle. Attach the jaws
of the calipers one centimeter below your thumb and forefinger. All measurements
should be taken on the right side of the body while the athlete is standing. Practice
taking measurements with a partner, measuring the four areas described until you
consistently get a similar score on each attempt.

Triceps. With the arm resting comfortably at the side, take a vertical fold parallel
to the long axis of the arm midway between the tip of the shoulder and the tip of
the elbow.

arm resting comfortably at the side, take a

Biceps. With the vertical fold halfway
between the elbow and the top of the shoulder on the front of the upper arm.
Subscapula. Take a diagonal fold across the back, just below the shoulder
blade.

Suprailiac. Take a diagonal fold following the natural line of the iliac crest, just
above the hip bone.

Record the following information to complete your evaluation:

1 . Total the four skinfold measures in millimeters. Record this total on the test score
sheet.

2. Find the percent of body fat based on this total from table 2.4. Record the per-
centage on the test score sheet.
 23

3. Determine the amount of weight, if any, that should be lost to improve sprinting
speed.

Although the ideal percentage of body fat may be somewhat lower for optimum
sprinting speed, reasonable values fall between 10 and 15 percent for males and

Table 2.4 Fat As a Percentage of Body Weight Based on the Sum of

Four Skinfolds, Age, and Gender

Body fat (%)

Age 17 to 29 16 to 29 30 to 39 40 to 49 50+

Skinfold
total
(mm) Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female

15 4.8 10.5

20 8.1 14.1 12.2 17.0 12.2 19.8 12.6 21.4

25 10.5 16.8 14.2 19.4 15.0 22.2 15.6 24.0

30 12.9 19.5 16.2 21.8 17.7 24.5 18.6 26.6

35 14.7 21.5 17.7 23.7 19.6 26.4 20.8 28.5

40 16.4 23.4 19.2 25.5 21.4 28.2 22.9 30.3

45 17.7 25.0 20.4 26.9 23.0 29.6 24.7 31.9

50 19.0 26.5 21.5 28.2 24.6 31.0 26.5 33.4

55 20.1 27.8 22.5 29.4 25.9 32.1 27.9 34.6

60 21.2 29.1 23.5 30.6 27.1 33.2 29.2 35.7

65 22.2 30.2 24.3 31.6 28.2 34.1 30.4 36.7

70 23.1 31.2 25.1 32.5 29.3 35.0 31.6 37.7

75 24.0 32.2 25.9 33.4 30.3 35.9 32.7 38.7

80 24.8 33.1 26.6 34.3 31.2 36.7 33.8 39.6

85 25.5 34.0 27.2 35.1 32.1 37.5 34.8 40.4

90 26.2 34.8 27.8 35.8 33.0 38.3 35.8 41.2

95 26.9 35.6 28.4 36.5 33.7 39.0 36.6 41.9

100 27.6 36.4 29.0 37.2 34.4 39.7 37.4 42.6

105 28.2 37.1 29.6 37.9 35.1 40.4 38.2 43.3

110 28.8 37.8 30.1 38.6 35.8 41.0 39.0 43.9

115 29.4 38.4 30.6 39.1 36.4 41.5 39.7 44.5

120 30.0 39.0 31.1 39.6 37.0 42.0 40.4 45.1

125 30.5 39.6 31.5 40.1 37.6 42.5 41.1 45.7

130 31.0 40.2 31.9 40.6 38.2 43.0 41.8 46.2

_ _ -

135 31.5 40.8 32.3 41.1 38.7 43.5 42.4 46.7

. ~ „
(continued)
 24 Sports SPIED

Table 2.4 (continued)

Body fat (%)

Age 17 to 29 16 to 29 30 to 39 40 to 49 50+

Skinfold
total
(mm) Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female

140 32.0 41.3 32.7 41.6 39.2 44.0 43.0 47.2

145 32.5 41.8 33.1 42.1 39.7 44.5 43.6 47.7

150 32.9 42.3 33.5 42.6 40.2 45.0 44.1 48.2

155 33.3 42.8 33.9 43.1 40.7 45.4 44.6 48.7

160 33.7 43.3 34.3 43.6 41.2 45.8 45.1 49.2

165 34.1 43.7 34.6 44.0 41.6 46.2 45.6 49.6

170 34.5 44.1 34.8 44.4 42.0 46.6 46.1 50.0

175 34.9 44.8 47.0 50.4

180 35.3 45.2 47.4 50.8

185 35.6 45.6 47.8 51.2

190 35.9 45.9 48.2 51.6

195 46.2 48.5 52.0

200 46.5 48.8 52.4
205 49.1 52.7
210 49.4 53.0

Note: In two-thirds of the measurements, the error was within ±3.5 percent of the body weight as fat for the
women and ± 5 percent for the men
Reprinted, by permission, from J.V.G.A. Dumin and
Womersley, 1974, “Body Fat Assessed from Total Body
J.

Density and Its Estimation from Skinfold Thickness.” British Journal of Nutrition (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press), 32.

15 and 20 percent for females. Growing athletes falling within these ranges do not
need to diet.
For example, Ted is a 1 7-year-old athlete who weighs 1 85 pounds. His four skin-
fold measurements are 3, 4, 9, and 9 millimeters. Ted’s total 25 millimeters
is (3 +4
+9+ example, move down the first vertical
9). In this column to 25 and over to the
17 to 29 age group for males in column two. Ted has about 10.5 percent fat; he is

already at his ideal percent of body fat.

Ideal body fat for athletes depends on age, optimum
sport, and position. For
sprinting speed, athletes should strive for 10 to 15 percent (males) and 15 to 20
percent (females) or lower. Although some body fat is essential for life (3 to 4
percent for men and 10 to 12 percent for women), athletic performance (including
speed and quickness) and health can be adversely affected by excess body fat.
 25

Dieting to lose body fat can be very dangerous and is not recommended for
growing athletes or anyone without careful supervision. The maximum rate of
weight loss for athletes is 1 percent of body weight per week (1 to 2 pounds for
those weighing 200 pounds or less). This rate requires a 500 to 1 ,000 calorie deficit
each day. Faster rates of weight loss, losing more than 5 percent of total weight,
or weight loss programs exceeding four weeks may result in loss of lean muscle
mass, dehydration, and overtraining and may cause changes in vitamin and min-
eral status that could hinder performance. A sound weight loss program requires
careful supervision and a combination of caloric restriction, slow weight loss, and
regular exercise, including strength training to avoid loss of lean muscle mass and
to add muscle weight while losing fat weight. Consult your coach and physician
(and parents you are under 18) before beginning any weight loss program.
if

Form and Technique

The checklist in chapter 1 0 and the descriptions of ideal form in chapter 1 2 can
be used to evaluate form in the start, during acceleration or the drive phase,
and while sprinting at maximum speed. Slow motion video analysis of your
40-yard dash and a coach’s observation of technique will also provide valu-
able insight into counterproduc-
tive factors in your style thatdo
not contribute to efficient forward
movement.

Aerobic Fitness

A high level of aerobic fitness is

important to every team sport
athlete, including football players
and other athletes who predomi-
nantly make short high-speed
sprints during competition. All
sports have an aerobic compo-
nent, and attaining a high level
of cardiovascular fitness will aid
performance and also expedite the
removal of lactic acid accumu-
lated during repetitive anaerobic
activity. The 1.5 -mile run will
measure cardiovascular fitness. Friedman/SportsChrome

Mark

Short high-speed sprints are common in football.

 ^
26 Sports SPEED

1.5-MILE RUN

Begin with a general warm-up that produces perspiration, followed by five to eight
minutes of stretching. Next, complete six laps around a quarter-mile track. In many
sports, standards vary according to position, with large athletes of 225 to 400 pounds
permitted more time to complete the test.
Your time provides an indication of aerobic fitness and your ability to perform
continuous exercise in sports such as soccer, rugby, lacrosse, and field hockey. In
addition, excellent scores suggest faster recovery between sprints in these same
sports and football.

Stride Rate and Acceleration

You now have enough information to find out two more important things about
yourself: how many steps you take per second and how well you accelerate
from a stationary position to full speed.

F |GUR|NG STR|DE RATE

compare the number of steps you take per

Figuring out your stride rate allows you to
second with faster sprinters, even Olympic-caliber sprinters such as Tim Montgom-
ery and others who take between 4.5 and 5 steps per second. It also determines
whether stride rate is an area of weakness for you that requires special attention
in your training program.
To determine how many steps you take per second while sprinting, use the
stride rate matrix in table 2.5. Find your stride length in inches on the vertical col-
umn. Now move to the right until you locate your flying 40-yard dash time on the
horizontal column. Circle the point where these two scores intersect. This is your
stride rate. Record the score on your test score sheet.
You can also calculate stride rate with some simple math using your flying 40-
yard dash time and stride length: 1 ,440 inches (40 yards) divided by stride length (in
inches) divided by flying 40-yard dash time equals stride rate (steps per second).
The stride rate of champion male sprinters approaches 5 steps per second;
champion female sprinters average 4.48 steps per second. Because everyone can
benefit from improved stride rate, sprint-assisted training, speed-strength training,
and plyometrics are checked on the test score sheet, regardless of your score. This
training program will improve stride rate.

AS SESSING! ACCELERATION
_
Acceleration scores help you interpret your 40-yard dash time as well as predict
how much you should improve.
Subtract your flying 40-yard time from your stationary 40-yard time and record
the score to the right of Start and Acceleration on your test score sheet.
 Assessing Speed 27

One way to find out how you should be sprinting a 40-yard dash is to add
fast
.7 second to your flying 40-yard time. For example, if your stationary 40-yard time

is 4.9 and your flying 40 is 4.0, you should be sprinting the stationary 40-yard

dash in 4.7, not 4.9. The .2-second difference is probably due to faulty starting
techniques.
The between your stationary 40-yard dash and your flying 40-yard
difference
dash is the time delay required to accelerate. If there is more than a .7-second
difference between these two scores, check ballistics, plyometrics, sport loading,
speed-strength training, sprint-assisted training, and form training on your test
score sheet. These training programs will improve your acceleration time.

Advanced Testing Program

The advanced testing program is designed for athletes competing at the high
school, college, and professional levels. The program requires more specialized
equipment and coaches who are familiar with these procedures.

Speed Potential
The NASE has developed a test to predict speed potential. This test helps
estimate just how much you can improve.

NASE FUTURE 40

Have a coach or friend test you in the 40-yard dash from a stationary start using
surgical tubing to tow you as fast as possible. Connect the belt securely around
your waist, with the other belt attached to a partner. With your partner stand-
ing 10 yards in front of the finish line, back up and stretch the tubing exactly
30 yards until you reach the starting line; assume a three-point or track stance.
The timer at the finish line starts the watch on your first muscular movement
and stops it when you cross the finish line. After you sprint 5 yards, your partner
sprints as fast as possible away from you to give you additional pull throughout
the test. Record your score on the test score sheet. Decreasing your time .3 to
?

.4 of a second provides an estimate of what you will be capable of after several

months of training.

Muscle Balance
The prime movers in sprinting (knee extensors, hip extensors, and ankle plantar
flexors) tend to become well developed as a resnlt of normal sprint training.
Muscle balance testing to compare the strength of opposing muscle groups is
important to prevent injury and guarantee maximum speed of muscle contrac-
tion and relaxation. Muscle imbalances can slow you down. These tests can
easily be completed by you and a partner, coach, or trainer.
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30 Sports SPSS

Testing for 1RM (maximum amount of weight with which you can execute
just one repetition) allows quick, easy comparison of the strength of your
left and right limbs using the single-leg extension, single-leg curl, single-

leg kickback, one-arm curl (biceps), one-arm military press (triceps), and
one-leg press (quadriceps). For each test, select a weight that you can lift
comfortably. Add weight in subsequent trials until you find the weight that
you can lift correctly just one time (1RM). Three trials with a three-minute
recovery period between each trial are needed to find the true 1RM. Compare
the scores of your right and left leg and right and left arm in each test. If
there is a difference of more than 10 pounds in the leg tests or 5 pounds in
the arm tests, write yes in the Weakness column.

Single-leg extension (quadriceps): Find and compare your 1RM for each
leg.

Single-leg curl (hamstrings): Find and compare your 1RM for each leg.

Single-leg kickback: Find and compare your 1RM for each leg. If scores
differ by more than 5 10 pounds, your stride length will be affected, pro-
to
ducing a shorter stride. If this occurs, examine your stride length scores to see
if there is also a significant difference between these scores when you push off

with a different foot. If so, it is important to focus on a speed-strength training

program that will eliminate this deficiency in the weak leg.

One-arm underhand grip in a standing

barbell curl (biceps): Using the
position, raise the barbell from thighs to chest and return it, keeping the body
erect and motionless throughout the movement. Record your 1RM.

One-arm military press (triceps): Using the overhand grip in a standing

position, raise the dumbbell or barbell from the shoulder to an overhead posi-
tion until the elbow is locked. Record your 1RM.

Table 2.6 some reported values for joint agonist- antagonist ratios at
lists

slow isokinetic speeds. Your coach or trainer can test you in any of these areas
where an imbalance is suspected. Your task is to find the 1RM for both move-
ments and compare your ratio to those on the chart. Because of differences in
muscle mass, you can expect some disparity (no more than 10 percent) between
muscle groups such as the quadriceps and hamstrings and the plantar flexors
and dorsiflexors.
In general, the further the joint agonist- antagonist muscle balance ratio is

from 1:1, the more you need to be concerned. A hamstring/quadriceps ratio

of 1:2 or a plantar flexion/dorsiflexion ratio of 4:1 an indication of a speed-
is

strength weakness that could be limiting sprint speed. Specific weight training
exercises and the proper prescription of sets, repetitions, weight, and recovery
intervals can improve the ratio.
 31

Table 2.6 Agonist-Antagonist Ratios (or Slow Concentric isokinetic Movements

Desirable torque ratio
Joint Muscles at slow speed

Ankle Plantar flexion/dorsiflexion 3:1

(gastrocnemius, soleus, tibialis anterior)

Ankle Inversion/eversion (tibialis anterior, 1:1

peroneals)

Knee Extension/flexion (quadriceps/ 3:2

hamstrings)

Hip Extension/flexion (spinal erectors, 1:1

gluteus maximus, hamstrings/iliopsoas,
rectus abdominis, tensor fasciae latae)

Shoulder Flexion/extension (anterior deltoids/ 2:3

trapezius, posterior deltoids)

Shoulder Internal rotation/external rotation 3:2

(subscapularis/supraspinatus,
infraspinatus, teres minor)

Elbow Flexion/extension (biceps/triceps) 1:1

Lumbar spine Flexion/extension (psoas, abdominal

muscles/spinal erectors)

Note: Values are a summary of numerous studies of slow-speed concentric isokinetic movements.

Reprinted, by permission, from D. Wathen, 1994, Muscle Balance. In Essentials of Strength Training
and Conditioning, edited by T. Baechle (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 425.

Other Tests

Strength curve testing. Dr. Stan Plagenhoef has developed testing procedures
to measure changes in leverage and muscle mass as a limb is moved through a
range of motion. Anatomical strength curves reflect the body’s ability to produce
muscle contractile force at given points in the range of motion. These strength
curves are used to determine how far above or below the strength potential a
person falls. Data collected on Olympic sprinters such as Carl Lewis, Leroy
Burrell, Chris Jones, and Lamont Smith allow valuable comparisons to athletes
in other sports who are striving to improve sprinting speed. Strength curves
can also be used to compare the right and left side of the body (dominant to
nondominant side).

On-field analysis (playing speed) For sprinting analysis, this sophisticated

.

system uses an Olympic champion sprinter as a basis for creating a digital

athletic model of performance. Performances are recorded in t lie computer
32 Sports SPEED

with values assigned to points of movement. The performance of an athlete

is recorded in the computer and compared with the database of the digital
model of the Olympic champion. The result is graphically displayed through
differences in performance characteristics such as leg lift, arm swing, stride
length, and leg extension.
Digitized analysis is performance to provide a complete
also used for on-field
analysis during competitive play. Coaches interested in the On-Field Analysis
System should contact Dr. Bob Ward at www.sportsscience.com.

Muscle Fiber Types

All athletes possess three types of muscle fiber:

Slow-twitch red (type I) muscle fiber develops force slowly, has a long
twitch time and a low power output, is fatigue-resistant (high endur-
ance), and has high aerobic capacity for energy supply, but it has
limited potential for rapid force development and anaerobic power.
Fast- twitch red (type Ha) is an intermediate fiber type thatcan con-
tribute to both anaerobic and aerobic activity. It develops force moder-
ately quicklyand has moderate twitch time, power output, fatigability,
aerobic power, force development, and anaerobic power.

Fast-twitch white (type lib) fiber develops force rapidly and has a
short twitch time, a high power output, fatigability (low endurance),
low aerobic power, and high anaerobic power.

Although slow-twitch fibers cannot be changed into fast-twitch fibers,

most of the intermediate fibers (type Ha) can be converted to the faster
type lib fibers through training. This conversion aids explosive move-
ments such as sprinting.

Speed of arm and leg movements is specific to the limb, as are the type and
direction of movements with the limb. Training programs to improve speed
therefore must involve the muscles and specific movements of sprinting.
Comparing the speed strength of left limb to right limb, agonist to antago-
nist, upper body to lower body, and strength to total body weight provides

valuable information to the athlete who wants to improve speed by focusing

on her weaknesses or limiting factors.
You now have enough information to design a speed improvement program
just for you. For each score on the comprehensive test, write yes in the Weak-
ness column on the test score sheet if you failed to meet the standard speci-
fied. Ifyou write yes for a test, also check the programs listed in table 2.1 for
that test area. These are the specific training programs you need to follow to
eliminate the weakness areas. Each program is described in detail in chapters
7 and 9 through 12.
 Assessing Speed 33

Team Sport Combine Tests

Predraft testing programs in team sports, such as the NFL Combine for pro
football prospects, have become extremely important; scores can have a dra-
matic effect on the draft round, signing bonus, salary, and other specifics in a
contract. A poor combine 40-yard dash time, for example, can and has cost
potential high-round picks millions of dollars. So much emphasis is placed on
the 40-yard dash and some other tests that prospects are forced to practice
and months before the scheduled combine. As a
train for specific tests for
result, combine training centers have sprung up throughout the United States
for this purpose. Specific player position skills tests are also becoming more
and more important, and scores in these areas can be improved with training
and practice.
Your best opportunity to score high on the 40 -yard dash and other speed
and quickness tests in the combine for your sport is to complete the compre-
hensive test battery described in this chapter and follow our sport-specific
speed improvement program for 6 to 10 weeks to eliminate weaknesses and
improve speed.
Practice and training for the specific tests used in the combine for your
sport will also greatly increase your chances of achieving a higher rating for
the draft. This section describes each test and scoring procedure in pro com-
bine or tryout centers in baseball, basketball, football, and soccer. Study this
and master the techniques
section carefully, for each test in your sport before
attending a combine or tryout.

NFL Combine Tests

The NFL Combine includes physical tests and specific one-on-one drills that
are filmed but not included as part of the grading system. A video manual is

available to help players prepare for the NFL Combine. The following physi-
cal tests are included:

40 -yard dash —Each player runs twice; test is filmed; best time is scored by
pro scouts.

225-pound bench press — All players, except kickers, complete as many

repetitions as possible.

—
20-yard short shuttle All players, except kickers, are timed twice, once
while shuttle running to the left and once to the right. Both times are scored
and the drill is filmed.

Vertical jump —Test is conducted using the Vertec® measuring device. Each
player jumps twice; highest jump is scored.

Fleight and weight —Height is measured to one-eighth of an inch, weight to

the nearest pound.
 .

34 Sports SPEED

Full body video portrait —Provides a visual image of body type and build.
Players are filmed from the front and back wearing shorts only.

Phase II of the combine includes specific one-on-one drills that are filmed
but are not part of the grading system.

Quarterbacks are filmed in isolation performing three-, five-, and seven-step

drops and throws to wide receivers in one-on-one coverage against defensive
backs.
Running backs and tight ends compete against linebackers in man coverage
during a one-on-one passing drill.

Wide receivers compete against defensive backs in man coverage during a

one-on-one passing drill.

Linemen and 20-yard dash before completing

are timed in the 10-yard
several cone drills to evaluate foot speed and quickness. They compete in
one-on-one competition during run block/react and pass rush/block drills.
Helmets are worn during blocking drills.
Punters complete the baseline strength test and kicking tests (hang time,
distance, and get-off time for six punts over two rounds) and random selec-
tion scenario test (ability to perform six different types of punts during two
—
rounds direction right, direction left, deep center, deep nose over, straight
pooch, and float pooch). Top punters in these tests may be asked to perform
additional punts.
Kickers perform kickoffs (hang time, location, and distance for three con-
secutive kicks)and field goals (eight field goals over four rounds at randomly
selected distances from 30 to 55 yards). The most successful kickers may
be asked to perform additional field goals and kickoffs.
Long snappers perform seven snaps from 7 and 15 yards and are graded
for time and accuracy.

Players are graded on a 5- to 10-point scale:

9.00 to 10.00 points —Player significantly exceeds minimum pro standard

(pro player).

8.00 to 8.99 —Player meets or exceeds minimum pro standard (pro pros-
pect).

7.00 to 7.99 —Player scores slightly below minimum pro standard (potential
pro prospect).
6.00 to 6.99 —Player scores below minimum pro standard (college-level
player)

—
5.00 to 5.99 Player scores significantly below minimum pro standard
(below college-level player).

Height and weight measurements and the results of the four physical tests
determine a player’s score in each of the four test grades size (height and—
 Assessing Speed 35

weight), speed (40-yard dash), quickness (both shuttle run times), and strength
(bench press and vertical jump test). The four athletic test grades are averaged
to arrive at a player’s final test grade (FTG). Players with an FTG equal to or
greater than 8.00 are pro-rated.
Table 2.7 shows the minimum standards by position. The minimum pro
standard in each category equals a grade of 8.00. Higher than the minimum
pro standard receives a score between 8.01 and 10.00; scores below the mini-
mum fall between 5.00 and 7.99.
Punters are graded based on averages for touch- to-toe, hang time, and dis-
tance during open-field punting. The pro standard minimum for touch-to-toe
is 1.40 seconds and isconsidered 20 percent of the punter s final test grade
(FTG). The pro standard minimum for hang time is 4.25 seconds (40 percent
of FTG); the minimum 42 yards (40 percent of FTG).
for distance is

Kickers are graded based on field goals made and average kickoff hang
time and distance. The kickoff grade is based on distance (50 percent) and
hang time (50 percent). The field goal grade is based on a starting value of
5.00, with each successful kick increasing the grade by the point values listed
in table 2.8. The FTG is based 70 percent on field goal grade and 30 percent
on kickoff grade.

Table 2.7 NFL Combine Minimum Standards by Position

40-yd. Shuttle Bench Vertical

Position Height Weight dash run press jump

Quarterback 6T 200 4.90 4.50 10 28

0"
Running back 5'1 185 4.65 4.35 12 30

Fullback 5'ir 220 4.75 4.35 14 28

Wide receiver 5'11" 180 4.65 4.29 8 30

Tight end 6'2" 230 4.85 4.55 18 28

Cornerback 5'10 M 180 4.60 4.29 10 30

Safety 5'ir 190 4.70 4.29 10 30

Outside linebacker 6T 220 4.80 4.50 18 28

Inside linebacker 6T' 230 4.85 4.50 18 28

Defensive end 6'2" 270 5.00 4.60 20 26

Defensive tackle 6'3" 275 5.20 4.75 24 24

Nose tackle 6*2" 275 5.20 4.79 24 24

Offensive guard 6'2" 275 5.15 4.79 24 24

Offensive tackle 6'3" 275 5.25 4.79 24 24

Center 6T 275 5.20 4.79 24 24

36

Table 2.8 Point Values for Grading Kickers

Category Pro minimum Distance (yd.) Point value

Kickoff hang time 3.85 sec. 30 .25

Kickoff distance 62 yd. 35 .35

'
Field goals 40 . .45
45 (left hash) .75
45 (right hash) .75
50 (left hash) .80
50 (right hash) .80
55 .85

Long snappers are graded based on average time and accuracy for seven
snaps at each distance. Accuracy is scored based on the following scale:

1 Excellent —Holder makes no adjustment.

2 —Holder makes minor adjustment.
Good
3 Poor— Holder makes major adjustment.
4 Uncatchable— Snap wild or is short.

The minimum pro standards (8.00 grade) for a 7-yard snap are .28 seconds
(time) and 1.29 (accuracy). The minimum standards for a 15-yard snap are
.75 seconds (time) and 1.57 (accuracy).

Pro Soccer Combine Tests

A standardized pro soccer combine test battery is not available. Individual teams
and coaches use their own tests to evaluate current and potential players.
Soccer players repeatedly sprint from a walk or slow jog for 5 to 25 yards
during competition. Top players may cover over 2,000 yards in one game. A
solid aerobic foundation is considered very important in aiding recovery from
lactic acidbuildup after repeated sprints.
To test aerobic endurance, players perform a 12-minute run or a beep test.
To test anaerobic capacity, tall cones are set up 30 yards apart. Players use a
standing start then sprint back and forth (total of 60 yards) five times, touch-
ing the tops of the cones each time. A time of 57 to 58 seconds is considered
excellent, 60 seconds is considered good, and 61 to 63 seconds is consid-
59 to
ered weak. Players also perform a 40-meter sprint. Two cones are placed 40
meters apart. The best time is recorded. Testers use a radar gun to determine
how can run.
fast a player
Muscular endurance is tested using a 30-second bent-knee sit-up test and
a push-up test. For the sit-up test, the spotter places a palm on top of the
player’s knees. The player touches the spotter’s hand for each repetition. For
 37

the push-up test, the spotter places a hand just above the floor underneath the
player’s chest. The player’s chest touches the spotter’s hand with each repeti-
tion. The sit-and-reach test described earlier in this chapter is also used. To test
leg power, players perform three consecutive bounds using a two-foot takeoff.
The 1RM bench and leg press are used to test strength.

Major League Baseball (MLB) Combine Tests

MLB uses the following speed tests and
standards: 60-yard dash (under 7.0 sec-
onds); crack of bat to first base, to second
base, to third base; second base,
first to
second to third base, and second to home
plate (under 7.0 seconds). Some teams use
a shuttle run.
The
1.
quick feet test used by the Houston
Astros was developed by Dr. Gene Cole-
man, strength and conditioning coach for
the Astros. A two-by-three-foot rectangle
istaped on the floor with a three-inch dot
in each corner and one in the middle of
the rectangle (see figure 2.3). Players must
perform five repetitions of each chill as fast
as possible, without resting between sets
or between drills. Figure 2.3 Setup for the quick feet
test.

Up and
back. Stand at one end of the rectangle with the left foot on
dot A and the right foot on dot B. Jump off both feet and land on dot C with
both feet at the same time. Immediately jump off both feet and land with one
foot on dot D and one foot on dot E. Jump backward and come back in the
same way. Finish by landing with the left foot on dot A and the right foot on
dot B.
2. Right foot. With the left foot on dot A and right foot on dot B. jump to
deft C, landing on the right foot. Then, in order, jump to dots D, E, C, A, and

B, always landing on the right foot. End with the right foot on dot B.

3. Left foot. With the right foot on dot B„ jump to dot C, landing on the
left foot. Then, in order, jump to dots D, E, C, A, and B, always landing on
the left foot. End with the left foot on dot B.

4. Both feet. With the left foot on dot B, jump to dot C, landing on both
feet. Then, in order, jump to dots D, E, G, A, and B, always landing on both
feet. End with both feet on dot B.
5.Turn around. With both feet on dot B, jump to dot C, landing on both
feet. Jump forward and land with the left loot on dot D and right foot on dot

E. Quickly jump up and turn 180 degrees, facing the other way, and land with
the right foot on dot D and left foot on dot E. Jump and land on dot C with
38 Sports SPEED

both and then jump to dots A and B, landing with the right foot on dot
feet A
and the left foot on dot B. Spin 180 degrees and repeat the drill.

A good time 60 seconds or less. After completing the drill, the player is
is

allowed to rest for two to three minutes and repeat, completing three sets.
Skills tests include an arm strength test (tested using a radar gun) in which
the player catches fly balls and throws 270 feet to home, a ground ball test
in which pitchers throw from the mound and players field the ground balls
(velocity is checked with the radar gun), a catcher test in which catchers throw
to second base (the timer begins the stopwatch when the catcher receives the
ball and stops the watch when the ball reaches second base), batting practice
(8 to 10 swings per hitter), and a live game.
Finally, players complete a mental skills assessment questionnaire that in-
cludes measures of traits and abilities that sport psychologists have found to
be associated with high-level performance in baseball and other sports.

NBA Combine Tests

The following test was developed and is administered by the National Basketball
Conditioning Coaches Association (NBCCA).
For the no-step vertical jump, a Vertec device is used. Players complete
two trials with no foot movement permitted (no shuffle step, side step, drop
step, or gather step allowed), only a straight down and straight up movement.
If an athlete reaches a new height on the second attempt, a third attempt is

granted.
For the maximum vertical jump test, a maximum approach distance is

measured from the free throw extended in a 15-foot arch to the baseline.
line,

Athletes may take as many steps toward the Vertec device as they feel neces-
sary to attain their maximum vertical jump as long as they start within the
15-foot arch. A one- or two-foot takeoff may be used, and the best of two
trials is recorded.
For the pro lane agility drill, cones are placed at each of the four corners of
the pro foul lane (16 feet by 19 feet, baseline to foul line). The player begins in
the lower left corner of the lane. The player sprints toward the top of the lane,
going around the cone in a right defensive slide, then goes to the edge of the
lane and around the cone, then backpedals to the foul line, around the cone,
then defensive slides to the left. He touches the floor, feet even with the cone at
the starting position. The player changes direction to his right, then defensive
slides around the cone and sprints to the top of the lane. He defensive slides
to the left around the cone and backpedals past the original starting position.
The fastest time of two attempts is recorded. One false start (including knock-
ing over a cone, cutting the corner of the drill, sprinting sideways instead of
defensive sliding, not touching the line at the change of direction point at the
simply falling down) is permitted without penalty. Two
start/finish line, or
coaches begin timing on the athlete's first movement. The coaches average
 39

their readings to get the official time for the trial.

For the three-quarter court sprint, the player starts in a two-point stance
(standing start) then sprints from baseline to opposite foul line. Timing begins
on the athlete s first movement. Four coaches time each of two sprints, with
high and low scores eliminated and middle two times averaged and recorded
as the official time. One false start is permitted.
The Acuflex® sit-and-reach box is used to administer the sit-and-reach flex-
ibility test. The toes (without shoes) are zero. Anything past the toes is a posi-

tive reading; anything not reaching the toes is a negative reading. The middle
fingers of both hands are lined up on top of each other. Knees are kept in a
locked position as the athlete takes a deep breath, blows out, reaches beyond
the toes, holds the position for one count, then repeats the movement. The best
of two attempts is recorded.
The final test is the 185-pound maximum repetition (1RM) bench press.
After a warm-up that push-ups followed by a 60-second rest and
consists of 10
five repetitions of the bench press with 135 pounds followed by a 90-second
rest, the athlete completes as many consecutive repetitions as possible of the

bench press with 185 pounds. Two spotters are used. One provides a liftoff,
counts the number of repetitions, and makes sure each repetition is locked
at the top. The second spotter makes certain that the athlete's glutes stay in
contact with the bench (no arching).
 HP. •
Chapter 3

he foundation training that appeared in the first edition of Sports Speed

r served as a fragmented all-systems preparation period. In this edition, a
periodization model has been added to the training. A periodization model is an
integrated system that considers all the elements of performance required for
competition in team sports. The outcome of foundational training is superior
training and better performance in your sport.
Fundamentally, foundation training is the root system that supports and
sustains every play in any sport. No doubt a time will come during play that
shows a player s weaknesses (limiting factors). A careful examination of these
whether a direct connection exists between weakness
situations will establish
in sport performance and a deficiency that could be worked on.
This chapter establishes a list of core activities based on how many basic
movement patterns a person can develop. A good way to understand foundation
training is to take a close look at a space shuttle launch. Initially, the shuttle is

stationary on the launch pad, even after ignition. However, subtle movements
are taking place as the shuttle’s nervous system (its computer) sends instruc-
tions to put all subsystems in motion in preparation for launch. In addition, the
astronauts are preparing for the launch. Physical educators call these actions
before takeoff, in relation to the shuttle, nonlocomotor movements. The shuttle
hasn't moved from the launch pad even though the astronauts and shuttle’s
systems are in motion and preparation for launch.
Likewise, any actions you make on the field of play without moving your
body off the nonlocomotor skills (flexing, extending, rotating, bending,
field are

shifting, swaying, and faking). These movements are as important to play as

nonlocomotor movements are for a perfect launch. Locomotor skills, on the
other hand, are basic total body actions requiring movement through space
(blocking, catching, changing direction, hitting, falling, leaping, pulling, push-
ing, rolling, running, sliding, starting, stopping, tackling, and throwing).
These basic movement patterns can be likened to the alphabet (which can
be organized into words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs) or to musical
notes (which can be combined into scales and chords). Once you learn the
basic elements of movement, you can make limitless combinations to form
new and creative solutions to the problems faced when competing in sports.

40
 Foundation Training 41

Foundation training provides a solid, conceptual, and practical foundation to

help accelerate you to the final steps of speed improvement.
Foundation training identifies core activities including many of the move-
ment patterns performed with the feet, hands, and so on. Playing basketball,
boxing, dancing, playing handball, fencing, doing gymnastics, hurdling, jump-
ing, kicking, practicing martial arts, running, throwing, walking, and wrestling
require many of these basic patterns. These activities have been tagged as core
exercises by some because they contain many of the elements of comprehensive
human movement. Remember, these activities must be specifically applied to
specific sport needs. It is good to include these activities in physical education
programs in school, in after-school extracurricular activities, and as specifically
recommended in the rest of this book.

general Preparation
The first part of foundation training is called general preparation. The objec-
tive is to increase the body’s resources to optimum levels before beginning the
trip to faster running and playing speeds. In many programs, it is unlikely
that the body’s resources have been developed to threshold or optimum levels.
Therefore, athletes should follow a threshold-based program that takes into
account all the body’s resources to produce an integrated program. Awareness,
reactions, reflexes, quickness and control of body segments in all directions,
quickness of close -range movements in all directions, basicmovement elements
of the body, basic movement elements required for sports (movement patterns,
hand-eye and foot-eye coordination), power, sustained power output, speed
in all directions, maximum strength, muscular strength endurance, anaerobic
conditioning, and aerobic conditioning are all vital in sport performance.
Foundational training includes other organizational elements necessary for
the operation of the total program. Use one of the variety of programs suggested
for each of the basic elements. Get involved in the training process by adding
your own ideas to the methods. The major outcome of foundational training
is performance quality of the essential resources required for
to optimize the
your sport. You can be confident that you will accomplish this outcome if you
successfully carry out the suggestions included in this chapter in combination
with the assessments in chapter 2.

Foundational Training Sport Check

Before venturing too far into program planning, take a close look at your test
results from the assessments taken in chapter 2. Then complete the Sport
Check Scorecard in this chapter. Your assessment information list includes
the basic testing program, the advanced testing program, and the sport check
scorecard. These assessments are extremely important because you will build
your playing speed training on this foundation.
42 Sports SPEED

The basic and advanced testing programs do not collect data about resources
in actual game or sport conditions. To build an effective training program, you
need to measure how effectively you use all of the necessary resources during
game conditions. (Because sprinting is described in detail by the measure-
ments of the testing programs, few additional measurements are required for
a comprehensive assessment of pure sprinting.)
Computer software is a good tool to use to measure the specifics of an athlete’s
performance. The On-Field Analysis System (OFAS) is a computer graphic
and software package. It was used to track NFL, Senior Bowl, and East- West
College all-star game players as they played in order to develop a scientific
grading system. The goal was to provide an objective method to precisely
identify how players use their resources during games. Grades are based on
objective sources. The OFAS yields the most objective and precise time motion
analysis available. Contact OFAS
www.sportsscience.com for information.
at
Other computer-based biomechanical systems have been designed to improve
sport performance. Peak Performance Technologies in Englewood, Colorado,
is leading the development and distribution of such systems. In addition, pro-
fessional soccer teams in Europe are using scientific computer programs to
evaluate players and the game.
The Coaching Association of Canada s National Coaching Certification Pro-
gram: Level 3 Coaching Theory manual illustrates the use of a much simpler
*

time motion analysis system to get important sport- specific training informa-
tion for grading and The association s program includes observing
training.
games with a stopwatch, paper, and pencil to chart the action on the field. The
program’s objective is to determine the time, motion, and intensity involved in
the sport. Using this method, coaches are able to calculate the average veloc-
ity, high- and low-intensity velocity, and schedules of repetitions. Players and
coaches can use this method to evaluate the sport and individual performances.
Coaches and players can make better estimates of the aerobic and anaerobic
requirements of the sport by studying actual games. Sport- specific training
programs and drills also can be created to duplicate the elements of the game.
If you are interested in this time motion analysis method, contact the Coach-

ing Association of Canada at 141 Laurier Avenue West, Suite 300, Ottawa,
Ontario, Canada, KIP 5J3.
The sport check scorecard can be customized to fit your sport by using a
combination of biomechanics and time motion measurement methods. These
methods assess higher level game skills to get a better understanding of how
athletes are integrating their basic resources into more complex sport-related
functions. Scorecards identify, assess, and track performance.
Use the sport check scorecard as a conceptual guide. The scorecard divides
the absolute performance curve into 10 labeled categories. The underlying
structure of the curve is based on an absolute performance scale rather than
one that has been adjusted for age. Both absolute and age-related values are
important tools for program development. For more information about age-
 Foundation Training 43

related performance scales, write the National Association for Sport and Physi-
cal Education, 1900 Association Drive, Reston, Virginia, 20191.

Sport Check Scorecard

The scorecard (table 3.1) is a 10-level scoring scale you can use to monitor
achievement. Scoring starts beginner level and proceeds progressively to
at the
the master level, which only highly accomplished athletes achieve. Do not be
confused by the names given to each level. An athlete who has spent a short
time in a sport is generally classified as a beginner or novice, even though, bv
virtue of genetics, this athlete may have a better performance score than an
athlete who
has been involved in the sport for some time. The scoring scale
includes the whole spectrum of performance. These questions will help you
determine the assessment process and see how you compare with the best.

What sport or skill is being assessed?

Why are the measurements important?
Where am I in growth and development (chronological or performance
age)?
When and how often will my measurements be taken?
How will the measurements be collected and used?

The 10-level sport check evaluates 11 basic elements: sport- specific tasks,
proper breathing mechanics, combat breathing, training the brain, body con-
trol, sport hitting power, starting power, driving power, high-speed quickness,

maximum playing speed, and sustained power output endurance base. Each of
these elements is vital to success in playing more quickly and faster or sprint-
ing at high speeds.

Table 3.1 Sport Check Scorecard

Level— Class Percent level Present score

1
0 — Master
* '- f
99+
"9 — Elite 96 to 98
8 — Advanced 90 to 95
7 — Intermediate 79 to 89
6 — Above average 60 to 78
5 — Average 40 to 59
4 — Below average 21 to 39

3 — Apprentice 1 1 to 20
2 — Novice 3 to 10
1 — Beginner 0 to 2
44 Sports SPEED

Sport-Specific Tasks

Sport-specific tasks should be determined and prioritized with the help of a

professionally qualified person in your sport. Each of the tasks that make up
your sport should be grouped and evaluated according to four questions:

1. How frequently is the task done?

2. How difficult is the task to complete?
3. How critical is the task to performance?
4. How much is required for the task?
A scientifically based program requires an in-depth study of the sport before
a training prescription can be developed. Knowing the importance of each task
involved in the sport enables you to allocate appropriate training time. Schel-
las Hyndman, men s varsity soccer coach at Southern Methodist University,
provided four sample soccer sport check scorecards. We have modified them
in tables 3.2 through 3.4 in an effort to prioritize basic techniques. Use these
four focus areas to help you construct a scorecard for your sport: technique
frequency, difficulty, and importance; technique scoring and resource recog-
nition; physical dimensions, thresholds, and limiting factors; and physical
dimensions performance report for program assessment.
Table 3.2 is an example of a soccer goalkeeper s scorecard. Tables 3.3 and
3.4 list the physical dimensions required for soccer. Scores can be based on
any familiar system that you presently use: grades A through F, scores of 1 to
10, or scores of 0 to 100 (as shown in table 3.1). The system shown in table
3.1 is our recommendation. Whichever method you use, be consistent.
Careful study of the information in the scorecards will give the coach and
player a sound basis for constructing an evaluation and training program based
on the specific skills required for the sport and the limiting factors holding the
player back. Remember, training must match the requirements of your sport
if it is to be effective. In addition, limiting factors in performance must also

be corrected. This assessment should be coupled with the basic and advanced
testing programs found in chapter 2.

Proper Breathing Mechanics and Combat Breathing

Breathing is an human function that plays a major role in the produc-
essential
tion of energy at sleep, rest, or play. Not many of us have been trained to use the
most mechanics for meditating, relaxing, or executing the basic tasks
efficient
of daily life. Most of us walk around each day with limited breathing skills.
Athletes cannot afford inadequate skill in any aspect of breathing. Relaxing,
starting in sprinting, body contact, hitting or punching, blocking, running,
sprinting, and throwing all require specific breathing skills.

Proper breathing requires proper mechanics. First breathe through the nose
to warm and filter air. During times of high oxygen demand, breathe through the
Table 3.2 Soccer Goalkeeper Scorecard

Defensive techniques Score Resource

1 . Scooping
Ground balls at the keeper
Ground balls to either side

2. Catching
Catching below chest height
Catching at chest height
Overhead catching

3. Falling/diving

Simple falling
Footwork leading to dive
Diving for low shots
Power diving — high shots
Forward diving

4. Boxing
Two fisted to change direction
One fisted to keep direction
One fisted to change direction
One elbow to keep direction
One elbow to change direction
Two elbows to keep direction
Two elbows to change direction
Boxing under pressure

5. Deflecting
With one hand around post
With one hand over crossbar
With one elbow to keep direction
With one elbow
With two elbows
With two hands

Breakaways
Sliding at opponent
Holding a long barrier
Throwing the body to block a shot
Stand-up technique

7. Soccer playing skills

Play outside of penalty area (general)

Heading
Playing to a teammate
Interception of “thru passes”
Dealing with back passes

(continued)

45
46 Sports STEEP

Table 3.2 (continued)

Defensive techniques Score Resource

8. Range
Judgment of flighted balls
Ability to extend play

Distribution and attacking techniques Score Resource

1. Throwing
>

Bowling
Sidearm sling
Overhead “baseball” throw

2. Kicking out of hand

Volley
Drop kick

3. Goal kick and free kick

Short range
Long range

Tactics Score Resource

1 . Positioning/angle play
In the goal —on the goal line
Outside of goal area

2. Reading the game

In the goal —
immediate danger
—
Outside of goal area secondary danger
Outside of penalty area
:

3. Breakaways
One-on-one duels

4. Penalty kicks
Tactical concerns
Reflex action

Courtesy of Schellas Hyndman, Southern Methodist University. Modified by Bob Ward.

nose and mouth. Regulate the release of air through the mouth during contact
and high-output skills, such as body contact, hitting in baseball, punching in
boxing, or throwing in any sport.
Use the lower portions of the lungs to breathe when sleeping, meditating,
relaxing, and during times of maximum oxygen transfer. To make sure you are
breathing from the diaphragm, put your hand on your abdomen. If it moves
inward and outward with each breath, you are breathing from your diaphragm.
Watch the way babies breathe. Do their bellies go in and out?
Raise and roll your shoulders back to provide additional volume for combat
breathing. Increase chest volume by maximizing breathing during periods of
Table 3.3 Physical Dimensions

Raw score Threshold limiting factor

Sleep HR zone (22 to 30%)

Resting HR zone (30 to 35%)

Aerobic zone (70 to 80% max)

Anaerobic zone (80 to 90% max)
Maximum zone (90 to 100% max)
Coordination/flow (general)

Open/target focus

Timing and judgment

Kinesthetic sense

Rhythm

Footwork

Handwork

Reactions/reflexes

Quickness

Agility

Kicking power

Kicking distance

Hitting power

Throwing distance

Vertical jumping

Horizontal jumping

Speed

Strength

Muscle balance

Sustained power output

Range of motion

Injury recovery

Recovery from game workout

47
Table 3.4 Physical Dimensions Performance Report

Time Rate Duration Rest HR zone

Sleep HR zone (22 to 30%)

Resting HR zone (30 to 35%)
Aerobic zone (70 to 80% max) •%

Anaerobic zone (80 to 90% max)

Maximum zone (90 to 100% max)
Coordination/flow (general)

Open/target focus

Timing and judgment

Kinesthetic sense

Rhythm

Footwork

Handwork

Reactions/reflexes

Quickness

Agility

Kicking power

Kicking distance

Hitting power

Throwing distance *

Vertical jumping

Horizontal jumping

Speed

Strength

Muscle balance

Sustained power output

Range of motion

Injury recovery

Recovery from game workout

Total

48
 49

high oxygen demand, for protection from the forces of contact, and for high
force output. This added volume requires the use of all the intercostal muscles
of the rib cage.

Training the Brain

In the past, training the brain to react quickly by using the latest technology
had been overlooked. Amazing human feats have demonstrated that, through
training, athletes can gain more control over their nervous systems than people
ever die allied possible. I m sure we ve all seen a yogi on a bed of nails. Recently
I saw a yogi get inside a very small box that was then lowered into ice water

for five minutes. When the box was pulled out of the water, the yogi emerged
slowly, unraveling himself from the box alive and unharmed.
To accelerate speed to uncommon levels, tap into this kind of performance
enhancing total body control. Keep up on the latest information. The computer
age has brought all forms of sophisticated devices to the laboratory and the field.
Softw are and equipment have come along to monitor body functions. Heart rate
monitors are now available with computer interfaces and software to collect and
evaluate information for each heart beat and its relation to the next beat. The
sport science lab is really taking the field. Today’s coaches are lucky to have
immediate and powerful objective information for training their athletes. This
information confirms what many scientists, coaches, and parents have felt for a
long time: Use it or lose it, don’t use it early and you 11 never get the max, or start
using it any age and get some of it back. Some of the more important findings
at
from these studies will help you sprint faster and play at higher speeds.
Technology has given us immediate and precise information about all forms
of sport. One example is the disqualification of Linford Christie in the 100-
meter finals at the 1996 Olympics for a second false start. His gun-to-leaving-
the-blocks time was below human capability. This time difference was used
to confirm that lie had jumped the gun. However, the time difference was so
close to human capability that without today’s timing devices it would have
been impossible to determine. During the preparation meets for the 2000
Olympics, Michael Johnson was highlighted on the TV and Internet as using
science to evaluate how he was performing during competition. Real-time data
were used for rapid evaluation and implementation. On-field evaluations can
present immediate and objective information. This specific information about
how players are moving on the field is necessary for player evaluation, selec-
tion, and training. Game action and sprinting take place at such high speeds
that thinking before acting interferes with performance. Players must react to
the situation and ask questions later.
Brain research and the practical playing experiences of elite athletes reveal a
state of high artistic and sport performance. Many have described it as being in
an effortless state called the zone. Research reveals that the zone, also known
'

as the flow state, is associated with lower heart and breathing rates coupled
with brainwave frequencies of 8 to 13 hertz. Too much or not enough stress
50 Sports SPEED

can adversely affect performance. You must be able to control stress levels for
maximum performance. The best way to control stress is to get into the zone.
The information and techniques provided in this chapter will help you achieve
control over stress in your sport and in life. According to John Douillard (1995)
in Body Mind and Sport “The coexistence of opposites
; , ,
—
rest and alertness,
—
composure and vigorous exercise is the formula for the zone.
One most common faults of many athletes is trying too hard. Invari-
of the
ably, the harder you try, the tighter you get, which is opposite of what you
want. If the athlete is in the zone before performing, the proper muscle control
or optimal coordination reaches superlative heights. Is there any question
why the zone is the most critical performance principle for the beginner or
elite athlete? You cannot compete if you are fighting yourself every step of the

way. A common error in sport occurs when performers monitor the response
they just made rather than being open to receive a signal for the next action.
We call this open state alertness. You can manage the load of information by
learning to play in a flow state.
Athletes can control visual awareness in such a way that they can see ev-
erything in the visual field. The running back who sees all defensive players in
position and then runs to daylight is using a technique called open focus. This
technique is similar to the ultimate camera that takes a clear picture, without
a shutter, of anything, even when another picture is being taken at the same
time. Can you imagine incoming information and
the luxury of processing all

sorting out what you need at any one moment? Obviously, performance would
improve dramatically. One way to improve visual awareness is by doing turns
or rolls while a coach throws a ball and you recover body control. Another way
is to juggle or use a mini-trampoline as a rebounder of two or more objects.

With practice, you will be able to juggle more balls, increase the area of visual
recognition, and manage other sensory input with improving ability.
We have all experienced an adaptation to high-speed travel. Driving 70 miles
per hour initially seems fast because of acceleration and the relative speed
and position of other cars or objects in the field of vision. However, in a short
period of time, this sensation is replaced by a sense that 70 miles per hour is
not fast at all. This feeling is the exact playing sensation you want to have on
the field. The programs for speed of movement and speed of thought provide
chills and exercises that will help improve this flow state on and off the field.

The best way to develop this slowing sensation is to incorporate the skills you
learned in combat breathing and visual awareness. Your goal is to increase the
area from which you are able to take in information. Once you have learned to
expand your field of focus, perception of motion tends to slow down.
Training both sides of the body by developing near equal skill in both
hands and feet appears to improve skill levels by producing higher leyels of
synchrony, or coordination, in the nervous system. It is not uncommon to find
that sensory processing or skill dominance varies on left and right sides of the
body. Differences can be found in every paired organ system: the brain, eyes,
ears, hands, and feet. Further, research shows that hand preference affects the
tissue (muscle, tendons, ligaments, capillaries, arteries, and veins) composi-
 Foundation Training 51

tion of the upper limbs in all age groups. Significant tissue changes have been
shown to occur in bone density and the fat-free soft tissues of exercised limbs.
In addition to these tissues changes, you can expect to gain the functional skills
required for your sport or everyday tasks.
Research by Larry Brown of Mechano -Physics and Bob Ward has shown
that sprinters and cyclists produce uneven amounts of power output with
tlieir legs. This is an example of dominant and recessive motor patterns that

can limit speed of movement. The suggested corrective activities and training
programs can help. The sport check assessments in this chapter, along with the
assessments in chapter 2, will help correct deficiencies. As a simple challenge,
select a few skills that you know are important in your sport, and learn to do
them well on both sides of the body. For instance, you could use your trail leg
as the lead leg over the hurdle, jump off of the other leg in the long jump or
high jump, throw a football with your weaker arm, or dribble a basketball
with your accomplished hand.
less
Computer games help assess neuromuscular and brain function and train
the neuromuscular system. Alternate hand and foot patterns and running
patterns (e.g., left arm and right leg) have been programmed into the games.
These specific patterns, rhythms, and distractions are used to systematically
guide players to higher levels of handwork and footwork. A powerful advantage
of using scientific games is their ability to record correct responses. There is
good evidence that specific benefits (structural and functional changes in the
nervous system) are gained by playing these games that may help you sprint
faster or play faster. If you are interested in receiving more information about
these kinds of computer games, visit www.sportsscience.com.

Body Control: The ABCs of Movement

The major objective of a body control program is to develop a large vocabulary
of movement. The larger your vocabulary, the greater the chances of increas-
ing your ability to move more quickly and faster in a variety of directions
and solve many problems on the field. The ability to use all body parts, in all
movement patterns, in a variety of game situations, when called on to do so,
is the ultimate goal of a body control program.

We recommend a 75 -minute video developed in the NFL by Bob Ward,

Randy White, and Valentine Espiricueta called Creating Big Plays. The ancient
secrets of many martial arts masters have been used to create the program.
The benefits of the program have been demonstrated for the past 25 years by
the outstanding play of many professional and collegiate athletes. The same
principles that worked for them will work for you. If you are interested in this

applied martial arts program, contact www.sportsscience.com.

Sport Hitting Power

Randy White, one of the most formidable defensive players to ever take the field
in the NFL, needed instruction on how to improve his ability to hit properly
 52 Sports SPEED

with his hands. Randy caine to the Dallas Cowboys as a highly recognized and
decorated player. You would think that if you asked him to hit a bag with his
lefthand, right hand, or both together, you d better step back, but this was
not the case. The results of this simple test convinced Randy and his coaches
that he should begin a training program to improve his hitting power.
The point is that any skill is relative to the method used to form its value.
Until an objective measurement tool (like a thermometer or stopwatch) is de-
veloped to score sport hitting power, error will be present. A player can get by
without having to fully develop master levels of skill if the competition doesn t

demand Randy did improve his hitting power when he played for the Cow-
it.

boys. A recent NFL Toughman boxing match in Las Vegas demonstrated that
a well-learned skill such as hitting can be retained for some time with a little
work. Randy knocked out his opponent in the first few seconds of the second
round with a sizzling short left hook.

Starting Power
Starting power is the ability to get moving in the appropriate direction in the
most efficient way. A sprinter reacting to the starting gun, a linebacker moving
to fill the hole in reaction to a running play, or a Chicago Rull fast-breaking
down the court for a two-point layup are all examples of actions that require
a lot of starting power if the player is to
be successful. If you move close to your
opponent, you d better be able to move
quickly or you re in big trouble! Starting
power plays a major role in the outcome
of the contest.
Some of the best advice for improv-
ing this ability came from martial artist
Bruce Lee. Lee suggested that athletes
use his quickness principle of a small
phasic bent-knee position to move
quickly into an attack, evasion, or re-
treat. In sports that allow movement,
thismeans that you keep your body in
a slow movement pattern, which helps

|
you overcome the inertia that makes it
% harder to get started from a still position,
w Some coaches call it dancing in your
| where the athlete must
shoes. In sports
5
CD
remain still, such as the start in swim-
| ruing and track or the offensive lineman
@
position in football before the snap, the
Beginning a successful fast break on the court small phasic bent-knee position can take
requires good starting power. place in the mind —think movement.
 Foundation Training 53

Driving Power
Driving power applies to contact sports such as football, rugby, soccer, and
basketball where initial contact is made and then the player has to follow
through to clear an area by moving the opponent out of the way. Some sports
considered noncontact may also involve incidental, permissible, or illicit con-
tact. No matter how contact originates, physical properties must he managed
to minimize or avoid potential injury.
Once contact is made, driving power is the ability of the player to maintain
the contact and move the opponent in the appropriate direction. Repeated drills
against a challenging opponent in many situations are the best way to develop
driving power. This is why intersquad scrimmages are so effective and are the
preferred method for high-level development.

High-Speed Quickness
High-speed quickness is the ability to adjust quickly to an opponent s move-
ments. Ideally, coaches like to have athletes with outstanding speed and quick-
ness. However, many athletes who do not have the fastest raw sprinting speed
are able to make up for their lack of speed because they have a good grasp of
the game. When these athletes are a reasonable distance from the action, their
high-speed quickness comes into play and allows them to get the job done. Soccer
and man-to-man basketball are two excellent crossover training sports to develop
high-speed quickness for any sport. Select playing situations in your sport and
apply the concept by covering your opponent as tightly as possible.

Maximum Playing Speed

Maximum playing speed is the ability to run at top speed in a sport. All of
the tests in chapter 2 give you the necessary information to assess maximum
playing speed potential and identify and fix weaknesses.
OFAS has analyzed more than 40 NFL and college all-star football games.
This sophisticated software package, coupled with computer graphics tech-
niques, found that all players, no matter what position, averaged playing speeds
well below their maximum sprinting speeds during the game. Table 3.5 sum-
marizes OFAS’ findings. A careful study of table 3.5 reveals that speed is not
a limiting factor for playing football. Speed is very important, however; work
hard on playing quickness, and it will bring you the greatest dividends.

Sustained Power Output Endurance Base

Spartans say that any army may win while it still has its legs wider it;
the real test comes when all strength is fled and the men must produce
victory on will alone.

Steven Pressfield, Gates of Fire

 54 Sports SPIW

Table 3.5 Speed Performance Comparisons

Average 40 Best game 40 test
Feet per Time Feet per Time Feet per
Performer sec. (sec.) sec. (sec.) sec. Percentage

Olympic sprinter 38 4.1 40 3.9 40.0 100

Wide receiver 24 5.7 30 . 4.7 31.8 75 to 94
Running back 21 6.5 29 4.8 31.1 68 to 93
Defensive back 20 6.7 28 5.0 30.6 65 to 92
Tight end 19 7.1 27 5.1 31.0 61 to 88

Linebacker 18 7.4 26 5.4 29.3 61 to 89

Quarterback 14 9.2 21 6.5 29.0 51 to 72

Defensive lineman 12+ 9.7 21 6.5 28.3 46 to 71

Offensive lineman 12+ 9.9 20 6.7 27.7 43 to 72

Watch hidden Spartan strength in the games you watch. See if the vic-
for this
tory goes to those teams that have the ability to persevere. Therefore, sustained
power output must have a very important place in a training program, ideally,
a training program should have provisions for developing acceptable levels of
fitness before the season. The circulatory and respiratory systems should be
brought to levels that can easily handle the specific demands of the sport.
Aerobic cycles and exercises have been proposed for training and evaluating
aerobic fitness. However, most sports are not purely aerobic. In fact, most sports
are anaerobic. In addition, some researchers have noted a negative influence
of high aerobic exercise programs on explosiveness. Therefore, we recommend
that most of the running in your training program match the speed demands
of your sport with appropriate intervals between sprints.
The suggested time motion analysis methods and the sport check scorecard
developed for your sport will give you the necessary information to develop
an appropriate workout program. It is important to consider other problems,
such as how weight control could influence how you use aerobic exercises in
your program. If you are overweight, follow the nutritional program in chapter
8. Also, spend more training time doing interval and aerobic training to help

burn more calories. Start early in the off-season so there will be plenty of time
to get your weight under control; don’t go on any crash diet programs.
Adequate aerobic conditioning is a necessary resource for sport. How much
conditioning is adequate is the question. If your sport is continuous with bursts
of speed and little recovery time, higher levels of aerobic performance are in
order. Your sport evaluation will determine what level you need to attain. In
general, strive to meet the standards given in the following sections, never fall-
ing below the category of good even when untrained and always striving for
the category of excellent or superior when highly trained for your sport.
 Foundation Training 55

Anaerobic/Aerobic Foundation

To evaluate aerobic foundation and throughout the season, the 1 .5 -mile

test it

test is a good, easy-to-administer test for continuous moving sports such as

soccer and basketball. However, we favor faster-paced tests, such as that shown
in the lower part of table 3.6.
The following tests are run at a faster pace than the 1.5-mile test. They are
excellent field tests for assessing anaerobic/aerobic fitness.

Speed Endurance: Long

The following tests are good for analyzing speed endurance for the majority
of anaerobic sports or longer sprinting distances.

300-yard shuttle done from sideline to sideline on a foot-

(or gassers, wliich are
ball or soccer field). Rim two 5-by-60-yard continuous shuttles. Rest one minute
between sets. Keep track of the drop-off between the first and second shuttle.
100-meter repeat runs. Run 10-by-100 meters at 85 to 88 percent of your
best 100 -meter time. Take 60 seconds to walk back to the starting line between
each run. Keep a graph of the times. Plot your best 100-meter and working
100-meter scores once a month.
200-meter repeat runs. Run two 4-by-200 meters at 90 percent maximum
speed. Rest one minute between repetitions and two minutes between sets.
Keep a graph of the times; plot them once a month.

Table 3.6 Aerobic Test Scores

1.5-mile test

Men Under 8:45 (470 points)* Superior

Women Under 9:45 (340 points) Superior

Men 8:45 to 10:15 (290 points) Excellent

Women 9:45 to 10:45 (250 points) Excellent

Men 10:16 to 12:00 (130 points) Good

Women 10:46 to 13:00 (60 points) Good
2 x 880 yd., rest 5 min., repeat
Men Under 2:25 (470 points) Superior

Women Under 2:42 (340 points) Superior

Men 2:25 to 2:49 (290 points) Excellent

Women 2:42 to 3:04 (250 points) Excellent

Men 2:50 to 3:15 (130 points) Good

Women 3:05 to 3:30 (60 points) Good
* Points based on computerized training programs, Garner and Purdy.
56 Sports SPEED

Note:The 200-meter and 100-meter runs are excellent distances for train-
ing and evaluation. The 100- and 200-meter runs discussed in the previous
section are two of the many possibilities available.
This test or workout was designed for sports that have a work/rest cycle
of play. However, it is an excellent workout for training speed endurance for
most sports. Do 10 repetitions of each.

Speed positions: 15-second run with a 60-second walk back

Medium positions: 16-second run with a 60-second walk back
Slower positions: + 17-second run with a 60-second walk back

Speed Endurance: Short

The 40 -yard sprint is good for analyzing speed endurance for short sprinting
distances. Run 10-by-40 yards at more than 90 percent maximum speed with
30 seconds of rest after each sprint. Use a heart rate monitor, if possible, for a
more comprehensive assessment of heart rate response during and after each
40 -yard sprint and the recovery after the set of 10 40 -yard sprints.
Foundation training serves as a sneak preview of things to come and is an
orientation course that prepares you for the rigors ahead. Certain goals should
be established as a result of your sport check scorecard and the simple tests
found in chapter 2. Each goal will serve as a guide for improving basic fitness
before advancing to the next step. The next section will lead you through the
necessary steps for developing a foundation training program. It also allows
you the flexibility of writing more advanced programs in the future.

Organizing Foundation Training

Periodization is a way of organizing training so that peak condition occurs
during the times of peak competition. The Russians led the way in scientific
training plans. Essentially, they broke training into three phases: endurance
(building an endurance base first), and power. Thus the training
strength,
year was broken down into three four- month cycles. Hie goal was to have the
athlete peak one time per year in concert with important competitions.
Sports Speed has taken current periodization science to develop a 10-phase
training year (macrocycle) that can be used as a model for all sports. The
phases selected are common periods in the training year of most sports in the
United States and can be easily identified. The example shown in table 3.7 was
developed by Bob Ward for the Dallas Cowboys when he was their condition-
ing coach under Coach Landry. It is a yearly plan that can be easily applied
to any level for baseball, basketball, football, and soccer.
Mesocycles cover weeks of training. Normally, a mesocycle will be four to
eight weeks long. Table 3.8 is an example of how volume and intensity can be
spread out over the weeks.
Mesocycles manage weeks; microcycles manage days. Table 3.9 shows four
different ways that the days of the week can be managed for a workout schedule
of three days per week.
Table 3.7 Phase Definitions for NFL Football

Phase Weeks % Name Purpose

1 1 to 6 Transition Active rest. Adaptation theory

11.5% tellsus that the body has only so
much energy in the short term and
long term to handle the demands
placed on it mentally, physically, and
environmentally.

II 7 to 11 Prep to vet Regain fitness levels. Changes in

9.6% camp performance involve a multiyear
Team check 1 process: One year builds on another. It
is much easier to retain a fitness level

than it is to gain a fitness level.

III 12 to 15 First quarter Develop new levels of performance

7.6% Team check II
• Basic resources
IV 16 to 19 Second quarter • Sport-specific skills

7.6% Team check III

• Training skills can’t begin too early
• Quality would determine when to
V 20 to 23 Third quarter begin and amount of training
7.6% Team check IV • Key principle: Seek to integrate

VI 24 to 27 Fourth quarter training factors into sport skills

7.6% Team check V

VII 28 to 33 Training camp Stressful integration of sport-specific
1 1 .5% Team check VI skills

• Putting it all together

• High level of repeatability
(sustaining % max)
VIII 34 to 41 season
First half Maintenance
15.3% Team check VII
Match difficulty of schedule with the
IX 42 to 49 Second half
workload. Some team matchups allow
15.3% season
*£
you to work through the game by doing
Season team
higher levels of work.
check VIII

X 50 to 52 Playoffs Superadaptation. Ideally, you’d like

5.7% to be able to make great jumps in

performance, but practically, it’s unlikely
that super increases in performance
can be made at this time. Experience
tells us that playing resources wane

after a long and arduous season.

Therefore, this makes recovery
extremely important at this time.

Percentages are approximations.

57
58 Sports 8PEEB

Table 3.8 Sample Four-Week, Six-Week, and Eight-Week Mesocycle

4 weeks 6 weeks 8 weeks

Week 1 High High High

Week 2 Medium Medium Medium

Week 3 High High High

Week 4 Easy competition Medium Medium

testing

Week 5 Active rest High High

Week 6 Rest Easy competition Medium

testing

Week 7 Active rest High

Week 8 Active rest Easy competition

testing

Leo Costa of Optimum Training Systems cites Bulgarian research that

presents a provocative insight into the effects of practice session length on
testosterone levels in the blood. He states, “Bulgarian researchers found that
there was 79 to 83 percent drop in blood testosterone levels after 39 to 43
a
minutes of hard exercise. Does this mean that the athlete may still have the
desire and motivation, but the body doesn’t have the resources to support such
intent? Chapter 8 will cover the implications for recovery.

Setting Objectives and Selecting Exercises

Complete the test score sheet (table 2.L page 7). Develop a list of the areas you
need to work on, listing them in order of importance to your main objective.
Complete the conditioning program schedule in table 3.10. Place the sport-
specific list on this sheet in the spaces provided. Each exercise is recorded in
the day and time period of your choice. This record becomes the workout
schedule of exercises that will remove any of your measured weaknesses. It
is important to commit yourself to the program by writing your name in the

space provided. To assure that all the necessary elements will be adequately
perfected, they should be placed in a daily schedule.
The first thing to understand about putting together a foundation training
program is that every good workout should have a primary purpose. A workout
is similar to any work of art, be it a book, a dance, or a play. There is a begin-

ning, a main purpose, and an ending. The beginning prepares the way for the
main purpose, and the ending gets you back as close as possible to a normal
level of body function. This theme is evident in every step of the sports speed
program. You can determine the purpose of the workout by first making a list
of all the critical tasks that need to be accomplished. Then arrange this list in
order of each item’s importance. Finally, allocate the time you have available
to practice each item based on its importance.
 59

Table 3.9 Sample Microcycle: Work Out Three Days a Week

Cycle intensity
High Tapered Cycloid intuitive

Day 1 High High High intensity based on

how the athlete
Day 2
feels at the time of
Day 3 High Medium high Medium easy the workout

Day 4
Day 5 High Medium easy High

Day 6
Day 7 Rest Rest Rest

Table 3.10 Conditioning Program Schedule

Name Height Weiaht % Fat

Date Time

Time Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday

7:00

8:00

9:00

10:00

11:00

12:00

1:00

2:00

3:00

4:00

5:00

6:00

7:00

To train energy systems to match those used in the sport of choice, it is im-
portant to select conditioning activities that utilize the same energy systems.
Therefore, we collected the information shown in table 3.11 to help you select
the types of exercise that match those used in your sport. Energy system, time,
and distance ranges are given to assist in the selection process.
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62 Sports SPEED

General Warm-Up
An adequate structured warm-up period of 10 to 30 minutes is best. First
exercise the large muscle groups with activities such as jogging or striding that
cause perspiration and raise core temperature one to two degrees. Next perform
stretching exercises: static (stretching to the maximum range of motion and
holding that extreme position for 10 to 30 seconds), dynamic (stretching move-
ments specific to the action of sprinting), or FNF (proprioceptive neuromuscular
facilitation, which alternates contraction and relaxation of both agonist and
antagonist muscles). Warm-up sessions increase body temperature, circulation,
and muscle elasticity and prepare you psychologically for the workout.
For example, a good warm-up routine would be to jog 440 to 880 yards in
five minutes. Jog at an easy pace then progressively run at a faster pace as you
approach the final 220 yards. You can add a variety of footwork patterns and
basic skills as you run to improve and maintain these skills.
Try build-ups and walk backs on the playing field. Even if your sport
is confined to different playing areas, it is still worth your while to spend

time in the early part of training doing this workout. Break the circuit of
120 yards of running and 120 yards of walking into four phases: 40 yards
of gradual acceleration, 40 yards of maintained speed, 40 yards of gradual
coast-down, and 120 yards of recovery (walking back). Perform 8 to 10
easy repetitions. Emphasize good running form while gradually increasing
the speed of the run.
Another variation is to jump rope for three to six minutes. The time can be
broken into rounds that emphasize various foot and hand rhythms.
Speed bag or shadow boxing for three to six minutes is another good warm-
up. (Shadow boxing can be adapted to other sports, such as a basketball player
defending an opponent.) Shadow boxing is an exercise in creative imagination.
You are fighting an imaginary opponent and in the process have a sport- specific,
meaningful way to warm up. Find those openings and use the skills to land
the most effective punch. The time can be divided into rounds that emphasize
various foot and hand combinations and rhythms.
A different warm-up routine is tennis ball reaction catching. Stand six feet
away from a wall. Throw and catch a tennis ball at increasing speeds. Gradu-
ally move forward until you are able to reach a speed and distance that yields
a 60 percent performance score. Maintain that position until you can perform
at the 80 percent score level, then increase the difficulty. Complete 100 catches
and record the following information: distance from the wall in feet at comple-
tion of 100 catches, speed (slow, medium, fast), number of catches out of 100
throws, and time to complete 100 catches. When you think you’re hot stuff,
have someone else throw the balls from behind you into a flat wall or corner.
Juggling for three to six minutes is another good warm-up. Use a variety
of juggling techniques. Lise two or three bags of various textures and weights
along with more advanced techniques such as bouncing on a mini-trampoline
or running as you juggle. When you get really good, use the balls from your
sport. These methods fit nicely into a warm-up and provide an integrated way
 Foundation Training 63

of training the brain, neuromuscular system, and visual elements (tracking

and peripheral vision).
To warm up for balance, stand on one foot for 30 to 60 seconds. Increase
difficulty by circling or drawing eights with the free leg. You can add advanced
variations by changing the patterns to circles, squares, triangles, and so on.
Proper warm-up and stretching reduces the incidence of soft tissue injuries,
mentally prepares an athlete, and aids performance. A general warm-up period
will adequately prepare an athlete for the flexibility portion of the program.

Flexibility

Flexibility (stretching) exercises are often too closely associated with the warm-
up. Consequently, some athletes make the common mistake of stretching cold
muscles before beginning a workout, rather than first warming up the body
with large-muscle activities such as walking or jogging for five to eight min-
utes or until perspiration is evident. At this point, body temperature has been
elevated two to four degrees and muscles can be safelv stretched. Keep in mind
that you warm up to stretch, you do not stretch to warm up.
Some athletes need to stretch more than others. Lean body types with a
good range of motion may need very little stretching, whereas stocky, more
powerfully built athletes with limited ranges of motion need 5 to 10 minutes
of flexibility exercises before making any radical moves such as bending over
to touch the toes or explosive jumping or sprinting. Athletes of all ages and
skill levels can benefit from stretching. Routines can be gentle, easy, relaxing,

and safe, or they can be extremely vigorous.

A daily stretching routine will help increase range of motion, improve playing
and sprinting performance by conserving energy and increasing fluid motion,
aid muscle relaxation, aid sprinting form, and help you cool down at the end
of your workout. An improvement in overall flexibility may improve speed by
slightly increasing stride rate and decreasing energy expenditure and resistance
during sprinting. Regular stretching also helps reduce the incidence of injuries
that may occur in high-speed activities and sport competitions. Continuous
exeycise such as jogging, running, cycling, and aerobics tightens and shortens
muscles. Tight muscles are more vulnerable to injury from the explosive move-
ments common in sports. A brief warm-up followed by stretching will not only
increase range of motion but will also provide some protection from common
soft tissue injuries such as strains, sprains, and tears. Striving to maintain a
full normal range of motion in each joint with adequate strength, endurance,

and power throughout the range will reduce your chances of experiencing an
exercise -induced injury.
Stretching exercises should be used to prepare the body for vigorous activity
during the regular warm-up routine before each workout, to return muscles to
a normal relaxed state during the cool-down, and to improve range of motion
any time you can work exercise into your schedule.
If your flexibility test scores from the assessment in chapter 2 were poor, plan

to stretch for a longer period of time before and after each workout, after sitting
64

or standing for long periods, whenever you feel stiff, or even while engaged
in passive activities such as watching TV or listening to music. Remember to
first elevate your body temperature and produce some sweat by engaging in

large muscle group activity before stretching.

When recovering from soft tissue injuries, focus on reducing pain and swell-
ing, returning to normal strength, and achieving full nonrestricted range of
motion. Unless regular stretching begins as soon as pain and swelling have
been eliminated, loss of flexibility in the injured joint is almost certain.
A well-rounded flexibility program for speed improvement must devote
attention to all the body’s major joints: the neck, shoulders, back, and hips,
as well as the knees and ankles. You can increase range of motion in each of
these major joints in six to eight weeks by following one of the recommended
stretching techniques.
Several approaches to stretching have been shown to safely increase range
of motion (ROM): dynamic stretching (used at the beginning of each workout
after the general warm-up period) and static or PNF stretching (used at the end
of the workout during the cool-down period). For each exercise, concentrate
on two phases of stretching: (1 ) easy stretching in which you move slowly into
the stretch and apply mild tension with a steady, light pressure or execute a
dynamic movement at slow speed and (2) developmental stretching in which
you increase the intensity for an inch or less, easing off the stretch if the ten-
sion does not diminish, or increase the speed of the dynamic movement from
low to medium to high.
Dynamic stretching exercises involve sport-specific movements such as high
knees lifts, stationary arm swings, running in place and sprinting form drills
such as butt kickers, quick feet, down-and-offs, pull throughs, wall slide, cy-
cling, African Dance, and Drum Major (see chapter 12). This technique uses
the range of jointmovement during physical activity progressing from low to
medium to high speed. Stretching movements are nearly identical to a specific
activity such as jogging, sprinting, jumping or to movements in a sport and
have the highest correlation to sport performance. Movements of a sport or
activity are performed with the limbs moving motion in
to near full range of
the sport or activity. Five to six exercises should be completed immediately
following the general warm-up session and involve 6 to 8 repetitions at each
speed (low, medium, high).
Static stretching involves a slow move into the stretch before applying steady
pressure until the point of discomfort without bouncing or jerking. Each static
exercise should be completed slowly, beginning with a 10 to 15 second hold,
adding 2 to 3 seconds each workout, until you can comfortably maintain the
hold position at the extreme ROM for 30 to 45 seconds. Disregard the “no
pain, no gain mentality; improvement occurs without undue pain. Joint pres-
sure should produce only mild discomfort. Too much pain and discomfort is
a sign you are overloading soft tissue and risking injury. After experiencing
mild discomfort with each stretch, relax the muscles being stretched before the
next repetition. You will learn to judge each exercise by the “stretch and feek'
method, easing off the push if pain becomes intense or gets worse as the exercise
 Foundation Training 65

progresses. You can begin with the neck and progress down to the shoulders
and chest, trunk and lower back, groin, hips, abdomen, and upper and lower
legs. Use during the cool-down period at the end of the workout.

Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretching is a two-person

technique based on the contract- and-hold principle. PNF stretching requires a
partner to apply steady pressure to a body area at the extreme range of motion
until you feel a slight discomfort. When stretching the hamstrings, for example,
lie on your back with one leg extended to 90 degrees or a comfortable stretch.

Have your partner apply steady pressure as you attempt to raise your leg
further overhead. Push against the resistance by contracting the muscle being
stretched. This isometric hamstring contraction produces no leg movement
because your partner will resist the force you apply during the push. After a
10-second push, relax your hamstrings while your partner applies pressure
for an additional 5 seconds. Repeat two or three times.
The PNF method involves four phases: an initial easy stretch of the muscle,
an isometric contraction with resistance from a partner, relaxation of 5 seconds,
and a final passive stretch for 5 seconds. PNF stretching relaxes the muscle
group being stretched, producing greater muscle length and improving flexibil-
ity. Disadvantages include the presence of some discomfort, a longer workout

time, and the inability to stretch without a partner. PNF or static stretching is
used at the end of the workout during the cool-down period.
For static or PNF stretching, choose at least one stretching exercise for each
of the major muscle groups and apply exercises equally to both sides of the
body. These exercises represent a sound general stretching routine for sprinting
and most team sports. Approach this session with an attitude of relaxation.

Hamstrings. Here are the two best ways to stretch the hamstrings at the
back of the upper legs. First stand erect with both knees slightly bent. Bend
over and touch the ground, holding your maximum stretch position. While
in the maximum stretch position, you can slightly flex and extend each leg
alternately. Second lie on your back. Sit up and reach for your toes with both
knees slightly bent, holding your maximum stretch position. Keep both knees
slightly bent in both exercises to remove the pressure from your lower back.

Quadriceps. The quadriceps are the muscles in the front of the upper legs.

To on your left leg. Grasp your right ankle with your

stretch the quads, stand
right hand and pull your heel toward your buttocks, holding your maximum
stretch position. Repeat using your other leg.

Hips. To stretch your hips, on your back and then relax and straighten
lie

both legs. Pull your left foot toward your chest and hold. Repeat using the right
foot. Increased flexibility in the ankles, hips, and shoulders may help prevent
understriding because of inflexibility.

Groin. To stretch the groin area, assume a sitting position with the soles of your
feet together. Place your hands around your feet and pull yourself forward.

Calves. To stretch your calves, stand about two feet from a wall and lean
forward in a stride position with the lead leg bent and the rear leg extended.
66 Sports SPEED

Move your hips forward and keep the heel of the straight leg on the ground
until you feel a stretch in your calf.

Tendon and Soleus. To stretch the Achilles tendon and the soleus,
Achilles
stand approximately two feet from a wall or fence in a stride position. Bend the
back knee slightly, keep both heels on the ground, and lean forward. Increased
range of motion in the ankle (extension) may favorably improve stride length.

Cool-Down
The cool-down period after any vigorous workout is quite
justification for a
simple. Blood returns to the heart through a system of veins; the blood is pushed
along by heart contractions, and the milking action of the veins is assisted by
muscle contractions during exercise. Veins contract, or squeeze, and move the
blood forward against gravity while valves prevent the blood from backing
up. If you stop exercising suddenly, this milking action also ceases, and blood
return will drop quickly. This may cause blood pooling (blood remaining in
the same area) in the legs, leading to deep breathing, which may in turn lower
carbon dioxide levels and produce muscle cramps. At this point, blood pressure
drops precipitously and causes functional problems. The body compensates for
the unexpected drop in pressure by secreting as much as 100 times the normal
amount of a hormone called norepinephrine. This high level of norepinephrine
can cause cardiac problems for some individuals during the recovery phase of
vigorous exercises such as a marathon or triathlon.
The final three to eight minutes of a workout should involve a period of
slowly diminishing intensity through the use of a slow jog for three quarters
of a mile to one mile at a pace of three to four minutes per quarter mile, each
quarter mile slower than the previous one. The ideal cool-down should take
place in the same environment as the workout (except in extremely hot or cold
weather), last at least five minutes, and be followed by a brief stretching pe-
riod. Stretching during the final phase of the cool-down period helps fatigued
muscles return to normal resting length and a more relaxed state, reducing the
chance of muscle soreness the following day.
The importance of foundation training cannot be overestimated. It is the
bedrock, the foundation on which you build all other steps. The sport check
scorecard has given you the basis for your individualized program. Periodiza-
tion was given to help properly put all the parts of the program into a logical
sequence. The testing program was designed to help you consider the demands
of your sport and identify any limitations that need to be corrected.
Remember, there are no make-ups on the road to maximum development,
no opportunities to get what you didn't get when you were supposed to get it! A
later start on this road to development decreases the number of neural pathways
developed, reduces the number of acquired skills, and ensures that you will not
reach maximum potential in your sport. But don't stop now just because you
started a bit late —
keep on going. Don't worry if you've been a little lazy in the
past. Our sports speed program will help you be the best you can be wherever
you are. Keep this in mind as you move into strength and power training.
 Chapter 4

unctional strength and power training aims to improve your ability to

F apply sufficient force to an opponent or object at the right time, at the
required performance speed, and in the right direction. The key is to discover
how much force is required at various times during the game and to learn to
precisely apply that force. As functional strength and power increase, so will
horsepower reserve (speed strength), which will allow you to play the game at
a lower percent of capacity, with more available power for the more demanding
adjustments that arise during the game. Certainly, a big benefit of a high horse-
power automobile engine is its rapid acceleration. Similarly, a high-powered
human body will reach a chosen speed more quickly than a lower-powered
body. Improved functional strength and power can provide this advantage.
Before we discuss the purpose of the functional strength program, let’s take
a look at the basic elements that make up a game or competition to see what
kind of program is required. Although these events may vary according to the
situation and sport, most competitive sports have some sort of stimulus that
requires a response.
Each one of us comes with built-in performance qualities that can be influ-
enced by a functional strength program. Each of these qualities has a range
of trainability. These qualities determine how fast we recognize and respond
in athletic situations and therefore determine our level of success or failure in
our chosen sports.
the primary purpose of a functional strength and power program is to
develop the required force and tissue capacity for your sport. Tissue capacity
includes the ability of body tissues to defend, build, repair, heal, regenerate,
remodel, and regulate themselves. Ali functional changes bring structural
changes in tissues and systems. These changes involve the whole organism.
Any builder knows that the materials used in construction must be able to
sustain the loads in all stress ranges. The human body also has its limitations.
These limitations were very evident when former Washington Redskins quar-
terback Joe Theismann was seriously injured in an NFL game. During a sack,
functional demands were placed on his leg that exceeded the physiological limits
of bone and soft tissue. As a result, something had to give —
Joe’s leg. Doctors,
coaches, athletes, and fans should recognize that forces in sport can and do

67
68 Sports SPEED

go beyond human tolerance. Often the forces exceed the tissue’s capacity to
protect the body, and Although there can be no guarantee that
injuries occur.
a high leve! of functional strength and power will provide protection from such
injuries, it does provide some amount of basic insurance.
With proper training, the human body will take care of needed structural
changes. Tissues will be strengthened as a natural consequence of functional
strength and power training. You must also develop enough additional size,
strength, and power reserve so you can perform at the very high playing speeds
in your sport and still protect yourself from injury. Unquestionably, the most
important injury prevention factor is to be an alert, highly skilled player with
the ability to control the forces on the field. Proper use of the program de-
scribed in this chapter will do the rest. Immediate and long-term benefits will
be evident through improved performance, faster recovery time, reduction in
injuries, and reduced healing time should an injury occur.
The ability to propel a stationary body into rapid movement and exert maxi-
mal force requires both strength and power (speed strength). An athlete may
be quite strong yet lack explosive power and be incapable of sprinting a fast
40-yard or 40-meter dash. Speed and power training should involve movements
that are similar to those in the sport (the principle of specificity).

Work ant Pomp

The relationship ofwork and power can be illustrated by imagining yourself
completing a simple task. The task is to move 100 10 -pound weights onto a one-
foot-high train in 10 seconds. The train will depart in 10 seconds; therefore, you
get credit only for the weights on the train. In a similar manner, the foot of the
sprinter has a window of time to apply force. Accordingly, it is important that
you train to meet the many specific power output requirements in your sport.
Table 4. 1 summarizes the power output of an athlete who moves 10 weights
from the platform to the train in 10 seconds. Remember that in most explosive
sports, there is about .1 to .3 second to apply additional force at the foot. The
only way to increase speed of action is to accelerate (increase speed of work)
the speed at which the 10-pound weights are moved.
This illustration tells us a great deal about what we must do to run or play
at faster speeds. Many of the activities in this book have been designed to
identify, correct, or improve the ability to apply more force at the foot during
ground contact. In good sprinting, the time you have to make this adjustment
is about 10 second. The timing required for generating more force at the foot
.

is like the timing required for cracking a whip. The better the sequencing of

the limbs of the body, the more effective or louder the pop of the whip or the
faster we run and play.
The results given in table 4.1 show that the athlete was credited with only
10 percent of the power and work possible. Only the work and power recorded
in the allotted time counted. Similarly, in sprint training, a sprinter’s foot is in
 Strength and Power Training 69

Table 4.1 Fewer Output

Total lb.
available Total lb. in 10 sec. Total work in 10 sec. Total power in 10 sec.

1 ,000 lb. 10 x 10 lb. — 100 lb. x 1 ft. = 100 ft./lb./ 10 sec. =

100 lb. 100 ft./lb. 10 ft./lb./sec.

1 00% 10% 10% 10%

contact with the ground for about .09 to .1 1 second at a time. Any force that is
not applied at the foot during this time is of no use in sprinting faster. Think of
the many complicated tasks in your sport to see how important this principle
is. Imagine the complexities of covering your opponent during the game. What
if you need to move or cut left, which requires a planting of the right foot, but
your right foot is still in the air? Add this delay time into the playing equation
to see how
your opponent will be from you in the time it takes you
far to put
your foot on the ground to apply appropriate countering force.

Acceleration er Mass?
Most team sports are played with multiple starts and stops and many direc-
tional changes. Under these circumstances, it is no surprise that average speeds
used during competition are well below players' maximum sprinting speeds.
It is interesting to note that all-pro running backs such as Tony Dorsett, Em-

mitt Smith, and Barry Sanders generate as much force as big linemen in short
ranges. This fact dramatically illustrates that the amount of force generated
is influenced by either a change in the player’s mass (weight) or acceleration
(quickness of movement).
you have a choice, the best way to generate force is to increase acceleration.
If

Obviously, these all-pro running backs are able to accelerate more rapidly than
3 00 -pound linemen and, therefore, match the linemen’s force output to make
first downs in short yardage situations. The standoff between the giant linemen

and'smaller, quicker running backs can produce a structural problem for the
running back because of his less protective body tissues. The smaller running
back does give away a lot of protective tissue that could be used to absorb the
forces of constant pounding. The best of both worlds is to become a big and
fast running back like Hall of Farners Jim Brown and Earl Campbell.

Work Fast to Be Fast

Because the work fast to be fast principle is essential in all explosive sports,
we recommend you make use of high power output exercises for mental
and physical focus. Weights can be
used to train for explosive
selectively
sports. It is important to recognize that there is a fine range of speeds
70 Sports SPEED

and loads that must be adhered maximize transfer to your

to in order to
sport. Tissue strength will be gained over a wide range of high- intensity
explosive One guideline is to use the threshold principle discussed
lifts.

in chapter 3. Remember that mental quickness is an essential element of

physical quickness; you must think fast to be fast.

A number programs have been successful in bridging the

of training
gap between strength and power to improve speed strength and sprinting
speed. Combinations of weight training, explosive power training, and
various forms of traditional speed training (speed endurance, overspeed,
sprint loading) significantly improve speed in short distances.
Many weight room exercises can be used to develop functional strength
and power output. Inertial impulse exercises and Olympic lifts are the
most important of these exercises.

Inertial Impulse
According to Albert (1995), functional activities and sports activities have
"

been shown to occur between 700 to 6,000 degrees per second for the upper
and lower limbs.’ Therefore, performance measurements and training should
fall in these same ranges. Unfortunately, few machines can step up to the plate

and swing at those speeds. An exception is the Impulse Training Systems ma-
chine by EMA, Inc. (www.sportsscience.com) which is capable of hitting the
conditioning and rehabilitation ball out of the traditional training ballpark.
Impulse training exercise machines are available at many rehabilitation
centers. Impulse training machines have a nongravity, horizontal sliding load-
ing mechanism for working the athlete. A handle and rope connection to the
horizontal sliding mechanism allows the do a variety of rehabilitation
athlete to
and sport -specific actions. Scientific data can be collected from the exercising
athlete by connecting an accelerometer or force transducer and oscilloscope
to the rope handle device.
These machines provide a major breakthrough in training on-field power
in the weight room. Although various inertial impulse training devices, such
as the speed bag, have been used in the gym for other purposes (see chapter
5 for more practical suggestions), special inertial impulse machines are dif-
ferent in that they can be used for numerous body actions and with various
loads and speeds, depending on the desired outcome. In fact, these machines
provide the perfect illustration of the interrelationship between mass (weight)
and acceleration (quickness).
To feel the impact of the Impulse Training System in a familiar skill setting,
imagine putting 500 pounds in a wheelbarrow and then recording how fast you
could get it moving and how quickly you could stop it. No doubt you would
find that it takes a lot of time to start and stop the wheelbarrow. Suppose you
took the weight out of the wheelbarrow and did the same experiment. Would
you feel the difference? If you lined up some football dummies and tried to
 Strength and Power Training 71

knock them down with the heavy and light wheelbarrows from one, two, and
three feet away, what would the results be? Weight and quickness apply to
performance in any sport. Even in noncontact sports, this principle can be used
to improve sport performance and reduce the likelihood of injury.
Some of the benefits you can expect to gain from using impulse training
include the duplication of and selected increase in on-field forces, functional
strength and power gains that are transferable to competition in your sport,
stronger tendons and ligaments, and a reduction in training time. Dr. Jim
Counsilman, noted swim coach from Indiana University, coined the term for
this type of training as “programmable acceleration. He believes program-
mable acceleration programs will form the basis of modern sports speed training
programs in the near future. Although most facilities don’t have the kind of
equipment to apply a precise acceleration program, a small level of effective-
ness can still be achieved by using barbells and dumbbells.
If you don’t have access to special impulse training equipment, use any

system that you can hit and that hits you back or that you can respond to as
a training device, including all kinds of plyometrics, speed bags, boxing, and,
yes, even a pool.
The pool provides the most universally available way to apply program-
mable acceleration techniques. Many of the major body movements can be
exercised in the water by moving very short distances (inches to about a foot)
with rapid starts and stops that mimic specific positions of the skill. You can
do sets of 10, each set lasting 20 seconds. Practice either a limited starting
position or a complete joint range of motion for the desired actions. Actions
can be explosive or rehabilitative. Therefore, the complete exercise spectrum of
training objective speeds can be included. For instance, a discus thrower can
work the discus arm action with the throwing arm by quickly starting, stop-
ping, and returning to the original starting position. Be creative by designing
special exercises for your sport and applying them to your program.

Weight Throwing
Weighft throwing is the most practical, yet under- systematized, method avail-
able for conditioning in team sports. Track and field throwers have used this
method for many years. Plagenhoef’s research (1971) showed that hammer
throwing produces the highest moments (forces) in sport. Before specialization
entered the athletic world and redirected conditioning programs, many football
programs used track and field as a part of their out-of-season and preseason
conditioning programs. In fact, Bob Ward’s entry into the NFL was highly
influenced by his background and training in track and field and football.
The Pud is a throwing device of varying weights that is thrown into an area
about the size of a shot put area. Any level surface, ground, cement, or shot
ring can be used. The standard Pud has a fixed handle attached to a weight
that can be gripped with one or two hands (figure 4.1). However there are
other similar devices that can be used for throwing.
72 Sports SPIED

Lance Deal, American record holder in the

hammer, designed the Puds. They can he used
in a variety of specific explosive power exer-
cises. On Tracks (www.ontrack.com) carries the
Puds in 14-, 21 and 35-pound sizes.
28-,
A comprehensive program should include
throwing in all the planes of the body through
all the angles used in throwing. Remember to
keep an equal number of left and right throws
to keep the body balanced.
There are three stances: square with feet
shoulder-width apart facing the throwing
area; with feet shoulder-width apart, front
foot closest to the throwing area; and rear
facing as in the square stance.
Swing the weight back, turning the shoul-
ders around and bending the legs on the back
Figure 4.1 A Pud throwing device.
swing (figure 4.2). Take a number of swings
with the weight before throwing it to develop good rhythm and timing. Try
performing left and right one-handed throws to the side, left and right two-
handed throws to the side (figure 4.3), two-handed throws over the head

Figure 4.2 Back swing when throwing the Figure 4.3 Two-handed Pud throw to the
Pud. side.
 Strength and Power Training 73

while facing away from the throwing

area (extend your body up and back
during the throw), and two-handed
throws after swinging between your
legs (extend your body up and back
as you throw) (figure 4.4).
Include Pud throwing in your
program after skill work and prior
to weight lifting. Warm up prior to
throwing hard. Start with the lightest
weight and move up to the heaviest. Do
1 set of 4 throws with left and right or

per each throwing action if you have

all four weights (1 rep per weight).

Of course, the nature of your workout

will depend on the number of different
weights available. On
speed days, use
lighter weights; heavier weights are Figure 4.4 Two-handed Pud throw, swing
used for strength building. between legs.

Olympic lifts
Olympic lifts most commonly recommended and used exercises in
are the
sophisticated power and speed training programs. In a study of the heavi-
est successful lifts in the snatch and the clean and jerk for five Olympic gold
medalists, Garhammer (1991) showed that "athletes trained in the Olympic
style of weightlifting have an extremely high capacity to develop power, which
is necessary for success in the sport.’ Since Olympic lifts require high power

output, they have become popular exercises in sport conditioning programs.

In addition, proper lifting teaches good fundamental body mechanics that may
be adapted to many sports.
These exercises provide an excellent means of improving functional strength
and'power. Because Olympic lifts usually do not involve a trunk -twisting ac-
tion when performed with a barbell, a one-hand dumbbell will yield greater
benefits and complement the barbell exercises.
Free weight exercises are preferred over machines for two major reasons: The
actual movement and muscle involvement for which you are training can be
replicated more closely, and the three-phase response of the body to stressors
(Selye’s general adaptation syndrome) is enhanced.
Power exercises, such as Olympic lifts, focus on optimum starting speed and
blinding quickness in movements from power positions and in recovery to catch
the weight. They train the mind and body to develop peak force, they aid in
increasing the amount of time peak force is applied, they develop force in a
short period of time, and they emphasize good body position and movements
that cross over into other sports.
74 Sports SPEED

mmmmmmmmmmmm m s
'
g wiWMm, < r
-

CLEAN (BARBELL AND DUMBBELL)

The clean develops the large muscles of the body in an explosive action
(figure 4.5)
that requires the use of many joints and muscle groups in a coordinated movement.
The use of dumbbells requires a twisting of the body and tends to enhance training
benefits.
Assume a comfortable stance with feet spread about hip- to shoulder-width
apart. Grasp the bar with an overhand grip at slightly wider than shoulder-width.
You can use an overhand hooked strap Bend your legs at the start of the lift,

and use your legs to lift the weight first.

Maintain a straight back and hold it
tightly in that position as you bring the
bar up, keeping the bar close to your
body. Place your shoulders over the bar
(8 to 12 centimeters). Rebend your legs
after the bar clears the knees. Keep your
arms straight; remember, this is a leg
and back exercise. Jump vertically into
the lift with your legs, pulling the bar as
high as possible. Your arms will blend in

and back action. Drive your

after the leg
elbows up. Drop your body quickly and
catch the bar on your shoulders while
bringing your elbows quickly under the
bar.
Figure 4.5a

Figure 4.5b Figure 4.5c

 Strength and Power Training 75

Near-maximum weight will require that you go into a deep knee bend to catch
the bar; therefore, leg and back strength is essential for Use the “1 .3
good lifting.

times the clean” rule for estimating squatting strength (maximum clean in pounds
times 1.3 equals squat weight). This estimate provides an excellent guide to en-
sure sufficient foundational leg and back strength.

JERK (BARBELL, DUMBBELL, AND MACHINE RACK)

The jerk (figure 4.6) develops the large muscle groups of the body with an explosive,
total body, multijointed action.
Take the bar from the rack work primarily on the jerking movement. Assume
to
a comfortable stance with feet spread hip- to shoulder-width apart. Grasp the bar
with palms facing up. Hands should be slightly wider than shoulder-width. Rest
the bar primarily on your shoulders. Keep your back vertical and tight. Bend your
legs with a quick dipping action. Experience will help you find the proper depth
for a quick, explosive return. (A depth of 10 15 percent of the athlete’s height is
to
recommended.) Jump explosively into the bar, attempting to drive the bar as high
as possible. The bar should move overhead. The action of your shoulders
vertically
and arms will blend into the explosive leg jumping action. Drop directly beneath
the bar, catching it straight over your shoulders. In the catch phase, the legs can
be kept shoulder-width apart or in stride position. Experiment to determine which
foot to place forward. Both feet should be turned in. Straighten your arms vertically,

Figure 4.6a Figure 4.6b

 76 Sports SPEED

holding them and the rest of your body rigidly.Return to the erect position by mov-
ing the front foot back first with a slight jab step (this shortens the distance), and
then step forward with your back foot.

SNATCH (BARBELL AND DUMBBELL)

%

The snatch (figure 4.7) develops the explosiveness of the muscle groups of the body
in a coordinated multijointed action.
Assume a comfortable stance with feet spread about shoulder-width apart.
Widen the clean grip so that at full extension the height of the bar will be lower and
therefore require less vertical work. Experience will help you determine the optimal
grip to use for a traditional lift. The close grip can be used as a variation. Bend your
legs before lifting the bar and use them to get the weight off the ground. Your back
should be held straight with arms medially rotated as far as possible to place your
shoulders over the bar. Place your shoulders over the bar. Keep the bar close to
your body. Rebend your legs after the bar clears the knees. Keep your arms straight
to allow the legs and back to lift the bar as high as possible. Jump vertically into the
lift with your legs, pulling the bar with your arms as high as possible. Your arms will

fit in the action after the legs and back have done their part. Drive elbows up. Drop

your body quickly, and catch the bar directly over your head and shoulders.
Keep in mind that leg and back strength is essential in all aspects of lifting, but it
is extremely important in the recovery phase when lifting maximum weights.

Figure 4.7a Figure 4.7b

 Strength and Power Training 77

Sample Power Output Program

The speedweek principles, covered in greater detail in chapter 13, use high-
intensity work Monday through Wednesday when the body isn t as fatigued. A
power exercise program using Olympic lifts should be performed on Monday
and Wednesday after completing your overspeed and sports speed programs.
Your one repetition maximum (1RM) should be used as the basis for loading.
To determine 1RM, find the maximum weight that you can lift in one repetition
for each exercise. Table 4.2 shows six levels of workout intensity based on the
percent of 1RM and the quality developed.
The sample program shown in table 4.3 indicates how Olympic lifts should
be incorporated into a program to increase maximum strength. You can see
from the numbers in the table that there are wide ranges in intensities, with
loads increasing to or close to 1RM. Maximize rest between sets to minimize
the effects of fatigue as a limiting factor. It is recommended that you vary lift
emphasis on Monday and Wednesday. For instance, the clean can be at higher
intensities and volumes on Monday, and the jerk can be at higher intensities

Table 4.2 Rating Intensities ol the 1 RM for Exercise Prescription

1RM (%) Rating Quality developed

90+ Very heavy Strength

80 to 90 Heavy Strength and strength endurance

70 to 80 Medium Power and strength endurance

60 to 70 Medium light Power and muscle endurance

50 to 60 Light Power and muscle endurance

40 to 50 Easy Threshold of training effect

Table 4.3 Sample Program Using Olympic Lifts

" — ' * " r “““

Monday Wednesday
Warm-up Warm-up

Cleans: Snatches:
3 to 6 sets 3 to 6 sets
3 to 5 repetitions per set 3 to 5 repetitions per set
66 to 100% Of 1RM 66 to 1 00% of 1 RM
1 .5 to 5 min. rest between sets 1 .5 to 5 min. rest between sets

Jerks: Cleans:
3 to 6 sets 3 to 6 sets
3 to 5 repetitions per set 3 to 5 repetitions per set
66 to 100% of 1 RM 66 to 100% of 1 RM
1 .5 to 5 min. rest between sets 1 .5 to 5 min. rest between sets
78 Sports SPEED

and volumes on Wednesday. The power component in this step will be of great
use as you continue to step three, ballistics, in which time for work output
decreases at a tremendous rate while loads on the body increase.

functional Strength Program tor the

Serious Athlete
The components workout schedule remain the same during
of the complete
the preseason; however, intensity and duration increase during the second half.
In phase A of the preseason, most exercises should start at approximately 50
percent of your maximum level as a general guide. The rate of increase should
be variable, such as 8 to 10 percent per week if previous maximum levels are
to be regained by the time you begin phase B.
Phase B is composed of many sets and repetitions at a high percentage of
1RM for each lift. An increased intensity in muscle endurance is also a definite
objective sought during this period. The increase in workout intensity will
require a comparable increase in the number of sets (at least five sets in most
workout will increase from two to
areas); consequently, the length of the ideal
three hours. Table 4.4 outlines a standard program to help you get started.

Table 4.4 Sample Functional Strength Program

1. Warm-up, flexibility, body control: running or jumping techniques

a. Jogging one-half mile or jumping rope (5 min.)
b. Speed bags (boxing bags of various sizes, 15 min.)
c. Running and jumping for flexibility (10 min.)

2. Power position exercises (40 min.)

a. Snatch: power
b. Snatch: split squat
c. Clean and push jerk
d. Pull

3. Legs and back (23 min.) —3 to 5 sets of 3 to 5 repetitions per set

a. Deadlifts
b. Squats: front
c. Squats: back
4. Shoulders and arms (18 min.) —3 to 5 sets of 3 to 5 repetitions per set
a. Incline
b. Bench
c. Curls
5. Abdominal muscles and neck (9 min.)

a. Four-way neck: 1 set of 8 to 12 repetitions

b. Rotary neck: 1 set of 6 repetitions each way
c. Abdominal muscles: 3 sets of 25 repetitions per set
 2

Strength and Power Training 79

A minimum two strength sessions weekly, preferably every other day, is

of
needed to improve speed strength: one workout per week during the season
will nearly maintain off-season gains. During the first two weeks of a newly
started program, more recuperation time is needed. Using maximum and near-
maximum weight also lengthens recovery time. Short (45 minutes or less),
highly intense workouts allow athletes to train more often.
Table 4.5 shows a sample functional strength and power program for a
beginner. Three sets of the leg press exercise would be performed, first with
60 percent of maximum for 10 repetitions, second at 65 percent of maximum
for 8 repetitions, and third at 70 percent of maximum for 6 repetitions. The
same procedure should be followed for each exercise.
A sample program for the athlete at the intermediate stage of strength de-
velopment is shown in table 4.6. A workout would involve three sets of five to
eight repetitions of each exercise, with the first set at 60 percent of maximum,
the second set at 65 percent of maximum, and the third and final set at 70
percent of maximum.
The advanced program shown in table 4.7 is programmed for high inten-
sity. Four sets are performed: the first set at 60 percent of maximum for five
repetitions, the second set at 75 percent of maximum for three repetitions, the

Table 4.5 Sample Functional Strength and Power Program lor Beginners

Exercise RM Monday Wednesday Friday

Warm-up: ffexibility Before every workout

Legs and back:

Leg press L M H
Knee extension L M H
Knee flexion L M H
Toe raises L M H

Shoulders and arms:

Lat pull-down M H L
Behch press M H L
Press (seated) H M L
Press (standing) H M L
Curls (dumbbells) M H L

Trunk and abdomen:

Sit-ups (bent knee) 3 X 15 3X15 3X15
Neck:
Partner four-way neck 3 x 8 to 12 3 X 8 to 12 3 X 8 to 1

Percent RM, sets, and repetitions:

60% RM, 1X10; 65% RM, X 8; 70% RM, X 6
Light (L): 1 1

Medium (M): 60% RM, 1X10; 70% RM, 1 X 8; 80% RM, X 1 6

Heavy (H): 60% RM, 1X10; 70% RM, X 8; 75% RM, 1 X 6
1
 2

80 Sports SPUB

Table 4.6 Sample Functional Strength and Power Program for

Intermediate Athletes

Exercise RM Monday Wednesday Friday

Warm-up: flexibility Before every workout

Power: clean H M L

Legs and back: »

Squat L M H
Deadlift M H L
Knee extension M H L

Shoulders:
Bench press H M L
Press (seated, behind M H L
neck) L M H
Rowing (bent over)

Trunk and abdomen:

Sit-ups (medicine ball) 2X12 2 X 12 2X12
Sit-ups (crunches) 3 X 25 3 X 25 3 X 25
Trunk (hyperextension) 2 X 12 2X12 2X12
Neck:
Partner four-way neck 3 X 8 to 12 3 x 8 to 1 3 X 8 to 12

Percent RM, sets, and repetitions:

60% RM, X 5 to 8; 65% RM, X 5 to 8; 70% RM, X 5 to 8
Light (L): 1 1 1

Medium (M): 50% RM, X 5 to 8; 70% RM, 1 X 5 to 8; 80% RM, X 5

1 1

Heavy (H): 60% RM, X 5 to 8; 75% RM, X 5; 85% RM, 1 X 5

1 1

third set at 85 percent of maximum for three repetitions, and the fourth set at
90 percent of maximum for two repetitions.
Explosive power in all directions is a critical quality to demonstrate as an
athlete. In fact Counsilman stated that the Russian and East German coaches
felt so strongly about explosive power that they monitored training sessions

and stopped their athletes if their speeds decreased below the desired speed
of movement. To apply this concept to your program, stop if your perceived
speed of action decreases.
Advanced athletes can train by performing the clean, jerk, or
this quality
snatch one time at 70 percent on one of the speedweek sessions (Monday or
Wednesday), by working with weights at fast speeds with 70 percent 1RM for
12 repetitions, and by working with weights at fast speeds with 50 to 60 percent
1RM for 16 to 20 repetitions. Table 4.8 lists performance standards for men in
percent body weight for various feats of functional strength and power.
Table 4.7 Sample Functional Strength and Power Program for Advanced Athletes

Exercise RM Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

Power:
Clean, power M H
Snatch, power M H
Jerk, rack H M L

Legs and back:

Pull, clean M L H
Deadlift H M
Squat L M H
Squat, front M
Shoulders, chest,
and arms:
Bench press H M
Incline press M H
Rowing H M L
Flys, supine L M
Trunk and abdomen:
Trunk 3 X 10 3 X 10
(hyperextension) (60%) (70%)
Sit-ups 3 X 25 3 X 25 3 X 25
(bent knee) (60%) (70%)

Neck:
Partner four-way 3 X 8 to 12 3 X 8 to 12 3 x 8 to
neck 12

Percent RM, sets, and repetitions:

60% RM, X 5; 65% RM, 1 X 5; 70% RM, X 5
Light (L): 1 1

Medium (M): 60% RM, X 5; 70% RM, 1 X 5; 80% RM, 1 X 5

1

Heavy (H): 60% RM, X 5; 75% RM, 1 X 3; 85% RM, 1 X 3; 90% RM,
1 1 X 2

81
Table 4.8 Functional Strength Performance Standards

Clean and Power

Level Snatch Clean jerk curl Pull

Very poor .50 .90 .90 .70 1.10

Poor .70 1.10 1.10 .90 1.30

Average .90 1.30 1.30 1.10 1.50

Good 1.10 1.50 1.50 1.30 1.70

Excellent 1.30 1.70 1.70 1.50 1.90

Legs and back

135° 90° Full
1/4 back 1/2 back 3/4 back Front Good
Level squat squat squat squat Deadlift morning

Very poor 1.70 1.50 1.30 1.20 1.30 .30

Poor 2.00 1.80 1.60 1.40 1.60 .40

Average 2.30 2.10 1.90 1.60 1.90 .50

Good 2.60 2.70 2.50 2.00 2.50 .70

Excellent 2.90 2.70 2.50 2.00 2.50 .70

Arms and shoulders

Dips Push-ups
Level Military Incline Bench (20 sec.) (20 sec.)

Very poor .40 .50 .80 4 reps 11 reps

Poor .60 .80 1.10 12 reps 1 9 reps

Average .80 1.10 1.40 20 reps 27 reps

Good 1.00 1.40 1.70 28 reps 35 reps

Excellent 1.20 1.70 2.00 36 reps 43 reps

Notes: Numbers indicate percent of body weight; weight times the percent equals weight lifted.

Female athletes should use this table as well. For a more accurate interpretation of performance, use
the category one level above your score. For example, a snatch using .90 would be a rating of good for
the female athlete rather than average.

82
 Strength and Power Training 83

Shoulder and Arm Exercises

Figure 4.8
INCLINE PRESS
(D UMBBELL AND BARBELL)

The press (figure 4.8) is an ex-

incline
cellent exercise to develop the chest,
shoulders, and arms. It closely simu-
lates the working angles of the muscles
in many sports.
With the bench in an incline posi-
tion, place your hands on the bar at

or slightly wider than shoulder-width.

Hands spread wide work the shoul-
ders and chest, whereas hands posi-
tioned closer together on the bar work
the triceps more. Inhale as you bend
your elbows and bring the bar to your
chest. Exhale as you straighten your
arms to the starting position.

BENCH PRESS (DUMBBELL AND BARBELL)

The bench press (figure Figure 4.9

4.9) strengthens the

shoulders and arms
for optimal shoulder
girdle protection. With
the bench flat, posi-
tion your hands at or
slightly wider than
shoulder-width. Inhale
and lower the weight
to your chest. Exhale
as you straighten your
arms to return to the
starting position.
84 Sports SPEED

DUMBBELL ARM CURLS

Dumbbell curls (figure 4.1 0) develop arm strength Figure 4.10

to help maintain proper left to right muscle bal-

ance. For an alternate dumbbell curl, hold the
dumbbells at your sides with palms facing your
body. As you curl each arm forward, one at a
time, rotate your palm upward. The curling arm
moves down as the opposite arm moves up. Em-
phasize an even rhythm, and take one breath for
each cycle of left and right arm curls. Also try
this exercise by starting with your palms facing
backward to work the biceps more as you rotate
your paim during the curl.

LAT ROW (MACHINE, DUMBBELL, OR BARBELL)

81 MU a MM M M Mi M M M SSI » .
'

The lat row (figure 4.11) strengthens the chest, Figure 4.11
back, shoulders, and arms. Execute the lat

row using many different hand positions to

isolate different muscles. Inhaleas you pull the
cable to your chest, making sure your trunk is
vertical. Exhale as you return your arms to the
starting position, following the same path as
your pull. Completely extend your arms at the
end of each repetition to stretch the lats.
 Strength and Power Training 85

LAT PULL-DOWN
mmm

The pull-down (figure 4.12) strengthens

lat Figure 4.12
the chest, back, shoulders, and arms. As in
the lat row, try a variety of grips and hand
widths. Vary hand width and position on the
bar (palms away, toward, or alternated). In-
hale while pulling the bar down to the chest
or to the shoulders, and exhale as you bring
the bar up. Be sure to completely extend
your arms at the top of each repetition to
stretch the lats.

FLYS (SUPINE)

Flys (figure 4.13) are perfect for maintaining proper muscle balance of the chest,
shoulders, and arms. The actions of this lift should cover the wide variety of shoulder
movements. on your back on a flat, incline, or decline bench. Hold the dumbbells
Lie
over your body, arms extended with a slight bend at the elbow. Inhale as you lower
the dumbbells to your sides, keeping your arms slightly bent until you reach your
maximum range of motion. Exhale as you return to the starting position.
Figure 4.13a Figure 4.13b
86 Sports SPEED

Abdominal and Neck Exercises

ABDOMINAL CRUNCHES

Although the abdominal Figure 4.14

muscles have a limited range
of motion, they play a major
role in proper breathing and
supporting all actions of the
trunk. Start on your back with
your hands behind your head
and your knees up. Curl your
body, flexing the abdominal
muscles and forcing out air
as you curl (figure 4.14). Just
clear your shoulders from the
floor. Hold and exhale as you

return to the floor. Use twisting

actions in the curl to work all

aspects of the trunk.

NECK STRENGTHENING

Many athletes develop their necks ad-

fail to Figure 4.15
equately. This two-person exercise ensures
that your neck will be ready for action. All
areas— front, back, and side should be —
strengthened. Lie on your back on a bench or
assume a wrestler’s floor position. Your part-
ner places his hands in a position that gives
you a good pushing surface to resist against
without discomfort. Your partner applies even
pressure with his hands as you push against
the resistance (figure 4.15).
 Strength and Power Training 87

Leg and Back Exercises

DEADLIFT WITH ALTERNATE GRIP

For the deadlift with alternate grip Figure 4.16

(figure 4.16), assume a comfortable
stance with your feet about shoul-
der-width apart. Bend your knees to
grasp the bar and lift it from the floor,
keeping your back straight. Hold the
bar at your thighs before bending
your knees to place the bar back on
the floor.

TOE RAISES

Toe raises (figure 4.17) strengthen your calf Figure 4.17

muscles for powerful leg thrusts. Toe raises can
be done on a machine, using a padded barbell,
or with a partner sitting on your back. Repeat
the exercise with your feet in the following three
positions to develop all aspects of the calf: heels
out, heels straight, and heels in.
 88 Sports SPEED

FRONT AND BACK SQUAT

The squat develops strength in the lower extremities and trunk. Take the bar
front
from a weight rack, using a weight belt to support your back. Position the bar on
your shoulders so it rests evenly on the deltoids. Spread your feet comfortably with
toes slightly out. (Placing the toes in various positions will work different parts of
the thighs.) Keep your neck and back and elbows lifted high throughout the
straight
lift. Inhale to support your trunk at the start, and bend your knees as far as you can

until your upper thighs are parallel to the ground. Exhale as you return to standing.

You can aiso place a thick board or weight under your heels. The added height will
work the front part of your thighs more.
For the back squat (figure 4.1 8), position the bar on your shoulders behind your
head and execute the same movements as the front squat.

Figure 4.18a Figure 4.18b

 Strength and Power Training 89

Strengthening the Hnmstring Muscle Sreng

Evaluating the hamstring/ quadriceps strength ratio is more complicated than
simply doing gross balance testing. Peak torque is not identical at opposing
angles. Consequently, Grimby (1993) suggests that measurements be taken
at the same joint angles and not at peak torque. Therefore, make sure you
interpret any results from our testing as a gross indicator. Should problems
arise, seek a more sophisticated testing assessment from your doctor.
The hamstring/quadriceps strength ratio test completed in chapter 2
provided you with a gross indication of the need for further testing on more
sophisticated equipment that considers different joint angles. Most athletes,
however, need additional training to increase the strength and power of the
hamstring muscle group. Many experts feel that the hamstrings are a sprinter’s
weakest link. The leg curl and leg extension tests described in chapter 2 es-
timate the comparative strength of the quadriceps (front of upper leg) and
hamstrings (back of upper leg). Only a few elite athletes are equally strong
in both muscle groups (e.g., some champion sprinters, power lifters such as
world champion Dr. “Squat Fred Hatfield, and some defensive backs in foot-
ball [backward sprinting develops the hamstrings]). In more than 25 years of
sponsoring speed clinics and camps, we’ve seen only one athlete who had equal
strength in both muscle groups; the large majority of athletes failed to meet
our minimum standard (hamstring strength should equal 75 to 80 percent of
quadriceps strength).
The power exercises (Olympic lifts) described previously are excellent
hamstring exercises, as is the leg curl exercise. You also can lie on your back
with your foot extended to a point several feet up on the wall. Pnll down
with a straight leg and hold that contraction for 8 to 10 seconds. Repeat
the exercise three to five times. This “paw down” motion is similar to Ralph
Mann’s and Tom Tellez’s form drills and closely simulates that phase of the
sprinting action.
Hypergravity training (weighted suits, vests, or pants) can be added to the
sprint drills shown in chapter 9 for extra loading of the lower extremities. Care
shouid'be taken in selecting the training loads that allow you to maintain good
sprinting action.
Roller skates or in-line skates offer a unique method of training the muscle
groups at the hip, knee, and ankle (gluteus, hamstrings, quadriceps, calf
muscles) responsible for the driving force behind high levels of sprinting.
Five areas of conditioning are recommended using skates:

Range of motion in all possible directions of hip and leg movement. Fegs
should be moved in all directions. Hold onto a chair while completing 8 to 12
repetitions in all directions. Build up to three sets and emphasize flexibility.
90 Sports SPEED

High-speed assisted drills using the Sprint Master or surgical tubing to focus
on the sprinting action. The pull-through sprint drill shown in chapter 9 is one
that can be done at high speed. Make sure that the speed is not excessive.

Overspeed skate training. Hold on to a support and move the legs as fast
as possible in a back and forth motion. Complete three to five sets of 8 to 12
repetitions with maximum rest (full recovery) between each set. When you
have adjusted to the high-speed work, complete each set without holding on.
Speed endurance exercises. Move back and forth at high speed for 10 to 30
seconds, working up to 30 to 60 seconds. You should gradually build up to 8
to 1 2 repetitions in sets of four, resting one and a half to three minutes between
each set.
Muscle endurance exercises for sprinting. Move the legs back and forth
with a slight bend at the knee. The use of ankle weights or surgical tubing will
provide the necessary loading. Complete three sets of 8 to 12 repetitions with
as rapid a movement as possible with the load.

Special equipment also strengthen the hamstring muscle group as you per-
form specific movements of sprinting (see figure 4.19).
Specific programs, such as strength training involving heavy weight, near-
maximal muscle contractions, low repetitions, and full recovery between sets,
have been shown to produce greater increases in the cross-sectional area of
fast-twitch fibers than slow- twitch fibers.

Figure 4.19 Strengthening the hamstrings using a special machine.

 Strength and Pnwer Training 91

Shoulder and Arm Exercises tor Throwers

The biomechanics laboratory at Centinela Hospital Medical Center in Ingle-
wood, California, under the direction of medical director Dr. Frank Jobe,
MD, has published a shoulder- strengthening program designed for baseball
players, although anyone interested in strengthening the shoulders and arms
can follow the program. Write to the Centinela Hospital Medical Center for an
illustrated copy of this program or visit www.sportsscience.com. Essentially,
the exercises prescribed cover every movement that the shoulders and arms
can make. Multijointed pushing and pulling exercises recommended in our
program will exercise the shoulders and arms as a unit, and the Jobe exercises
will isolate the finer shoulder girdle and arm actions. A combination of both
of these programs will produce the results you need for superbly conditioned
shoulders and arms.
The following arm and shoulder girdle actions are specifically isolated in
the Jobe dumbbell program: external and internal rotation; shoulder flexion,
extension, and adduction; scapular adduction and abduction; horizontal flexion;
arm flexion and extension; forearm supination and pronation; wrist flexion and
extension; and ulnar deviation.

Strengthening the Knee

According to many experts in athletic training and rehabilitation, it is necessary
to have strong legs from the ankle to the hip. There are 13 muscles that provide
the tension to support the knee. All of them must be properly strengthened to
give the knee maximum support throughout the total range of motion. The
following knee functions should be included in your training program: flexion,
extension, medial rotation, and stabilization.
The next chapter on ballistic and plyometic training builds on the functional
strength and power developed in step two. Although all movements require
the use of energy, chapter 5 describes body toughening factors and how to
manage the explosive energy output (sending) and energy input (receiving).
Consequently, training for high-energy movement is required. Overcoming the
inertia of changing the directions of body movement and its impact on the tis-
sues of the body needs to have a special place in your conditioning program .
 Ft and plyometrics are important components of a holistic speed
allistics

V improvement program for team sport athletes. Both programs improve

the explosive power of the upper and lower body and have a positive effect on
starting speed, acceleration, and stride rate and length. These programs are
key to improving high-speed starting, stopping, and cutting. The programs
also prepare the body for the explosive delivery and reception of contact in
sports such as football, basketball, lacrosse, rugby, and soccer.

Balllstles
Sports fans often enjoy events packed with incredible excitement, electricity, and
action. Spectators can feel the high level of energy. High-powered actions play
a major role in the outcome of all sporting events. Playing or sprinting at high
speeds can provide much of the necessary short-term energy system develop-
ment for most sports. There are three basic purposes of movement: to maintain
equilibrium, to move an object,and to stop an object. The majority of sports
include multidirectional movements, short starts and stops with bursts of speed,
rapid changes in direction, explosive power delivery of an impact through contact
with the ground or an opponent, instantaneous power reception at contact, and
explosive power delivery to an object. Often these tasks occur at the same time
and, in fact, should not be isolated from the total action at all.
The ability of body tissues to deliver, transmit, and absorb energy is funda-
mental to human performance and survival in athletic environments. Former
Indiana University coach Dr. Counsilman used the sport of diving to illustrate
the best way to manage energy. Have you ever done a belly Hop when diving?
How about a perfect dive? The difference in how the two dives feel tells you
a lot about how the energy of the dive is managed. In the belly flop, body tis-
sues have to manage all the energy of the dive in milliseconds and in a limited
distance because of the water’s incompressibility. The perfect dive, on the other
hand, spreads the same energy out over a much longer time and distance. How
can you apply this information to your sport?
All tissues are not able to manage energy at the same level. The ability rat-
ings for energy absorption of the most important tissues may surprise you.

92
 Ballistics and Plyometrics 93

Their comparative ability to manage energy is shown in the energy-absorbing

capabilities scale (figure 5.1).

(-) Low Energy absorbing capabilities High (+)

Bone Ligament Tendon Muscle

Figure 5.1 The energy-absorbing capabilities of bone, ligament, tendon, and muscle.

Maintaining Equilibrium: Flow

Before elaborating on energy management, let’s examine the importance of

joining, resisting, and yielding into a unified whole, commonly referred to as
the flow state or the zone.
Technically, there are three categories of energy management:

1 . Sending energy away from the body. This category includes all types
of hitting, kicking, and throwing various implements, from footballs to
medicine balls to assorted weights.
2. Receiving energy from outside sources. Forces that come into the body
in the form of a ball or opposing players are listed in this category. Any
form of catching develops the necessary sensitivity needed for receiving
outside forces.

3. The zone, or flow state. Whatever this state is finally discovered to

be, most athletes who claim they have been there report that it is an
effortless state. Time and motion slow, and performance approaches the
spiritual. All of these factors permit athletes to perform at levels closer
to their maximum potential. It is important to recognize that there are
degrees and levels of flow. Furthermore, each level or amount of time in
the zone will bring a different degree of performance enhancement. The
higher the level, the higher the quality of energy management.

Modern technology and practical methods, such as those in chapter 3, have

enabled you to reduce play to a single performance curve by plotting every step
you take during performance and identifying the actions taking place. To plot
this curve, review a videotape of performance and make a sequential list of
the skills used during each play (see chapter 3). This list is your performance
notation on liow you executed each play during the game or each step of the
race or jump. No
matter which method you use, all the elements of play can
be recorded during a single play or movement in any sport. These patterns en-
able you to make a step-by-step evaluation ol how you manage energy during
performance. Study your responses to the starts, stops, contacts, and pressures
of other players attempting to block, screen, or use you in some way.
94 Sports SPIED

Ballistics Training

Many programs toughen the body in a systematic way during the off-
fail to

season. Yes, the strength and power program (chapter 4) has a toughening
effect, but additional methods are required to move the body to higher levels
of toughness. Boxers have used medicine balls for many years. During the
Landry era, the Dallas Cowboys used medicine balls to toughen their bodies.
The balls also were used to sensitize the neuromuscular system to respond in-
stantly to contact. Many present-day systems fail to recognize the importance
of delivering and redirecting these outside forces to the athletes’ advantage.
We have worked with many outstanding players from high school, college, and
professional teams. The majority of the players we worked with showed little
skill in the sophisticated unity of resisting and yielding. Remember, this skill

is not inherited; it must be taught. If you are searching for the edge against

your competition, find a way to include this skill in training.

MEDICINE BALL TOUGHENING CATCHES

Most sports have some physical contact even if contact isn’t part of the game. These
drills provide a safe way to toughen the body. This drill develops receiving skills.

You will need medicine balls or sandbags weighing 2 to 25 pounds and a mini-
trampoline. You can make a good sandbag from an inner tube of a car tire. Tie it off
on one end and fill with sand, and then tie it off again after you have reached the
it

desired weight. You can perform this exer-

Figure 5.2
cise on your own or with a partner or group.
Perform 25 to 50 repetitions.

Individual: Throw the ball in the air or

at the mini-trampoline and catch it with
your body (figure 5.2). Make sure the
ball contacts various body parts to get
the maximum training effect. Do not catch
the ball in a way that places undue stress
on joints.

Partner or group: Any number of players

can participate. Form a circle, standing
three to four feet apart. Pass the ball
in any direction. If you feel there aren’t
enough opportunities for catching and
throwing, add more balls. Include unex-
pected elements by throwing the ball at
various speeds or at different parts of the
catcher’s body. When catching the ball,
absorb the shock with body movements
and various body parts.
 Ballistics and Plyometrics 95

MED ICINE BALL THROWS AND TOUGHENING CATCHES

This develops power in all directions of movement. You wili need medicine balls,
drill

sandbags, or weights weighing 2 to 25 pounds.

You can perform this exercise on your own or with a partner or group. Perform
the following movements 8 to 10 times in each direction: seated throws, forward
throws (underhand and overhand), backward throws (overhead), and side throws
(left side and front, right side and front; left side and back, right side and back).
When you perform these exercises with a partner or group, you achieve the ben-
efits of the toughening drills by catching the balls.

OVERWEIGHT IMPLEMENT PROGRAMS FOR ALL THROWING ACTIONS

These exercises are ap- Figure 5.3

propriate for pitchers,
quarterbacks, javelin
throwers, or any athletes
that need to improve
throwing action. Use what-
ever weighted implement
is appropriate for your

sport: football, basketball,

baseball, javelin, discus,
or small medicine ball.
Although the arm is the
most visible segment a
in
Hill
SBIIilSI HRUi
throw, the superb timing of
the total body action pro- Hi
duces great feats in throw-
Slow-motion cameras
ing.
capture the complexity
and energy involved in a
throw and demonstrate
:

the importance of train-

ing the throwing action of
the legs, hips, trunk, shoulders, and arms. Additional insurance is provided from
functional strength and power training in the form of greater strength in supporting
tissues of the joints, tendons, and ligaments.
The throwing sequence should progress from heavy to light. Start with the
heavy foundation and progress to lighter balls for throwing. The heavy ball
ball for
strengthens the muscles and joints used in throwing, establishing a sound founda-
tion. Lighter weights provide the high-speed throwing action needed to improve

throwing Throwing into a net (figure 5.3) will allow you

skill. to complete a high-
intensity workout with more throws and less wasted time.
96 Sports SPEED

Escaping and Avoiding light Spots

Martial artist Dan Inosanto shared some proven methods to escape, avoid, or
improve the application of ballistics and energy management in your sport.
Inosanto recommends the following for all athletes:

Level changes (dropping from a high to a low stance)

Angle changes (moving from the direct line of the attacking player)

Sensitivity training (bringing awareness to the level of first touch)

Increasing energy of contact gradually, building to maximum effort

Being aware of natural movements and applying them to your advantage

Being constantly in slow phasic motion to make it easier to move and change
direction

Lateral contact (when the attack comes from the side, making level changes
and simultaneously moving to the line of least resistance)

Frontal attack (moving forward to the line of least resistance)

Moving from which the opponent (force) is coming to put
in the direction
maximum distance betw een you and your opponent (force) wdth a minimum
amount of time and effort
Mastering techniques such as ducking, slipping, rolling, and footw ork (step
and slide with a push, sidestep, and short steps to maintain balance and
quick changes in angle)
Moving from a crouched position upward and forward
Deceiving an opponent by giving an indication of forward motion to make
the opponent commit
forward motion, then dropping back a half step
his
and changing the angle to your advantage in forw ard motion
Linemen advantage: one hand hitting the opponent’s shoulder while the
other is pulling the opponent’s other shoulder or arm
Both hands hitting the same shoulder of the opponent to change the angle
Both hands hitting the opposite shoulder of the opponent, then one hand
hitting and pulling

This section has presented those principles and skills that answer the ques-
tion
"c
How does ballistics training improve playing speed? It would be nice
if all you had do was line up and sprint as fast as you could to the finish
to
tape, but this isn’t always the case. Mary Decker Slaney was jostled and lost
her balance in the 1984 Olympics and was put out of the race. Maybe if she
had had ballistics training, she would have been able to recover and get back
in the race. The next section in this book continues to move you closer to the
higher reaches of playing speed.
Plyometrics

The word plyometric is derived from the Greekword pleythyein meaning "to
,

increase” or from the Greek roots plio and metric meaning more and "mea-
,
'

sure.” Plyometrics refers to exercises that enable a muscle to reach maximum

strength in as short a time as possible. Plyometric exercises are important in
sports requiring high levels of speed strength (ability to exert maximum force
during high-speed activity) to complete movements such as starting, stopping,
cutting, accelerating, sprinting, jumping,and throwing.
The term was first used in the United States in 1975 by Fred Wilt, former
Olympic runner and women's track coach at Purdue University. Coach Wilt
got the term from European track and field coaches who had already used
plyometrics for more than a decade in the training of sprinters and athletes in
jump events. Yuri Verkhoshansky, a coach in the Soviet Union, is credited as
being one of the early pioneers and leading researchers of plyometric training.
Although plyometrics were slow to be accepted in the United States, numerous
articles, books, and videos produced in the 1980s and early 1990s have led to
their widespread use in baseball, basketball, football, lacrosse, rugby, soccer,
and other team and individual sports.
Although plyometrics take many different forms, activity revolves around
jumping, hopping, and bounding movements for the lower body and swing-
ing, quick action push-off, catching and throwing weighted objects (medicine
balls, shots, sandbags), arm swings, and pulley throws for the upper body. The
medicine ball throws presented in this section are similar to some of the bal-
listic exercises described previously; however, the emphasis is placed on loading

the abdominal and arm muscles before the movement or toss rather than on
catching the ball. Exercises that simulate specific movements in a particular
sport or activity are chosen.
Plyometrics develop both strength and power in the muscles involved in
sprinting. An athlete may have superior strength yet be unable to produce the
needed power 60-yard dash. The completion of some
to sprint a fast 20- to
movements in sports, such as sprinting, involves less time than it takes for the
muscle to develop a maximal contraction. For such actions, an athlete will use
only 60 to 80 percent of her absolute strength. The key to plyometric train-
ing is to display strength as quickly and as forcefully as possible. Plyometric
training has also been found to be an ideal program to develop explosiveness
and improve quickness.
Plyometric exercises use gravity to store energy in the muscles before the
athlete immediately releases the energy in the opposite direction. Plyometrics
provide an important training program for team sport athletes since speed
strength (exerting maximum force during high-speed movements) is required
throughout each contest.
98

Plyometric training used to improve speed strength, which is the appli-

is

cation of maximum force during a high-speed activity such as sprinting. The

unusual progress and success of Russian sprinter Valeri Borzov, 100-meter gold
medal winner (10.14) in the 1972 Olympic Games, are partially attributed
to the use of plyometric exercises in the six years before the games. Borzov
progressed from a 100-meter time of 13.0 seconds at age 14 to 10.0 at age
20. Although you may not show such dramatic improvement, the hops, jumps,
bounds, leaps, skips, ricochets, swings, and twists that make up plyometrics
are an important part of a speed improvement program.
Plyometrics focus on the two key aspects of speed strength: starting strength,
which is the ability to instantaneously recruit as many muscle fibers as pos-
sible, and explosive strength, which is the ability to keep the initial explosion
of a muscle contraction going over a distance against some resistance. Starting
strength is the key to sprinting a fast 20 to 100 yards, throwing or kicking
a ball, and similar movements requiring little more than overcoming body
resistance. Examples of explosive strength are football blocking, performing
the shot put or hammer toss, Olympic weightlifting, power lifting, and other
movements requiring considerable resistance. As Hatfield and Yessis (1986)
point out, “The lighter the implement you have to move and the shorter the
distance, the more your starting strength becomes important; the heavier the
resistance and the longer the distance, the more important your explosive
strength becomes.”
The main objective of plyometric training is to improve an athlete’s ability
to generate maximum force in the shortest time. accomplished
This objective is

by first loading muscles to accumulate energy before unloading this energy in

the opposite direction. Gravity is used to store energy in the muscles that is
immediately released in an opposite reaction. In other words, plyometric exer-
cises involve powerful muscular contractions in response to the rapid dynamic
loading (stretching) of the involved muscles.
Most athletes already apply the basic concept of loading and unloading when
they cock their wrists or ankles before throwing a baseball or football, hitting
a baseball, shooting a basketball, kicking a soccer ball or football, swinging a
golf club, or executing the forehand or backhand stroke in tennis. The rapid
stretching (loading) of these muscles activates the muscle stretch reflex, which
sends a powerful stimulus to the muscles that causes them to contract faster
and with more power. In the previous actions, athletes rapidly stretch a muscle
group then transfer the energy by immediately contracting that same group. A
rapid deceleration of mass is followed by a rapid acceleration of mass in another
direction.The loading or stretching action sometimes is called the yielding
phase, and the reflex contraction of the muscles is called the overcoming phase.
The objective is to obtain a maximum eccentric contraction (muscle develops
tension while lengthening) to load the muscle, then switch this contraction to
concentric (muscle develops tension while shortening), which produces the
desired explosive movement. The faster a muscle is stretched with rapid ec-
centric loading, the more powerful the concentric contraction.
 Ballistics and Plyometnics 09

Rapid loading of die muscles (yielding phase) must occur just before the
contraction phase of these same muscles. When yon jump from an elevated
platform to the ground, for example, your legs bend under the g-force (kinetic
energy) and an immediate reactive jump occurs. How much your legs bend
depends on the g-force and the stored energy that will be used to release the
powerful contraction to jump. The yielding phase produces stored energy, which
is released during the overcoming phase by a powerful contraction.

Does this sound complicated? It is really quite simple. To plan and use
plyometrics properly for speed improvement and other quickness skills critical
to your sport, just follow these guidelines:

Remember that plyometrics are merely a type of resistance training to de-

velop strength and power. Gravity used to store energy in the muscles; the
is

energy is then used immediately in an opposite reaction, causing the elastic

properties of the muscle to produce kinetic energy.

Exercises should correspond to the form, muscle work, and range of motion
in your sport. The main goal is to rapidly apply overload force to the muscles
to improve speed strength.
Exercises should correspond to the correct direction of movement. Because
the legmoves toward the rear in one phase of sprinting, for example, some
plyometric movements should also be directed toward the rear.

The rate of the stretch is strongly tied to the effectiveness of plyometric

training; the higher the stretch rate, the greater the muscle tension and the
more powerful the concentric contraction in the opposite direction.

Exercises for sprinting speed improvement should explode at the beginning

of the movement and allow inertia to move the limb through the remaining
range of motion. In one phase of sprinting, for example, maximum effort is
exerted at the point you begin to pull the thigh through and diminishes as the
leg passes underneath the body.
Although weights (vest, ankle spats) can be used to increase resistance,
too much weight may increase strength without much effect on power. Too
much weight increases the risk of injury and also makes it impossible to jump
or sprint explosively, which defeats the purpose of the plyometric workout.
Your body already provides considerable resistance. Adding a lot of weight is
unnecessary. Light weight or body weight is recommended to develop quick
force. Alternating light (1 to 2 percent of body weight, no more than 2 to 3
pounds) and heavier weight (5 to 6 percent of body weight, no more than 10
to 12 pounds) in the same plyometric exercise is also an excellent technique
to experience the feeling of higher speed action.

Whenever possible, a plyometric exercise should be performed at a speed

faster than you are capable of producing without some assistance. The objec-
tive is to use plyometric exercises that result in down time (the time your feet

areon the ground) that is less than the down time in sprinting. The faster a
muscle is forced to lengthen, the greater the tension it exerts. Also, the closer
 -

100 Sports SPEED

the stretch of the muscle to the contraction, the more violent the contraction.
When you jumping from boxes or bleachers, avoid hesitating after ground
are
contact; the goal is to be on the ground as little as possible by shortening
the span between contact and takeoff. The use of box jumps to increase the
loading phase and surgical tubing to decrease the resistance to be overcome
in speed hops are examples of techniques that allow a more forceful load or a
faster contraction speed. You are teaching your nervous system to experience
the higher speed generated so it can duplicate it later in competition without
any assistance from boxes or tubing.
Make a strong effort to handle the forces of landing with as little flexion of
the joints as possible. When jumping on a flat surface or off boxes, too much
flexion of the legson landing increases the time spent on the ground, absorbs
most of the force, and allows little preloading or tensing. As soon as the balls
of your feet touch the floor, rapidly flex your knees to your comfortable jump-
ing position (never beyond right angles). This proper knee flexion position
also prevents excessive ankle flexion, such as allowing your heels to touch the
surface.

Master proper form for each exercise. A key aspect of proper technique is
assuming a knees- and thumbs-up position (knees bent just above a right angle,
elbows to sides with hands in front of the body and thumbs facing upward)
to help maintain balance and center the workload around your hips and legs.
For upper-body exercise, stress proper follow-through. Emphasize the quality
(proper form and speed) of each jump rather than the quantity of jumps.
A highly explosive movement in sports does not occur automatically. You do
not sprint at maximum speed, serve at 100-plus miles per hour in tennis, kick
a ball 60-plus yards, or jump 25-plus feet without being psyched before the
movement. It takes a concentrated mental effort to perform these actions.

Adequate recovery is necessary between each high-intensity plyometric work-

out, with a minimum of 48 hours recommended. Alternating light -intensity
and high-intensity workouts permits the use of additional workouts weekly if
necessary.

Safety Precautions
mmsm mu - m -
s m -- mum

Although plyometric training is not likely to result in injury, unsound

or unsupervised programs could cause shin splints and knee, ankle, and
lower back problems. These injuries are often a direct result of too many
workouts per week, too many jumps per workout, incorrect form, jumping
on hard surfaces, and using plyometrics at too early an age or without the
necessary strength and conditioning base. To reduce the risk of injury,
follow these guidelines:

Because of greater susceptibility to injury before puberty, preadolescent

boys and girls should avoid plyometrics, unless other factors indicate
more advanced maturity.
 Ballistics and Plyometrics 1 01

Plyometrics should also be postponed for athletes who do not have a

and conditioning base. Avoid lower-body plyomet-
sufficient strength
rics until you can leg press 2.0 to 2.5 times your body weight; avoid
upper-body plyometrics until you can perform five consecutive clap
push-ups. Athletes weighing more than 260 pounds should be capable
of bench pressing their body weight; athletes weighing less than 160
pounds should be capable of bench pressing 1 .5 times their body weight.
Athletes falling between 160 and 260 should be able to meet grada-
tions between these guidelines (160 to 184: 1.4; 185 to 209: 1.3; 210
to 234: 1.2; 235 to 259: 1.1).

Experts recommend that large athletes over 200 pounds, who may be
more susceptible to injury, should avoid high-volume, high-intensity
exercises. Very large football players such as interior linemen must also
take extra precautions.
Athletes who do not respond well to the instructions of coaches are also
at greater risk of injury and under- or overtraining.

Precede a plyometric workout with a general warm-up period consist-

ing of walk -jog- stride -sprint cycles for one-half to three-quarters of a
mile, followed by careful stretching exercises.

Use footwear with good ankle and arch support, lateral stability, and a
wide, nonslip sole, such as a basketball or aerobic shoe. Running shoes
with narrow soles and poor upper support can lead to ankle problems
and are not recommended. Heel cups may be needed for those who are
prone to heel bruises.
Plyometrics should be performed only on surfaces with good shock-
absorbing properties, such as soft grassy areas, well-padded artificial

turf, and wrestling mats. Never do plyometrics on asphalt or gymnasium

floors.

Boxes should be sturdy and have a nonslip top.

Depth jumping from objects that are too high increases the risk of
injury, particularly to larger athletes, and prevents the rapid switch
from eccentric to concentric activity. The average recommended heights
for depth jumps are .75 to .8 meter; athletes more than 220 pounds
should use heights of .5 to .75 meter.

Plyometric training should be supervised at all times, the number of

weekly sessions should not exceed two or three for a maximum of 15
to 20 minutes each session, and the total number of quality jumps per
session should be carefully controlled.

Frequency, Volume, Intensity, Recovery, and Progression

Perform plyometric workouts no more than twice weekly during the ofl-sea-
son and preseason and once weekly during the season. Plyometric training is
102

extremely strenuous; about 48 hours of rest needed to fully recover. There-

is

fore, plyometric exercises should be completed near the end of a workout.

High-speed activity or physical contact work (such as scrimmage in soccer and
football) after a plyometric workout may be performed at less than competition
speed; plyometric training could disrupt timing and increase the probability
of fatigue-related injuries.
Because of fatigue, avoid lower-body weight training on days when lower-
body plyometrics are used. Doing both in one day negates the full effect of each
program. You can perform upper-body plyometrics and lower-body weight
training, or vice versa, on the same day. A sample workout might include a
general warm-up (such as jogging), stretching (flexibility exercises), sprint-
assisted training, anaerobic training, plyometrics, and a cool-down period, in
that order.
To no magic number of jumps (foot or feet contacts with the
date, there is

surface) that produces the best results. Coaches at various levels differ in terms
of the number of repetitions, sets, and total jumps in a single workout. Taking
too few jumps is better than taking too many, however. Ideally, the number
of jumps should not exceed 80 to 100 per session for beginners and athletes
in early workouts, 100 to 120 per session for intermediate-level athletes, and
120 to 140 per session for advanced athletes who have completed four to six
weeks of plyometric training.
The amount of stress placed on the muscles, the connective tissue, and the
joints is movements provide minimum stress
referred to as intensity. Skipping
and are considered low-intensity exercises; box jumping, two-foot takeoff and
landing exercises, high-speed movements, and using additional weight all in-
crease the intensity of the workout. Your program should take place over a
period of 8 to 10 weeks, involve no more than two sessions weekly (Monday
and Friday or Tuesday and Saturday is ideal), and progress from low- to high-
intensity exercises and low to high volume. Before beginning the program,
each athlete should be evaluated and approved, sport- specific goals should be
defined, and proper warm-up and technique should be mastered.
Remember that you are trying to improve speed strength, not speed endur-
ance. Thus, adequate rest (recovery) between repetitions, sets, and workouts
is required. For example, recovery for box jumping may take 5 to 10 seconds

between repetitions and two to three minutes between sets. In repeated jumps
where limited ground contact is stressed, there is no recover)" period between
repetitions; the athlete immediately unloads into the next repetition. Recovery
between workouts is two to four days, depending on the sport and time of year.
Two days is generally sufficient during the preseason; a period of three or four
days appropriate during the season. The key to a successful program
is is to
do each explosive movement with perfect form.
Exercises should progress from low-intensity in-place exercises for beginners
to medium-intensity and then high-intensity for advanced athletes. Table 5.1
outlines a 10-week off-season program that moves from low- to medium- to
high -intensity exercises over 6 weeks. You can develop your own program by
 0

Table 5.1 Sample Off-Season Plyometric Program

Sets and Sessions

Week Drills repetitions Rest between sets per week

1 to 2 4 low-intensity drills 2 X 10 2 min. 2

3 to 4 2 low-intensity drills 2X10 2 to 3 min. 2

2 medium-intensity drills

5 to 6 4 medium-intensity drills 2 or 3 x 10 2 to 3 min. 2

7 to 8 2 medium-intensity drills Medium: 2 or 2 to 3 min. 2

2 high-intensity drills 3 x 10 Box jumps:
High: 2x10 10 to 15 sec.
between repetitions

9 to 10 4 high-intensity drills Non-box jumps: 3 min. 2

2 or 3 x 10
Box jumps:
2 x 10

Reprinted, by permission, from W.B. Allerheiligen, 1994, Speed Development and Plyometric Training. In Es-
sentials of Strength Training and Conditioning, edited by T. Baechle (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 323.

using this table and selecting your choices from the low-, medium-, and high-
intensity exercises on pages 105 to 127. In 6 to 8 weeks, when high-intensity
plyometric become the foundation, decrease the volume of exercise. A
drills

sample plyometric program to begin 8 weeks before the start of the competi-
tive season is shown in table 5.2.

Table 5.2 Eight-Week Plyometric Program for Speed Improvement

Sets and
Type Exercises repetitions Rest Progression

Low intensity Squat jumps 3 X 6 to 1 2 min. Add 1 repetition

Week 1 Double-leg ankle each workout
* bounces 3 X 6 to 1

Lateral cone jumps 2 X 6 to 1

Drop and catch push-

ups 4 X 6 to 10

Low to medium Lateral cone jumps 3 X 8 to 1 2 min. Add 1 repetition

intensity Split squat jumps 2 X 8 to 1 each workout, up
Week 2 Double-leg tucks 2 X 8 to 1 to a maximum of

Standing triple jumps 2 X 8 to 10 10 repetitions

Medicine ball throws
(overhead backward
and underhand forward) 2 X 8 to 10
Clap push-ups 2 X 8 to 10

(continued)
Table 5.2 (continued)

Sets and
Type Exercises repetitions Rest Progression

Medium to high Standing long jumps 3 x 8 to 1 2 min. Add 1 repetition

intensity Alternate-legbounds 3 x 8 to 1 each workout, up
Weeks 3 and 4 Double-leg hops 3 X 8 to 10 to a maximum of
Pike jumps 2 X 8 to 10 10 repetitions
Depth jumps 2 X 8 to 1

Medicine ball throws 3 X 8 to 1 Reduce weight

(with Russian twist) each workout;
Dumbbell arm swings 2 X 8 to 1 maximum of 20
lb.

Medium to high Double-leg tucks 3 x 10 to 12 2 min. Add 1 repetition

intensity Single-leg zigzag hops 3 x 10 to 12 each workout, up
Weeks 5 and 6 Double-leg vertical 3 x 10 to 12 to a maximum of
power jumps 10 repetitions
Running bounds 3 X 1 0 to 12
Box jumps 2 x 8 to 10
Dumbbell arm swings 3 X 12
Medicine ball sit-ups 3 x 1 0 to 1
.

High intensity3 Alternate-leg bounds 2 X 12 to 8 60 to Stress form

Weeks 7 and 8 Running bounds 2 X 12 to 8 90 sec. and maximum
Single-leg speed hops 2 x 12 to 8 explosion;
Double-leg speed hops 2 X 12 to 8 decrease
Multiple box jumps 2 X 12 to 8 repetitions from
Double-arm skipping 2 X 12 to 8 1 2 to 8 in two
Standing arm swings 2 X 12 to 8 weeks
Dumbbell arm swings 2 X 12 to 8
Contrast arm swings 2 X 12 to 8 Start with 2
Side jump and sprint 5X3 lb., reduce to
Decline hops 2 X 12 to 8 1 lb. Contrast:
Medicine ball sit-ups 3 X 1 5 to 20 Complete 12
with 2 lb., 12
with 1 lb., and 12
with no weight

Maintenance Alternate-legbounds 2 X 12 90 sec. Stress form and

program Running bounds 2X12 quality on each
Double-leg speed hops 2 X 12 repetition
Side jump and sprints 5X5
Dumbbell arm swings 2 X 15
Contrast arm swings 2X15
Medicine ball sit-ups 3 X 20

Note: Cycle begins eight weeks before competition and assumes that the athlete has a solid conditioning foun-

dation in strength training.

a
High-intensity plyometrics now become the foundation of the program. Total volume (number jumps) for the
of
lower body has been reduced, sprint-specific jumps are emphasized, and a series of upper-body-form plyometric
exercises have been added.

104
 Ballistics and Plyometrics 105

Plyometric Exercises and Drills

Many types of plyometric exercises are used in various sports. For playing
speed improvement, we are primarily interested in a few basic jumps that
involve limited ground contact time. A number of common plyometric drills

result in a down time two than in the sprinting action.

to three times longer
Although some of these drills are important because the down time is similar
to that during the start and acceleration phase of the 20-, 40-, and 60-yard
dash, most high -intensity routines should involve high-speed jumps with short
down times.
In the following exercises, L indicates low- intensity, M indicates medium-in-
tensity, and H indicates high- intensity. Plyometric training and heavy strength
training should not be performed on thesame day unless lower-body strength
training is combined with upper-body plyometric work or vice versa. Neither
program should be used on two consecutive days; 36 to 48 hours of recovery
time is recommended.

in-Place Jumps
SQUAT JUMP

Stand upright with hands behind your head. Figure 5.4

Drop to a half squat and immediately ex-
plode up as high as possible (figure 5.4).
Repeat after landing, stressing maximum
height.
106

DOUBLE-LEG ANKLE BOUNCE

With arms at your sides, jump up and forward using your ankles (figure 5.5). Im-
mediately on landing, execute the next jump. Complete the desired number of
repetitions.

Figure 5.5
 Ballistics and Plyometrics 1 07

SPLIT SQUAT JUMP

Assume lunge position with one leg extended forward and the other behind (figure
5.6a). Perform a vertical jump off the front leg, landing with the same leg forward
(figure 5.6b). Repeat with the other leg forward.

Figure 5.6a
108 Sports SPEED

LATERAL CONE JUMP

Standing to one side of a cone, Figure 5.7

jump laterally to the other side (fig-
ure 5.7). Immediately on landing,
jump back to the starting position
to complete one repetition.

Upper-Body Exercises

SINGLE-CLAP PUSH-UP

Assume a normal push-up position and lower Figure 5.8

your chest to the floor. Push your body up with
an explosive action that allows you to clap your
hands (figure 5.8) and catch yourself in the
upright position. Repeat the movement imme-
diately for the desired number of repetitions.
 DROP AN D CATCH PUSH-UP

Kneel on both knees with the upper body erect, as though standing on your knees
(figure 5.9a). Place hands in front of your chest, palms down, and drop your upper
body to the floor, catching your weight with both elbows bent in the bottom phase of
the push-up position (figure 5.9b). Immediately push off with both hands to extend
your arms and return to the upright position.

Figure 5.9a

Figure 5.9b
110

In-Place Jumps
PIKE JUMP

Assume an upright stance with Figure 5.10

both arms to your sides, feet
shoulder-width apart. Execute
a vertical jump, bringing both
extended legs in front of your
body, and reach out with both
hands to touch your toes in a
pike position (figure 5.10). On
landing, immediately repeat.

DOUBLE-LEG TUCK JUMP

Assume an upright stance with Figure 5.11

both arms to your sides, feet
shoulder-width apart. Execute
a vertical jump, grasping both
knees while in the air (figure
5.11). Release your knees be-
fore landing and immediately
execute the next jump.
 Ballistics and Plyometrics 111

Standing Jumps

STANDING TRIPLE JUMP

Assume the standing broad jump position: arms to your sides, feet shoulder-width
jump forward as far as possible, landing on the right
apart. Using a two-foot takeoff,
foot, then immediately jump and land on the left foot. Finally, jump once again and

land on both feet. The standing triple jump is identical to the triple jump in track
(hop, step, and jump), except for the use of a two-foot takeoff. The objective is to
generate maximum speed and secure as great a distance as possible in each of
the three phases.

STANDING LONG JUMP

-v uwiswpr-.w^ .
•

Complete only the initial jump described in the standing triple jump using maximum
arm swing. Strive for both vertical and horizontal distance.

SINGLE-LEG HOP

Assume a standing broad jump Figure 5.12

one leg slightly
starting position with
ahead of the other. Rock forward to
your front foot and jump as far and
high as possible, driving your lead
knee up and out (figure 5.1 2). Land in

the starting position on the same foot

and continue jumping to complete the
desired number of repetitions.
112 Sports span

Short-Response Hops and Bounds

DOUBLE-LEG BOUND

From a standing broad jump position (half-

squat stance, arms at sides, shoulders
forward, back straight, and head up), thrust
your arms forward as your knees and body
straighten and your arms reach for the sky
(figure 5.13).

Figure 5.13

DOUBLE- AND SINGLE-LEG ZIGZAG HOP

Place 10 cones 20 inches apart in a

zigzag pattern. Jump with legs together
in a forward diagonal direction over the
first cone, keeping your shoulders facing

straightahead (figure 5.14). Immediately

on landing, change direction with the next
jump to move diagonally over the second
cone. Continue until you have jumped over
0 cones. Execute the single-leg zigzag
all 1

hop in the same diagonal direction but us-

ing one leg at a time.

Figure 5.14
 Ballistics and Plyomefrics 113

ALTERNATE-LEG BOUND

Place one foot slightly ahead of Figure 5.15

the other. Push off with your back
leg, drive the lead knee up to your
chest, and try to gain as much
height and distance as possible ® •

*r
;
v
\

(figure 5.15). Continue by imme-

diately driving with the other leg
on landing.

'
?

-
^ ^ t ,
'

$l\

RUNNING BOUND

Run forward, jumping as high and Figure 5.16

far as possible with each step (figure
5.16). Emphasize height and high
knee lift and land with your center of
gravity under you.
114 Sports SPEED

___ _ LATERALB0UND

Assume a half-squat stance about one step from the side of an angled box or grassy
hill. Push off with the outside foot to propel yourself into the box. As soon as you land,
drive off again in the opposite direction (figure 5.17), stressing lateral distance.

Figure 5.17

Ricochets

INCLINE RICOCHET

Stand facing the bottom your feet together and arms to

of the bleacher steps with
the sides. Rapidly jump upward to each step as fast as possible by attempting to
be light on your feet.

DEC[_ |NE RICOCHET

From the top of a two- to four-degree grassy hill, take a series of short, rapid hopping
movements down the hill. Concentrate on being light on your feet.
 Ballistics and Plyometrics 115

Skipping
This series of exercises is designed to improve rhythm, balance, and push-off during
the sprinting action (Bell 2000).

_____ SINGLE- AND DOUBLE-ARM SKIPPING

Extend one arm to shoulder level with your thumb up and the palm toward the midline
of your body (figure 5.18a). Emphasize the rear leg push-off, a hard drive forward
with the lead knee, and a low hip profile with limited up and down movement.
A variation is double-arm skipping (figure 5.1 8b). The motion is the same except
both arms are used.

Figure 5.18a Figure 5.18b

116 Sports SPKD

SKIPPING WITH ARMS EXTENDED AND CROSSED

Lift your arms to shoulder height and Figure 5.19

cross them in front of your body as
you skip (figure 5.19).

SKIPPING WITH SHOULDER BLADE SQUEEZES

Lift your arms to shoulder height and Figure 5.20

cross them in front of your body, then
bring your arms behind your body as
far as possible in a long swing as you
skip (figure 5.20).
 Ballistics and Plyometrics 117

^ t 'tv-" i mmimmmm WM$M

BACKWARD SKIPPING

Skip backward. Your heels must come up on each backward drive and a reach-back
must occur. This is an excellent drill for the hamstrings.

Upper Body

PUSH-UP WITH WEIGHTS y''' ( ' '

i?"- - ; ‘-is

Assume a push-up arms fully extended, both hands on top of the

position with
weights (figure 5.21a). Quickly remove your hands, drop to the floor, and catch
yourself with your elbows slightly flexed before allowing gravity to flex the arms
farther until your chest nearly touches the floor (figure 5.21b). Rapidly extend your
arms so your hands leave the floor high enough to again assume the position of
your hands on top of the weights.

Figure 5.21a
118 Sports SPE[D

MEDICINE BALL SIT-UP

Sit on the your knees flexed to a 90-degree angle (figure 5.22a). Have a
floor with
partner toss a medicine ball directly to your chest. Catch the ball with arms flexed
and allow the force to push your upper body back and to the floor (figure 5.22b).
When your lower back touches the ground, do a sit-up and chest-pass the ball back
to your partner.

Figure 5.22a

liiiiiii

IpliSi
.
>
tm s|?

Spllpgl
:

Figure 5.22b
 9

Ballistics and Plyometrics 1 1

MEDICINE BALL OVERHEAD

BACKWARD THROW

With the medicine ball in both hands

and elbows extended, bend lightly for-
ward and then backward as you propel
the ball over your head to a partner
(figure 5.23).

II

mm

Figure 5.23

MEDICINE BALL UNDERHAND

FORWARD THROW

Face your partner with the medicine

ball in both hands in front of your body.

Bend over slightly before propelling

the ball forward to your partner (figure
5.24).

Figure 5.24
120 Sports SPEED

MEDICINE BALL THROW WITH RUSSIAN TWIST

While sitting, hold the medicine ball over your head in both hands. Move the ball
backward slightly before throwing an overhead pass forward to your partner as you
twist your body to the right (figure 5.25). Repeat the throw, twisting your body to
the left.

Figure 5.25
 Ballistics and Plyometrics 121

In-Place Jumps
mi ' m
- AND SINGLE-LEG VERTICAL POWER JUMP

Stand with feet shoulder-width apart and armsyour sides in preparation for a
to
vertical jump. With a powerful upward thrust of both arms, jump as high as possible
(figure 5.26a). On landing, immediately jump again with as little ground contact time
as possible.
A variation is the single-leg vertical power jump (figure 5.26b). Complete the
same action as the double-leg vertical power jump with a one-foot takeoff. Repeat
with the other foot.
122 Sports SPEED

_ SINGLE-LEG TUCK JUMP

Stand upright with both arms to your sides and feet shoulder-width apart. Execute
a vertical jump with a one-foot takeoff, grasping both knees in the air. Release your
knees before landing on the same foot, and immediately execute the next jump.
Repeat using the opposite leg.

SIDE JUMP AND SPRINT

Stand toone side of a bench or cone with feet together, pointing straight ahead.
Jump back and forth over the bench or cone for 4 to 10 repetitions (figure 5.27).
After landing on the last jump, sprint forward for 25 yards.
For a competitive angle, have two athletes begin at the same time. The first

athlete to complete the specified number

jumps and reach the finish line is the
of
winner. Two benches or cones can be set 100 yards apart. Athletes perform 4 to
10 jumps and sprint to the next bench or cone before repeating the jumps and
sprinting again.

Figure 5.27
 Ballistics and Plyometrics 1 23

Short-Response Hops

DOUBLE- AND SINGLE-LEG SPEED HOP

From an upright position with back straight, shoulders forward, and head up, jump
as high as possible, bringing your feet under your buttocks in a cycling motion at
the height of the jump (figure 5.28). Jump again immediately after making contact
with the ground.
A good variation is the single-leg speed hop. Assume the same beginning
stance with one leg in a stationary flexed position. Concentrate on the height of
the jump.

Figure 5.28

DECLINE HOP

Assume a quarter-squat position at the top of a grassy hill with a three- to four-degree
slope. Continue hopping down the hill for speed as described for the double-leg hop.
Repeat using the single-leg decline hop.
124 Sports SPIES

DEPTH JUMP

From an elevated box or grassy surface, Figure 5.29

drop to the ground (do not jump), land-
ing with both feet together and knees
bent in an attempt to “freeze” your body
and absorb the shock (figure 5.29).
Siowly return to the box and repeat for
the desired number of repetitions.

SINGLE-LEG STRIDE JUMP

Stand to the side at one end of a Figure 5.30

box with your inside foot on top of
the bench and arms at your sides.
Drive your arms up as the leg on the
bench pushes off to jump as high
into the air as possible (figure 5.30).
Continue jumping until you reach
the other end of the bench.
 Ballistics and Plyometrics 125

BOX JUMPS
mmmismmmmMmmm'-

Step off a box that is within the recommended box heights for your weight and age.
Immediately jump up and out after making contact with the ground (figure 5.31 ).

Figure 5.31

MULTIPLE BOX JUMPS

Set up five boxes of different heights three to five feet apart. Stand on the first box
with your toes slightly extended over the edge. Step off the first box and, after making
contact with the ground, jump up and out to land on the next highest box. Repeat
the action for the remaining boxes, alternating low and high boxes.
126 Sports SPEED

Stationary Arm Swings

STANDING AND SITTING

Stand with both feet together and swing your arms with proper sprinting form (figure
5.32a): elbows bent at 90 degrees, relaxed open hands with palms facing inward,
forward movement to the shoulders and then back to the hips without crossing the
midline of the body. Emphasize vigorous, high-speed arm movement.

Figure 5.32a

A variation is the seated arm swing

(figure 5.32b).Use the same motion
as the standing arm swing except sit
on the your legs extended
floor with in

front. Avoid bouncing off the floor.

Figure 5.32b
 Ballistics and Plyometrics 127

SPRINT ARM ACTION WITH WEIGHTS

Place a 10-pound dumbbell

1- to Figure 5.33
in each hand. Assume a stance

with your upper body leaning only

slightly forward, both arms bent at
right angles in the correct sprint-
ing position (left arm raised in front,

elbow close to the body with the

hand about shoulder height; right
arm lowered, elbow close to the
body with the hand no farther back
than the right hip). Swing your arms
from the shoulder joint and execute
1 0 to 1 5 explosive arm movements
with the correct form described in

chapter 2 (figure 5.33). On the up-

1

swing, your hand rises to a point

just in front ofyour chin and just
inside your shoulder. As your arm
swings down, your elbow straight-
ens slightly and your hand comes
close to your thigh.

DUMBBELL ARM SWINGS

With a 5- to 25-pound dumbbell each hand, assume a stance with feet apart, hands
in

at your sides, shoulders and upper body tilted slightly forward, and head straight.
Drive one arm upward to a point just above your shoulder as the other arm drives
backward behind your body. Before each arm reaches maximum stretch, check the
momentum and initiate movement in the opposite direction.

CONTRAST ARM SWINGS

From a standing position, complete vigorous arm swings with a 5-pound weight in
each hand. Repeat using a l-pound weight in each hand. Finally, release the weights
and complete one set without resistance.
 Chapter 6

ou might take the position that any kind of training is a form of sport
K loading. If you increase acceleration, the amount of force the body has to
manage increases, thereby providing increased loading on the body. Jumping
higher and farther in competition or practice produces a higher functional
loading with specific positive benefits.
We define sport loading as the systematic adding of weight to the body in
any form (uniform, vest, pants, or suit) or to the implements used in sports
(bats, balls, and so on). This method is not new. Many athletes through the
years have used it, by accident in many cases and by design in others. Interest-
ingly, coaches of sports that involve carrying additional weight in the form of
protective gear haven’t placed a great emphasis on adding uniform weight to
the body during training or testing and evaluating players. The majority of the
loading has been applied by using partners or field equipment such as sleds.
Sport loading is designed to improve explosive concentric movements such
as sprinting speed. A relatively light resistance that does not drastically alter
sprinting form produces the best results.
Imagine the kind of sport loading program David and Goliath might have
used. Can you design a program for them? David had to rely on attributes such
as quickness and precision of mind, body, and spirit. Shepherds commonly used
a sling as a weapon to protect their flocks from predators. The sling perfectly
matched David’s qualifications and the situation. Goliath, on the other hand,
selected a long and heavy sword and shield. These weapons were perfectly suited
to his physical attributes. However, you must follow other principles to achieve
victory on the battlefield or in a game. Consider the situation and terrain along
with your own capabilities. Reliance on favorite weapons, plays, players, or
moves may be of little value in the ever-changing circumstances taking place
on the field. David’s quickness, speed, and accuracy were the deciding factors
in the victory over Goliath’s size and crushing close-range strength. David
won because he chose a fighting style that fit both his qualifications and the
demands of the situation. You must learn to do the same thing in your sport.
Resolve, as David did, to be flexible, open, and unrestrained by traditional
thinking and common methods. Try to find other creative solutions to getting
the job done better.
Many teams in the NFL have their own version of the David and Goliath
story. Most teams favor players who are Goliaths. Take the offensive line, for
instance, where excessive size and strength are overvalued. The trend toward
increasing size is evident in the shift from 250-pound players to 260-pound

128
 Sport Loading 129

players to players over 300 pounds (figure 6.1). Passing and running strategy
is often based on the idea that bigger is better, and allowances are not made
for smaller players. Consequently, all defensive strategists do is find have to
the proper size and performance mix that counters the size and performance
qualities of the offensive line. Then the pendulum will swing back to more agile,
explosive offensive linemen to keep up with defensive performance. Lawrence
Taylor and other defensive linemen created havoc in the offensive backfields
in the NFL. Obviously, some NFL staffs see the performance benefits of good
body mechanics, quickness, explosion, and playing speed over size.
The NBA also has its version of David and Goliath. In a land of seven-foot
giants live few successful relatively short players, such as Mugsy Bogues and
Spud Webb. These short players are even short to the rest of us. These contrast-
ing players add some excitement and enthusiasm to the game. Coaches and
franchises are to be commended for their vision and openness to innovative
ways of getting the job done.
Your program needs to match the demands you will face on the field. The
concepts of sport loading in this chapter will help you devise a personal program
that is perfectly adapted to your needs and playing situation. Each element of
a practice session contributes different amounts to performance. Greater stress
should be placed on sport loading, form training, speed endurance training,
and sprint-assisted training because more sport- specific skills are done in these
programs. Nearly 100 percent of the work done in these training programs has
a good chance of improving sport performance. The other programs work on
building the best car for the race (your body), but these programs work on you,
the driver (the nervous system that directs all the action) Sport loading along with
.

strength training, speed endurance training, plyometrics, and overspeed training

produce the greatest changes in the exercised fast- twitch muscle fibers.

Year of season

Figure 6.1 The trend in the NFL has been toward larger and heavier offensive linemen.
1 30 Sports SPEED

Although you may not have access to all the technical equipment found at
many colleges or professional facilities, you can still develop an outstanding
sport loading program. You will need to find alternative methods of sport load-
ing training that involve little or no equipment. A number of sport loading
techniques yield effective results. Athletes of all ages can use the methods that
follow to attain benefits from sport loading.

Weighted Body Suits, Vests, end Shorts

Why weight resistance training? important to understand conceptually the
It’s

purpose and benefits of integrating weight resistance in the form of clothing

into your training regimen.
Stan Plagenhoef conceptualized a weighted strap system to fit around vari-
ous body segments — a weighted body suit. Each strap is placed at specific
biomechanical segment points. This system is the best way
an athlete
to load
because the method distributes the load over each body segment. Ce bo, a
company from England, manufactures and markets a body suit design (Ce’bo
Bodykit™) that is available to the general public. In the literature promoting
the Ce bo Bodykit, the company states that the suit is "a weighted exercise
garment that increases the gravitational pull on the body of the wearer while
exercising. The suit includes four sections: upper body, arms, upper legs, and
lower legs. This allows you to distribute the weight over your body to attain
more precise loading. To our knowledge, this suit is not constructed to match
an athlete’s biomechanical characteristics. However, keep a close watch on the
advances in this technology because they will result in a more effective training
device for your sport loading program.
Materials and designs used in constructing weight vests are improving. More
durable, light, tight-fitting vests that allow the user to easily change weights of-
fer greater control and variation. A weighted vest should become the foundation
piece of equipment for a sport loading program. This vest can be safely used
by male and female athletes of all ages and adapted to practically any sport.
Research by Bosco and associates (1985) indicated that the proper use of
sport loading improves power output and aids performance in sprinting. An
average improvement of 10 centimeters in vertical jumping ability was also
measured after three weeks of training. A repeat study of Bosco s design for
female subjects at Brigham Young University (BYU) showed similar positive
effects on vertical jumping ability, with an average gain of 5 centimeters for
the athletes. The study used a weekly increase in the vest loads of 8 percent
of body weight the first week, 10 percent the second week, and 12 percent
the third week. Female athletes wore the vests during the day and for practice
sessions. BYU researchers also suggested that the vest could influence other
aspects of power output. For many, the benefits are not so clear. Many athletes
worry that wearing a weighted vest or shorts may hurt the lower back, knees,
and ankles. The other concern is restricting the form, function, and range of
 Sport Loading 1 31

movement while performing their sport. This can happen if too much weight
isused or the weighted vest or shorts fit poorly. This section is designed to
educate you on how to train and what equipment performs most effectively
and safely.

So, let's exercise the science behind weight resistance training. Currently,
most engage in weight resistance training. Lifting weights is the most
athletes
recognizable form of resistance training, and we all understand the benefits
of increasing strength and power. Athletes achieve significant gains in perfor-
mance by applying weight resistance to specific sport movements. By simply
and wisely using weighted and shorts, you will strengthen the muscles
vests
associated with performing the movements in your sport. By training this way,
you’re directly converting and generating strength gains into the neuromuscular
movement patterns performed in your sport. Weighted vests and shorts act as
the catalyst for this conversion. As long as you follow the guidelines set forth
in this book, you will achieve safe, steady, and noticeable results.
Choose a vest that can be incrementally loaded, such as the Smart Vest® by
Training Zone Concepts, Inc. In addition, it is desirable to be able to increase
the weight on the vest in half-pound or one-pound increments (figure 6.2).
Table 6.1 summarizes the major purposes and weight ranges of the three vests
in the Smart Vest system. Vest I with heavy weights is used primarily to improve
basic strength. Vest II provides an opportunity to develop speed endurance (see
chapter 7), and Vest III uses lighter
weights so you can perform at higher
rates of speed to improve quickness
and power.
A sample sport loading program
using Vest I is shown in table 6.2.
The program progresses from heavy
weights (20 pounds) to lighter-
weights (6 pounds) over a 10- week
period; you slowly progress to high-
speed training with a weight that
permits rapid, explosive turnover in
sprinting.
You can easily use the vest during
various parts of the practice session
in your sport. In general, avoid using Nadeau

a vest during highly technical aspects

Todd

that require considerable precision.

of

The majority of precision practice

should be done in a training zone
courtesy

that uses the same high-speed work Photo

levels expected during competition

because this kind of session is best figure 6 2 Choose a vest that can be
for improving skills. Load depends incrementally loaded.
 Table 6.1 Sports Speed Vest and Body Suit Programs

Vest Name General purpose Weight range 3

Vest 1 Basic training vest Strength endurance 1 to 20 lb.

maximum
Vest II Speed endurance Strength endurance 1 to 16 lb.

vest maximum
Vest III Speed vest Quickness, speed, 1 to 8 lb. maximum
power
a
For the body suit, use comparable weights.

Table 6.2 Sport Loading Program for Hypergravity Vest and Body Suit Training

Week Repetitions Vest Distance Rest Progression

1 3 to 5 1 20 lb.
a
120 yd. Walk back 40 yd. building to 75%
HR > 120 speed gradually
40 yd. at 75% speed
40 yd. easing off

2 4 to 6 1 18 lb. 120 yd. Walk back 40 yd. building to 75%

HR > 120 speed gradually
40 yd. at 75% speed
40 yd. easing off

3 6 to 8 1 20 lb. 20 yd. Full recovery Power starts at 85%

3 to 5 1 16 lb. 120 yd. Walk back 40 yd. building to 80%
HR > 120 speed gradually
40 yd. at 80% speed
40 yd. easing off
Complete two sets

4 6 to 8 1 18 lb. 20 yd. Full recovery Power starts at 90%

3 to 5 1 14 lb. 120 yd. Walk back 40 yd. building to 85%
HR > 120 speed gradually
40 yd. at 85% speed
40 yd. easing off
Complete two sets

5 6 to 8 1 16 lb. 20 yd. Full recovery Power starts at 95%

3 to 5 1 12 lb. 120 yd. Walk back 40 yd. building to 88%
*
HR > 120 speed gradually
40 yd. at 88% speed
40 yd. easing off
Complete three sets

132
 Sport Loading 133

Week Repetitions Vest Distance Rest Progression

6 6 to 8 1 14 lb. 20 yd. Full recovery Power starts at 95%

3 to 5 1 10 lb. 120 yd. Walk back 40 yd. building to 90%
HR > 120 speed gradually
40 yd. at 90% speed
40 yd. easing off
Complete three sets

7 6 to 8 1 12 lb. 20 yd. Full recovery Power starts at 95%

3 to 5 1 8 1b. 120 yd. Walk back 40 yd. building to 90%
HR > 120 speed gradually
40 yd. at 90% speed
40 yd. easing off
Complete three sets

8 6 to 8 1 10 lb. 20 yd. Full recovery Power starts at 95%

3 to 5 1 6 1b. 120 yd. Walk back 40 yd. building to 95%
HR > 120 speed gradually
40 yd. at 95% speed
40 yd. easing off
Complete three sets

9 6 to 8 1 8 1b. 20 yd. Full recovery Power starts at 95%

3 to 5 1 6 1b. 120 yd. Walk back 40 yd. building to 95%
HR > 120 speed gradually
40 yd. at 95% speed
40 yd. easing off
Complete three sets

10 6 to 8 1 6 1b. 20 yd. Full recovery Power starts at 95%

3 to 5 1 6 1b. 120 yd. Walk back 40 yd. building to 98%
HR > 120 speed gradually
40 yd. at 98% speed
40 yd. easing off
Complete three sets

Note: Vest's I and II can be used for all loads; Vest III can be used for loads of 8 pounds or less.
a
For the body suit, use comparable weights.

on the objectives set for the practice period. If the vest is used intelligently,
skill development and conditioning will occur simultaneously. Coaches can

handicap elite players during training sessions to stimulate competition and

force more talented players to work harder. Table 6.3 lists some practice ele-
ments and suggests vest loads and durations for each of them.
Table 6.4 gives six training zones and suggested loads and durations for
organizing a training program. Be aware that Vest II and 111 can be used lor
all Vest weights. The big advantage in using Vest 1 and II is that they are
I

designed to fit better and allow greater freedom of movement.

134 Sports SPIVS

Table 6.3 Sport-Specific Training Using a Weighted Vest and Body Suit

Practice period Suggested load and duration

a
Warm-up and drills Vest 1, II, III; 1 to 20 lb. for 10 to 15 min.

Scrimmage sessions Speed vest; 1 to 4 lb. until the end of scrimmage

Drills Speed vest; 1 to 8 lb. throughout practice

Conditioning sessions at Vest 1, II, III; 1 to 20 lb. for 15 to 30 min.

the end of practice

a
For the body suit, use comparable weights.

Table 6.4 Sport-Specific Training Zones Using a Weighted Vest and Body Suit

Practice period Distance (m) Suggested load and duration

a
Starting zone Oto 20 Vest 1, II, III; 1 to 20 lb. for 15 to 30 min.

Acceleration zone 0 to 30 Vest 1, II, III; 1 to 20 lb. for 15 to 30 min.

Flying zone 20 to 40 Speed vest; 1 to 4 lb. for 15 to 30 min.

90 percent zone 1 00 to 300 Speed vest; 1 to 4 lb. for 15 to 30 min.

Speed endurance 30 to 200 Speed vest; 1 to 8 lb. for 15 to 30 min.

zone

Aerobic zone 400 Speed vest; 1 to 8 lb. for 30 to 60 min.

a
For the body suit, use comparable weights.

Because more is important that athletes understand

not always better, it s

at some level the science behind training. Being aware of the cause and effect
training has on performance is the guiding light to what is and isn't working
in a training program. When you study sport, you recognize the complex in-
terplay between the mind and movement, of which little is understood. What
we do know is that how well you think and move within your game will define
your level of success. You need to be mentally sharp and athletically talented
to develop a complete game. So, let’s discuss how to take the mystery out of
this form of resistance training by using weighted vests and shorts to reach
your peak performance zone.

Integrating Weighted Suits, Vests, and Shorts Into a Training Program

The first toward using weighted garments in a training program is to
step
master the mechanics. For 20 to 30 minutes at the beginning of your training
session, focus your mind on executing the movement mechanics required to
complete a specific skill in your sport (e.g., a basketball player performing a
crossover dribble into a two-step jump shot or a volleyball player going up to
block an opponent’s shot).
 Sport Loading 1 35

The second step is skill drill mastery. First, slow the movements down and
focus your mind on the rhythm (flow) and speed (power) necessary to most
effectively execute the movements within the skill. As you build confidence,
increase intensity to gamelike conditions. Remember, the goal is for the mind
to automate these you no longer need to focus on them. This frees
skills so

the mind to focus on other aspects of the game. Skill command is defined by
response time, or how long it takes for you to react to a sport trigger. This is
the stimulus response theory; as you play against better athletes, the amount
of time you need to respond w ill shrink.
In the third step, strengthening and reinforcing movement, the weighted vest
and shorts are used. By adding weight in one- to two-pound increments, you’re
able to accelerate the strengthening and mastery of these movements. This
is critical because the body tends to move toward old patterns of movement;

the old saying that a person w ill always move tow ard his strengths and away
from his weaknesses holds true. The weighted vest and shorts are designed to
accelerate the mastery of these new movements. They are an excellent train-
ing tool for the strengthening, integrating, and automating of new movement
patterns.
Now that you understand the purpose of weight resistance training with the
weighted vest and shorts, we will discuss where to get them, how to train with
them, and w hat to expect in terms of results.
Vest information is available by contacting Training Zone Concepts, Inc.,
through the Internet at www.sportsscience.com. Smart Vest products are the
best on the market. The key features are a distraction-free fit, adjustable
half- and one-pound weights, and a men’s and women’s model. By simply
giving them your height, weight., and true w aist size you w ill receive a guar-
anteed body glove fit. The Smart Vest is sold with 12 pounds and the shorts
with 8 pounds.
Let’s more clearly define w eight resistance training and how T
to w ork it into
your training schedule. Resistance is created through the process of gradually
adding weight to the body while sport training. The key is having a weighted
suit (Smart Vest) that creates a compression fit, allow ing the body to experience
the weight as its own. In practical terms, after you start training you forget
you have it on other than you are working harder. Because of this fit, you can
use the Smart Vest or shorts during all aspects of training. You can wear them
as part of your daily wear; while weightlifting; during conditioning for speed,
agility, and quickness; while performing plyometric exercises for explosive and
vertical power; while cross-training (running, biking, climbing stairs); wdiile
practicing sport- specific skill drills; or while playing scrimmage or pickup
games in your sport.

Training Variables

You can do anything while wearing the Smart Vest and The key to get-
shorts.
ting maximum results is to manipulate the training variables. The following
130 Sports SPEED

guidelines will help you understand how to utilize overload training to maxi-
mize performance results.

Progression and amount of weight. The

master the mechanics of
rule is to
movement before adding weight. The strategy of adding weight depends on
what training phase (off-season, preseason, or in-season) you are in. In the
off-season, begin with 2.5 percent of your body weight. For example, a 160-
pound football player would with 4 pounds in the vest or shorts. Usually,
start
ever} two to three weeks the athlete is ready to add weight. We recommend
7

adding 2 pounds for the vest and 1 pound for the shorts. While performing
high-speed movements, you shouldn’t drop below 5 percent of your maximum
speed. Most athletes will fall below this level when the weight load reaches 5 to
7.5 percent of body weight, depending on level of strength and conditioning.
For any type of movement training, the athlete should not exceed 10 percent
body weight. Again, progression is a process of gradually adding weight this —
is a safe, effective means of building strength and speed.
When tapering, the athlete starts with a heavy load 12 to 15 per-
Tapering. (

cent of body weight) and performs the drills at 75 percent of maximum speed.
The key is to determine a target date to peak (e.g., a tournament at the end of
the season) Tapering . is a gradual process of decreasing the amount of weight
while increasing speed intensity. The goal weight load training one
is to stop
to two weeks before the target date. An athlete wants to gradually add weight
in the off- and preseason, with the intent to begin tapering at the start of the
season to peak for the playoffs.
Volume, duration, and intensity. Volume means the number of drills, duration
is how long, and intensity is the degree of maximum effort while performing
the drill. In the off- and preseason, we recommend that 60 75 percent of to
drills be performed with the vest or shorts; during the season, 20 to 40 percent.

Duration is longer in the off- and preseason, then gradually shortened as you
move into the season.

Contrast training. Contrast training can be performed within a set or dur-

ing a practice session. For example, if performing four sets of a drill, wear
the weighted vest or shorts for two or three of the During a particular
sets.

session, the athlete would wear the weighted vest or shorts 30 to 70 percent
of the practice session.

Creativity. Sport psychologists understand the impact the mind has on train-
ing. Be creative with training. This book and the guidelines outlined in this
chapter provide you with the knowledge and fundamental concepts of training.
Our goal is to empower you to create challenging training programs. Taking
this approach will generate excitement in your training regimen. Remember
to listen to your body; results will always guide your training direction.

Now you understand training variables and overload training, let’s

that
explore what areas and strategies to focus on that will build strength, speed,
and quickness in your sport. Phase I is a broad-based approach to making yon
more athletic. The goal is to work on technique, body posture and control, and
overall speed, quickness, agility, and vertical power. Acceleration and maximum
speed are the performance goals for phase I.

Training Acceleration

To generate quick explosive starts or changes in direction, you need to focus on

acceleration. In most sports, the first step (start or on the move) is crucial for
creating an edge against an opponent. The largest gains are realized in train-
ing by dedicating 15 to 30 minutes to training starts, finding the acceleration
zone, and generating acceleration bursts.

Starts

Your first two steps generate power and direction; in most sports, these two steps
determine success. The key is to design drills that simulate the stance and foot-
work used in your sport. Depending on strength level, loading recommendations
begin with 2 pounds and add 2 pounds every two weeks with a maximum of 8
to 10 pounds for the vest. For the shorts, start with 1 pound on each thigh, then
add 1 pound to each thigh every two weeks to a maximum of 4 pounds.

CLOCK DRILL

Get intoan athletic stance and visualize around you the numbers on a clock. When
your coach or training partner calls out a number, explode in that direction. The key
is to stay low and extend your lead foot in the direction of the number on the clock.

Depending on your sport, take two or three steps and finish with a sport-specific move
such as shooting a jump shot, making a stick stop, catching a football pass, squaring
up to tackle, or blocking or digging in volleyball. Be creative within your sport.

MIRROR REACTION DRILL

Measure 1 0 yards. Place a cone at each end and one In the middle. Two players face
each other over the middle cone. One is the leader and the other is responsible for
mimicking the leader’s movements. Players can sprint, shuffle laterally, backpedal,
or jump vertically. The leader can change directions between the three cones at any
time. Perform the drill for 30 seconds, gradually increasing the duration over time.

Acceleration Zone

The acceleration zone occurs after the startand builds toward maximum speed.
In the acceleration zone, a tremendous amount of force is generated. From 20
to 60 yards is considered the range in which an athlete climbs to maximum
speed. Drills need to focus on sport- specific movements. Weight load will begin
with 2.5 percent of body weight and gradually climb to 10 percent.
138 Sports SPEED

10-YARD FLYING SERIES

Start in an 0 yards, either sprint, shuffle, or backpedal at

athletic stance. For the first 1

75 percent speed. After 1 0 yards, explode into a full sprint, trying to reach maximum
speed. You can vary the distance for the full sprint from 1 0 to 30 yards.

200-YARD BURSTS

Begin with a glide stride (75 percent maximum speed with hips down, ready to
change directions) for 10 yards. Burst for 15 yards, glide for 15 yards, burst for 20
yards, glide for 20 yards, burst for 25 yards, glide for 20 yards, burst for 30 yards,
glide for 20 yards, and burst for 25 yards. This covers a 200-yard stretch.

IT77.T ..
CLOCK DRILL WITH GLIDE

The clock drill is performed in an open area. Glide stride for 10 yards. When your
partner calls out a number, burst for 15 to 30 yards in that direction. Repeat six
times.

Acceleration Bursts

The acceleration burst occurs in the 25- 50 -yard range in which an athlete
to
moves toward maximum speed. Athletes in all sports come to some point when
they need to throw it into high gear. Training needs to reflect these moments.
Weight load begins at 2.5 percent body weight and gradually climbs to 10
percent.

25-YARD FLYING SERIES

Glide stride for 25 yards then burst for 25 yards. You will progress from 25- to 30- to
35- to 40- to 45- to 50-yard sprints, while maintaining a 25-yard glide stride. Do a
mixture of these for 10 to 20 minutes, depending on strength and season.

ZIGZAG SERIES

Glide stride for 20 yards at a 45-degree angle, then burst at a 90-degree angle for
25 to 30 to 35 to 40 to 45 to50 yards. Perform the drill at right and left angles. Do a
mixture of these for 10 to 20 minutes, depending on strength and season.
It is important to incorporate other movements —the backpedal, lateral shuffle,
vertical jump, and change of direction — into your drills. Be creative in developing a
daily training regimen.
 Sport Loading 139

Training Maximum Speed

The purpose of maximum speed training is to reach maximum speed as quickly
as possible and sustain maximum speed as long as possible. Speed is a by-
product of the force generated from striking the ground and then powering
off the same leg in a running cycle. The leg cycle is contingent upon leg exten-
sion, or stride length, and stride frequency —
how fast the leg moves through
a complete cycle.
Stride frequency is Running mechanics
a limiting factor in running faster.
need to be polished through practice to master and maximize each component
of sprinting. A major percentage of maximum speed is reached by 20 to 30
yards. From around 60 to 70 yards (the point of maximum speed) to about
300 yards, speed endurance (anaerobic/0., zone) comes into play as an absolute
essential for running faster over extended distances.
Examine the and movements that are typical to your sport, and
distances
design drills to maximize speed. Begin with two pounds in the vest and one
pound on each thigh in the shorts. Every two weeks, increase by two pounds
in the vest and one pound on each thigh of the shorts.
In the flying speed zone, the athlete is training to maximize speed in the
20- to 100-yard range. Most team sports do not require an athlete to travel
farther than 100 yards, though there are exceptions.

COUNTDOWN SPEED DRILL

Begin speed drills 20 yards before the starting line so that when you cross the
all

starting line you will be near top speed. Begin with one or two 100-yard dashes,
then do two or three 80-yard dashes, three or four 60-yard dashes, four or five 40-
yard dashes, and end with five or six 20-yard dashes. Increase the number as you
become stronger.

CHANGE OF DIRECTION SPEED

Glide stride for 20 yards with cones at 20, 30, 40, and 50 yards. Change direction
by powering off the outside leg toward the cone.
0 to 40 yards every play. By the third or fourth
Football players often have to run 1

quarter, conditioning begins to play a factor. The athlete who fatigues will play
poorly and place himself at greater risk of injury. This is why it’s necessary to train
speed endurance. You need to perform drills designed to build speed endurance
if you want as you enter the fourth quarter in a football game of-
to feel strong —
ten this is when games are won or lost. The speed endurance range is 30 to 200
yards.
140 Sports SPEED

SPEED REPEATS

Begin with 10 repetitions for 30 yards with 30 to 45 seconds of rest between repeti-
tions. Progressively increase the distance by 1 0 yards when you are able to average
90 to 95 percent
your best time for 30 yards.
of
Reduce repetitions to 8 for distances of 70 to 100 yards. Rest for 30 to 45 sec-
onds between repetitions. If speed drops to about 80 percent of your best time for
30 yards, rest until your heart rate reaches 120 beats per minute before the next
repetition.
Decrease the number of repetitions to 6 for 1140 yards, 5 for 150 to 180
10 to
yards, and 4 for 190 to 220 yards. Rest until your heart rate reaches 120 beats per
minute between repetitions.

300-YARD SHUTTLE

The 300-yard can be performed several ways. You can measure out 25 yards
shuttle
and sprint back and forth 12 times, measure 50 yards and sprint back and forth 6
times, measure 75 yards and sprint back and forth 4 times, or measure 100 yards
and sprint back and forth 3 times. The key to this drill is time. Keep track of your
times and push yourself to improve your time every two weeks. Every other training
session, perform the 300-yard shuttle.

Uphill sprinting and running up stairs are excellent ways to build power. In
uphill sprinting, it’s important to start with no weight and gradually add two
pounds every two weeks you reach 5 percent of your body weight (see
until
table 6.7 [page 144] for details on incline grades and distances). With stairs,
focus on high knees and quick reaction off the ground. Use the same weight
load recommendation as for uphill sprinting.
For overspeed training, you are looking for a decline (see table 6.7 for
recommendations). Begin with two pounds of weight and add two pounds
every two weeks until you reach 5 percent of your body weight.
Agility is the ability to change directions quickly or explosively on com-
mand or in reaction to a stimulus. Agility is the process of accelerating then
decelerating to a quick stop, either performing a two-legged stick stop or a
one-legged outside foot plant, then reaccelerating to top speed. Team sports
require a high level of agility for a variety of different movements. Therefore,
important to design drills that simulate change of direction movements in
it’s

your sport.
Plyometric training is an excellent way to improve vertical and horizontal
jumps. Most sports require an athlete to explode off the ground (dunking or
blocking shots in basketball, catching a high pass in football, killing a shot in
volleyball). Be creative in designing drills that simulate plyometric movements
in your sport. Begin with no weight and gradually add two pounds every couple
of weeks up to 5 percent of your body weight.
 Sport Loading 141

Table 6.5 illustrates a sample broad-based workout that would be performed

three or four days a week. The intent of this program is to progressively prepare
the mind and body for peak performance. After warming up, the athlete moves
through a series of stretches. The focus shifts to the fundamentals of movement
and basic footwork. Finally, the athlete performs intense explosive movements
that simulate gamelike intensity. This series is a great training routine to per-
form before practicing or playing a game of pickup. It’s designed to get the
body and mind ready for peak performance. The drills are designed to cover
movement mechanics, flexibility, speed, quickness, agility, and vertical jumps.
This format lets you add and subtract drills. Tracking the amount of weight
you use helps you determine the effect you receive from using various loads.

Harnesses, Parachutes, aaH Weighted Sleds

The two-person harness is an affordable and effective tool for working on
running techniques and sprinting. Two athletes of similar body weight and
power use the same harness (figure 6.3). One athlete provides the resistance,
and the other provides the power.

Table 6.5 Movement Training Series: Turn Up the Heat

Distance Sets Repetitions Exercises

Full court 1 2 Warm-up: jog, backpedal, carioca, shuffle, high

knees
1 i Functional flexibility: lunges, shuffle squats,
inchworm, push-ups, sit-ups, complete stretching
program

Full court 1 3 Form running: A-march, B-march, quick steps

Full court 3 1 Stride form drill (change of direction), zigzag drill

(stick and stop)

-
Half court 3 1 Shuffle drill, shuffle-sprint cone drill

3 1 20-yd. agility drill (shuffle-sprint and sprint-sprint)

Foul line 1 1 Complete-the-square driil (3 right and 3 left)

Half court 1 2 Jump series drills: two-foot takeoff (one step, hops,
shuffle, diagonal hops); one-foot takeoff (one step,
quick jump, bounding)
1 20 Wall taps

Sidelines 1 1 1 .5 sprint; 3.0 sprint/shuffle (sideline to sideline)

Total time to complete: Weight load:

142 Sports SPEEB

Using harnesses works best

during basic training. Remem-
ber, theemphasis at this level is
to perform at or near game play-
ing speed. Speed levels should
be close to 90 percent of your
maximum speed.
Parachutes of various sizes
provide some degree of resistance;
however, the additional benefits
that can be gained from other
methods outweigh the cost and
inconvenience associated with the
use of parachutes. Younger ath-
letes tend to enjoy parachutes as
a sport loading technique. If you
choose this method, follow the
guidelines shown in table 6.6.
Both expensive and inexpen-
sive weighted sleds are avail-
able. Metal and plastic models
allow quick and easy weight
changes. For little cost, you can Figure 6.3 One athlete is the resistance, the
other is the power.
use a spare tire with a rope and
weighted belt. Regardless of the device you choose, make sure you use a load
that allows proper form and high-speed sprinting. Too much weight will cause
you to lose form and will prevent explosive movements. Time yourself over
various starting and sprinting distances of 5 to 40 yards using both a station-
ary and a flying start.

Uphill Sprinting, Slndlum Stnlr Sprinting, and

Sand Running
Most parts of the country provide suitable terrain for sprinting uphill. Although
a wide range of grades can be used, it is recommended that the degree of incline
allows you to run with good starting and sprinting form.
When Bob Ward designed the incline/decline course for the Dallas Cowboys
in the 1980s, he included the best features for uphill training. The angles and
distances were selected from extensive research, consultation with many experts
from around the world, and practical coaching experience. These angles and
distances are shown in table 6.7.
If you can find similar angles and distances, apply them as shown in the
Uphill use column. In general, steep angles (8.0 degrees) can be used for starts
and acceleration loading, and angles of 1.0, 2.5, or 3.0 degrees can be used for
 Sport Loading 143

Table 6.6 Sport Loading Program Using Hill Sprinting, Stadium Stairs, Harnesses,

Sand Running, Parachutes, or Weighted Sleds

Pulling
Week Repetitions distance 3 Rest Progression

1 3 to 5 15 yd. Walk Use power starts at 75% speed for hill

back b sprinting, sand running, and stadium

HR > 120 sprinting or with no weight on the sled.
Complete two sets.

2 3 to 5 20 yd. Walk Repeat at maximum speed.

back
HR > 120
3 6 to 8 25 yd. Full Repeat power starts at maximum
recovery speed.
3 to 5 30 yd. Walk Use power starts at 75% speed for hill

back sprinting, sand running, and stadium

HR > 120 sprinting or with no weight on the sled.
Complete two sets.

4 7 to 9 Full Use power starts at 90%.

recovery Repeat power starts and power sprints.
3 to 5 40 yd. Walk Add weight to the sled that allows you
back to sprint with good form. Complete two
HR > 120 sets.

5 7 to 9 50 yd. Full Repeat workout. Add more weight.

recovery Complete three sets.

6 to 9 7 to 9 60 yd. Full Repeat workout. Add more weight each

recovery week. Complete three sets. Include one
final run to exhaustion by continuing
your sprint as long as possible.
for
Record the distance and try to improve
it each week.

a
Actual distance you are pulling the sled or sprinting uphill or up stadium steps.

b
No walk back if you are using a weighted sled.

starts and speed endurance. A 10- to 30-yard incline of 8 to 10 degrees should

be covered in 2.5 to 3.5 seconds, followed by a near full-speed sprint of 20 to
80 yards at the same incline. These values have proven to be very effective for
sprint loading programs at the Dallas Cowboys’ training facility. Attempt to
come as close as possible to these guidelines, although precise values are not
absolutely necessary.
Stadium can be used in the same manner as uphill
stairs or other stairs
sprinting. Try to locate stairs that have the same approximate angles of incline.
Make sure the steps provide a safe environment for training.
144 Sports SPUD

Table 6.7 Dallas Cowboys Incline/Decline Course

Total
distance Distance Distance
(yd.) (yd.) (m) Featured angles Uphill use

0.00 0.00 0.00 Start

27.25 27.25 25.00 Flat Recovery

33.81 6.56 6.00 8.0-degree angle Starts

34.90 1.09 1.00 Flat Recovery

67.70 32.80 30.00 3.5-degree angle Acceleration

89.57 21.87 20.00 Flat Recovery

122.37 32.80 30.00 3.0-degree angle Acceleration

131.12 8.75 8.00 Flat Recovery

196.72 65.60 60.00 2.5-degree angle Speed endurance

278.72 82.00 75.00 1.0-degree angle Speed endurance
328.72 50.00 46.00 Sand running Body control
Speed endurance

Sand running an excellent way to stress the total body, especially the
is

lower extremities. The foot, knee, and hip muscle- joint systems are required to
adjust to the unstable sandy surface. This adjustment develops and toughens
the body’s ability to handle unexpected stability changes. Very few activities
that you can include in your program work all joint actions as sand running
can. It’s almost a form of wrestling for the lower extremities.
Herschel Walker said that his father had him running over plowed fields in
Georgia when he was a youngster. While running in a sand session with the
Cowboys, Walker looked as if he were running on top of the sand while most
of the other players labored or dug deep holes in the sand. His early training
must have given him that kind of control.

When to Use Sport loeding

The ideal point to include sport loading training in your program is at the lat-
ter part of Wednesday’s workout or later during a speedweek. There are two
training objectives to consider.
The power and explosive close-range movement phase (phase 1 ac-
start
celeration) helps you overcome inertia to get started in any of your sport
tasks. This is extremely important in sports that deal in close ranges. Phase II

acceleration marks the end of the majority of your ability to run faster. This
 Sport Loading 145

leveling in speed has been noted by many other researchers during maximum
and near-maximum speed runs.
Unique studies conducted on the Dallas Cowboys (Ward 1987) showed that
maximum acceleration takes place very close to the start (one to three feet) and
rapidly diminishes to zero or to very low amounts somewhere around 50 to 60
yards. The drop-off rate is a good indicator of your miming skill and condition-
ing level. The timeline of an athlete’s run shows that his ability to accelerate
and apply power continues for about six to eight seconds from the start in the
case of all-out sprinting. Further, it has been demonstrated that world-class
sprinters can accelerate slightly few yards to the finish. This
even in the last
slight increase could mean the difference between winning or losing.
In most sports, usable force (essentially acceleration) is attained within
15 yards (.6 to 1.5 seconds). Therefore, you should train multidirectional
peak power by playing games such as handball, basketball, badminton, and
racquetball. Doing 10 to 15 starts that cover 0 to 20 yards will help train
straight-ahead aspects.
The power sprint phase trains you power at high speeds. The
to develop
speed curves of sprinters show that deliverable power drops off as they move
faster. The best way to train high-speed power is to do sprint loading work from

a flying start, using the vest or incline sprints at maximum or near-maximum

levels.Perform 6 to 10 repetitions of 10 to 80 yards with weights or resistance
that does not reduce performance speed by more than 1 to 5 percent. Adding
weight to a vest, for example, of no more than to 5 percent of body weight
1

should put you in this range.

A sample sprint loading program for hill sprinting, stadium stair sprinting,
and weighted sleds is shown in table 6.6 (page 143). A sample sport loading
program for hypergravity vest training is shown in table 6.2 (page 132).
All the work you have done so far has prepared you to sprint faster and
play faster in your sport. The next chapter will show you the methods used
by world-class performers in all sports to accomplish their outstanding feats.
These methods will help you improve playing speed, improve playing speed
endurance, and develop world-class sprinting form and speed.
 HHH
Chapter 7

peed endurance training will not help you take a faster or longer step.
S It will, however, prevent you from slowing down late in the game, at the
end of a long sprint, or after sprinting several times with little rest in between.
You have seen many examples of poor speed endurance in different sports. A
halfback is tackled from behind by a slower player. A sprinter is passed in the
final 10 meters of a race. A baseball player runs out of steam and is tagged out
at home. A basketball or soccer player is beaten to the ball by a slower athlete.
All these are examples of poor speed endurance, which causes a player either
to slow down or to fail to accelerate as fast as normal because of fatigue.
In most sports, a player is expected to make repeated bursts of speed. Ide-
ally, the fourth or fifth sprint is run as fast as the first. This is often not the

case because of poor speed endurance. By becoming well conditioned for speed
endurance, you will gain several advantages in your sport: You will be able to
make repeated short sprints at the same speed with minimum rest, you will
be able to reach maximum speed more quickly, and you will be able to hold
maximum speed for a longer distance before slowing down.
High levels of speed endurance provide a fresh start on each short sprint.
Speed endurance training is a vital phase for athletes in team sports such as
football, basketball, soccer, field hockey, and baseball. It is the phase that can
give you the edge.
Speed endurance is easy to improve. You only need to sprint short distances
two or three times per week and keep a record of how many repetitions you
sprinted, how far you sprinted, and how much recovery time you took betw een
each repetition. The rest is easy. In each workout, you simply increase the
sprint distance and decrease the recovery time between each repetition. In six
to eight weeks, your speed endurance scores will get better.

Speed Iniur me Training

Designing a speed endurance training program requires a basic understanding
of the anaerobic and aerobic energy systems and the typical performance actions
completed in a team sport during competition. The actual program is specific
to each team sport and is based on the typical distance an athlete sprints, the
intensity of each sprint (three-quarter speed, all-out effort), the average rest
or recovery period between repetitions of each sprint during competition, the
recovery action (walking, jogging, standing), and the number of sprints that

146
 Speed Endurance 147

occur during competition. Once you understand the anaerobic and aerobic
energy systems and the performance requirements of your sport, it is a simple
task to prepare an effective speed endurance program.

Anaerobic Energy System

The anaerobic energy system, which allows you to complete repeated all-out
sprints and other maximum effort muscular action, consists of two energy
pathways: the ATP-CP (creatine phosphate) system and the ATP-LA (lactic
acid) energy source.
The ATP-CP system requires no oxygen to supply five to eight seconds of
maximum effort energy. In fact, you could hold your breath for this short time
period without affecting energy supply or performance. Phosphate substances
and amino acids in the muscles are metabolized to produce cellular energy.
This system provides the fuel for the first 60 to 80 meters of an all-out sprint
and complements the ATP (adenosine triphosphate) energy already present in
the muscles. The CP energy system can be fully recharged after two to three
minutes of rest.

The ATP-LA system also requires no oxygen. When anaerobic energy is

needed beyond the supply of the CP system, working muscles release pyruvic
acid, which is converted to lactic acid. These two by-products are metabo-
lized to produce ATP, allowing energy output to continue for up to 60 seconds
without oxygen. Continued maximum effort exercise beyond this point will
produce more lactic acid than can be metabolized, resulting in rapid fatigue
until exercise cannot continue. At this point, approximately one hour is needed
to fully remove lactic acid from the system. Light activity at 40 to 50 percent
of maximum can reduce the recovery time somewhat.
Lactic acid energy is what allows you to continue to exert near-maximum
effort once the CP energy is exhausted (after about 60 to 80 meters). This
permits a sprinter to complete a powerful striding effort for the final 20 to 40
meters of a 100-meter dash, when an athlete tries to hold his current speed or
gently build up if he is not at maximum. It also allows team sport athletes to
sprirpTonger distances, recover faster, and execute repeated sprints throughout
the game with little or no slowing due to fatigue.

Aerobic Energy System

Although short sprints rely mainly on CP and lactic energy sources, athletes
with a highVO.ynax (maximum oxygen uptake) obtain a higher anaerobic
threshold (intensity point at which lactic acid begins to accumulate). This
delay in the onset of lactic acid accumulation in the blood may allow a higher
work output before fatigue begins to develop, permitting form and speed to be
maintained at the end of longer sprints. Anaerobic work also produces pyruvic
acid, which is later converted to lactic acid. Since these two by-products are
eventually removed aerobically during the rest period, a high aerobic capacity
148

will expedite recoveryfrom repeated short sprints both during competition and
during speed endurance training sessions.
Athletes who participate in sports that have a higher aerobic component
basketball, soccer, lacrosse, rugby, and field hockey —
have a more critical
need for aerobic fitness than athletes who compete in baseball, softball, and
football.
It isimportant to keep in mind that the anaerobic and aerobic processes
function continuously and at the same time. Anaerobic energy is used at the
beginning of any type of exercise and during exercise of high intensity such as
all-out sprints. If exercise demands are beyond your maximum oxygen uptake
capability, anaerobic metabolism must supply the additional energy.
Table 7.1 displays the percent contribution of the anaerobic and aerobic
systems based on the number of seconds in an all-out maximum effort. In

an all-out sprint of 0 to 5 seconds, for example, 96 percent of the energy is

provided by anaerobic metabolism. The longer exercise continues (30, 60, 90
seconds), the more the body relies on aerobic metabolism. Football, baseball,
and softball fall into the 0- to 5-second category. Soccer, basketball, field
hockey, rugby, and lacrosse are more likely to be in the 5- to 10-second range
and therefore require a slightly different training approach.
Table 7.2 lists the predominant energy systems and the approximate percent
requirement of the anaerobic and aerobic energy sources in several sports. These
percentages were used to design the team sport speed endurance programs.

Jr./SportsChrome

Tringali

Rob

Aerobic fitness is vital in sports such as lacrosse that demand a lot of constant running.
Table 7.1 Contributions ot Anaerobic and Aerobic Mechanisms to

Maximum Sustained Efforts

Duration of effort (sec.)

0 to 5 30 60 90

Exercise intensity (% of maximum power output) 1 00 55 35 31

Contribution of anaerobic mechanisms (%) 96 75 50 35

Contribution of aerobic mechanisms (%) 4 25 50 65

Conley, M. 2000. Bioenergetics of Exercise and Training. In Essentials of Strength Training and Con-
ditioning (2nd ed.), edited by T.R. Baechle and R.W. Earle. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Page 87.
Used by permission.

Table 7.2 Predominant Energy Systems Used in Sports

Emphasis per energy system (%)

Anaerobic Aerobic

Sport ATP-CP and -LA la-o 2 02

Baseball 80 20 0

Basketball 85 15 0

Field hockey 60 20 20

Football 90 10 0

Ice hockey
Forwards, defensemen 80 20 0
Goalies 95 5 0

Lacrosse
Goalies, defensemen, 80 20 0
attackers 60 20 20
Midfielders, man-down
situations

Soccer
Goalies, wings, strikers 80 20 0
Halfbacks, linkmen 60 20 20

Tennis 70 20 10

Track and field

40 to 220 yd. 99 1 0
440 yd. 80 15 5
Mile 20 55 25

149
150 Sports SPSS

Speed Endurance Training Programs

The eight- week speed
endurance training program in table 7.3 is designed to
train both the ATP-CP system and the ATP-LA system, since both systems play
a major role in the ability to continually sprint at maximum speed for 5 to 8
seconds (ATP-CP) and up to 60 seconds (ATP-LA). The program combines
the three main speed endurance programs presented in this section pickup —
sprints, hollow sprints, and interval sprint training and is based on the esti- —
mated percent of anaerobic and aerobic involvement shown in table 7.4. The
improvement of each energy system occurs by manipulating training variables:
frequency of training, number of repetitions, intensity of each repetition, dis-
tance covered or time required to complete each repetition, and recovery time
and action between each repetition. The program is designed to improve the
speed endurance of athletes in baseball, basketball, field hockey, football,
and soccer.
lacrosse, rugby,
The maintenance workout based on the average distance sprinted in
is

various sports. Sprint 12 to 15 repetitions at the distance specified for your

sport. Rest the number of seconds indicated between each repetition. End the
workout with two 300-meter sprints using a two-minute rest period between
repetitions.

A5 to 30-Second Running Program

>
wv m * -
- - .
- - -
s

This program, developed by Dr. Gene Coleman, the strength and condi-
tioning coach for the Houston Astros, has been shown to effectively help
maintain aerobic and anaerobic fitness during a professional baseball
season. Running is done on a baseball field. Players run around the field
in a clockwise direction. The coach stands behind second base. There are
four steps in the program:

1 . Players run for 3 minutes at a constant speed, usually between a 9- and

10-minute mile pace.
2. At the coach’s signal, players sprint for 5 seconds at 80 to 85 percent
of maximum speed. This is the anaerobic part of the run.

3. Without stopping, players resume aerobic running for 3 minutes. The

pace is increased to 10 to 15 seconds faster than the initial 3-minute
run.

4. On the coach’s signal, players sprint for 10 seconds.

Steps one to four are repeated, with sprint time increasing by 5 seconds
and the speed of the 3 -minute aerobic run increasing by 10 to 15 seconds
until players are sprinting for 30 seconds.
When starting the program, limit the total time to 15 to 16 minutes.
Gradually increase the time until the total run takes 30 minutes. Do the
Table 7.3 Eight-Week Speed Endurance Training Program

Week Workout Routine and distance Repetitions Rest interval

1 1 Jog 15 15 yd.
yd., stride 5 No rest between
(3/4 speed), jog 15 yd., repetitions; walk
walk 15 yd. is the recovery
phase and end of 1

repetition

1 2 Same 7 Same
1 3 Jog 20 20 yd.
yd., stride 5 Same
(9/10 speed), jog 20 yd.,
walk 20 yd.

2 4 Same 7 Same
2 5 Jog 15 15 yd.
yd., stride 5 Same
(3/4 speed), sprint 15 yd.
(maximum speed), walk 15
yd.

2 6 Same 7 Same
3 7 Jog 20 yd., stride 20 yd., 7 Same
sprint 20 yd., walk 20 yd.

3 8 Same 9 Same
3 9 Jog 25 yd., stride 25 yd., 7 Same
sprint 25 yd., walk 25 yd.

4 10 Sprint 15 yd., jog 15 yd., 7 Walk is the recovery

sprint15 yd., walk 15 yd. phase and end of 1
Distance hop to exhaustion 1 each leg repetition

4 11 Sprint 20 yd., jog 20 yd., 7 Same

sprint 20 yd., walk 20 yd.
4 12 Sprint 20 yd., jog 10 yd., 9 Same
sprint 20 yd., walk 20 yd.
Bench jump to exhaustion 2 1 min.
4*

5 13 Sprint 25 yd., jog 25 yd., 9 Same

sprint 25 yd., walk 25 yd.
5 14 Sprint 20 yd. 10 Walk 10 30 sec.,
to
depending on sport
300-yd. sprint 1 3 to 4 min.
Run in place to exhaustion 2 1 min.

5 15 Sprint 30 yd. 10 Walk 10 to 30 sec.

6 16 Sprint 40 yd. 8 Same

300-yd. sprint 2 3 min.
Distance hop to exhaustion 1 each leg 1 min.

(continued)

151
Table 7.3 (continued)

Week Workout Routine and distance Repetitions Rest interval

6 17 Sprint 40 yd. 10 Walk 10 to 30 sec.

440-yd. sprint 1

6 18 Sprint 20 yd., jog 20 yd., 12 Walk is the recovery

sprint 20 yd., walk 20 yd. phase and end of 1
440-yd. sprint 2 repetition
Bench jump to exhaustion 1 4 to 5 min.

7 19 Sprint 20 yd., jog 20 yd., 15 Walk is the recovery

sprint 20 yd., walk 20 yd. phase and end of 1
300-yd. sprint 3 repetition
2.5 min.

7 20 On a 400-meter track, 20 sprints Jog is the rest period

sprint 50 yd., jog for 10 to
12 sec., sprint 50 yd., jog
for 10 to 12 sec., and so on.
Sprint in place with high 2 1 min.
knee lift to exhaustion

8 21 440-yd. sprint 4 4 to 5 min.

8 22 On a 400-m track, sprint 50 25 sprints Jog is the rest period

yd., jog for 10 to 12 sec.,
sprint 50 yd., jog for 10 to
12 sec., and so on
Bench jump to exhaustion 4 1 min.

Notes: Cycle begins eight weeks from competition.

Program assumes the athlete has a good aerobic fitness foundation.

Sport Distance sprinted (yd.) Rest between sprints (sec.)

Baseball, 30 30 to 60
softball

Basketball 30 5 to 20

Football 10 to 40 25 to 30 (huddle time)

Soccer,
lacrosse, rugby, 1 0 to 40 5 to 15
hockey

Tennis 5 to 10 3 to 5 (same point)

20 to 30 (between points)
60 (between games)
Note: Alter the distance sprinted and rest between sprints to make the eight-week speed endurance program
specific to your sport.

152
 Speed Endurance 153

Table 7.4 Training Methods and Estimated Effect on Energy Systems

Anaerobic Aerobic
ATP-CP
and -LA LA-0, 02
Training method Definition (%) (%) (%)

Pickup sprints Gradual increases in speed 90 5 5

from jogging to striding to
sprinting in 25- to 120-yd.
segments
Hollow sprints Two sprints interrupted by 85 10 5
“hollow” periods of jogging or
walking

Interval sprints Alternate sprints of 20 to 300 80 10 10

yd. followed by jogging and
walking for recovery

Jogging Continuous running at a slow 0 0 100

pace over a distance of 2 or
more miles
Sprint-assisted Repeated sprints at maximum 90 6 4
training speed aided by towing,
downhill, or treadmill with
complete recovery between
each repetition

run twice per week in the preseason and once per week during the season.
Limit relievers and starting players to 15 to 16 total minutes during the
season. High school players should work until sprints reach 20 seconds.
College players and pros can work until sprints reach 30 to 45 seconds.

Linkup sprints involve a gradual increase from a jog to a striding pace, then
to a maximum effort sprint. A and recovery walk that
1:1 ratio of the distance
follows each repetition is recommended. For example, jog 25 yards, stride for
5
25, sprint for 25, and end with a 2 -yard walk. The walk or slow jog should
allow some recovery before the next repetition. This jog-stride-sprint-recov-
ery cycle tends to develop speed endurance and reduce the chance of muscle
injury in cold weather. The cycle is an example of early-season training. The
exact number of repetitions depends on conditioning level. As you improve,
lengthen the distance, with late-season pickup sprints reaching segments of
50 yards or more.
New Zealand athletes use a routine similar to pickup sprints that involves
a series of four 50-meter sprints at near-maximum speed (6 to 7 seconds) per
154 Sports SPEED

400-meter lap, jogging for 10 to 12 seconds after each sprint and completing
the 400-meter run in 64 to 76 seconds. Athletes have performed as many as
50 sprints with little reduction in speed on any repetition.
Hollow sprints involve the performance of two sprints interrupted by a hollow
period of recovery that includes walking or jogging. One repetition may include
a 40-yard sprint, 40-yard jog, 50-yard sprint, and 40-yard walk for recovery.
Similar segments of 80, 120, 150, 220, and 300 yards might be used.
Interval sprint training is also easily adapted to improve each metabolic
system (two anaerobic pathways and the aerobic system). Since more work
can be performed at high intensity when repetitions and sets are interrupted by
recovery techniques (walking, jogging, complete rest) than through continuous
exercise, interval sprint training effectively improves the energy system that
predominates in a specific sport. The intensity of exercise, duration of exercise,
and rest interval can be altered to achieve maximum results. Wind sprints,
alternates, and other similar programs are commonly used by coaches in most
team sports. These approaches often differ from interval sprint training because
they may possess little formal structure and only a limited attempt to control
the variables responsible for producing systematic increases in intensity.
The key variables to be controlled are frequency of training sessions, length
and intensity of each repetition, and length and intensity of the rest interval.
Adequate rest is necessary before repeating an exercise if the body is to
fully recover and benefit from the previous workout. Most athletes train daily,
alternate light and heavy workout days, and take at least one day of rest at the
end of the week and just before competition during the season. For team sport
athletes, two or three speed endurance sessions per week is sufficient.
The number and length of repetitions vary from one team sport to another
and depend on the average distance sprinted and the number of times sprints
occur. It is not unreasonable for an athlete to complete 10 to 50 repetitions of
a distance interspersed with walk -jog recovery. The intensity of training (speed
of each repetition) is more important than the length of the workout. After an
initial t wo weeks of progressing from one-half speed sprints to three-quarter to

nine-tenths speed for untrained athletes, repetitions are completed at maximum

speed, except for the initial two or three used as part of a warm-up routine.
To train both anaerobic pathways, the time of each sprinting repetition and
maximum effort exercise will range from 5 to 10 seconds, to 15 to 30 seconds,
to 1 to 3 minutes, and occasionally, in excess of 3 minutes.

Training Tips

As Vince Lombardi once said, ^Fatigue makes cowards of us all. Speed

is hindered by fatigue, and fatigue keeps athletes from exerting maximum

effort Your speed endurance program is certain to delay fatigue during

.

competition and allow you to exert maximum effort for a longer period
of time.
 Speed Endurance 155

Repetitions of maximum effort sprinting for 30 to 60 seconds should

be a part of everyone’s speed endurance program. At least one maximum
effort exercise to complete exhaustion should be included at the end of
each speed endurance workout. All-out sprints that cover approximately
the same or greater distances than those normally sprinted in your sport
should be used. A 1 -minute maximum effort sprint followed by 3 to 5
minutes of rest before repeating the effort improves speed endurance.
Repetitive 400-meter runs in 60 to 75 seconds followed by 3- to 5-minute
rest periods are also effective.

Although complete recovery does not occur during the rest interval., partial
return to preexercise levels does take place. The recovery interval between
repetitions based on the estimated time of recovery between sprints during
is

competition in your sport. Sprints take place at maximum speed for distances
of up to 120 yards and at near- maximum speed for longer distances.
Maximum effort training is an excellent method of improving speed endur-
ance by completely exhausting the athlete in all-out efforts at the end of a
training session. Only the best mentally and physically conditioned athletes
will be capable of using this type of training. Maximum effort training is one of
the few good methods of equalizing exercise effort among athletes at different
conditioning levels. It offers training geared to the athlete, with each person
working against her own previous distance or time record, each coping with
her own stress and psychological barriers, until finally only complete physical
exhaustion causes cessation of exercise.
The maximum effort program in no more than one
table 7.5 should he used
or two times weekly at the end of the workout. Records should be kept and
periodic testing used to determine individual progress.
The speed endurance training programs discussed in this chapter permit
the selection of the specific energy systems critical to different team sports.
Most team sports require energy use similar to repeated high -intensity sprints
interspersed with walking, jogging, or complete rest. The combination of pickup
sprint^, hollow sprints, and interval sprint training can easily duplicate com-
petitive conditions to engage athletes in sport-specific speed endurance train-
ing. This type of training, in conjunction with a solid aerobic foundation, will
prepare athletes for all levels of team sport competition.
The majority of speed endurance work for football, basketball, soccer, base-
ball, field hockey, rugby, and lacrosse should involve segments of 20- to 80-yard
sprints or 5- to 10-second all-out sprints, with a recovery interval slightly less
than the time that occurs between sprints during competition. Longer interme-
diate distances (100, 150, 200, 250, 300 yards) requiring a 15- to 30-second
sprint are also important in the training of the ATP-LA system. Runs of 400
to1,200 yards and maximum effort training are used occasionally as the final

one to three repetitions of a workout.

 156 Sports SPEED

Table 7.5 Maximum Effort Training

Program Training action

Basic
All-out sprint Sprint up and back the length of an athletic field until you are
no longer able to continue. Record the distance.
Distance hop Perform a one-legged hop at maximum speed until you are no
longer able to continue. Record the distance and time. Repeat
with the other leg.
Squat jumps Perform a maximum number of squat jumps for 90 sec.,
falling to a right angle only and avoiding the full squat position.

Slowly increase the time limit as progress occurs.

Concentration 1 Supplement the basic workout with these two concentrations

to add variety to the lower torso muscles involved in the
sprinting action.
Running in place knees to waist
Lift level and sprint in place to exhaustion.
Record the time.
Treadmill pacing Set the treadmill for 15 mph and run until you are no longer
able to continue.
300-yd. run Record your time in a 300-yd. sprint.
Two-legged hop Record the distance covered in 45 sec. Slowly increase the
time limit.

Concentration 1!

440-yd. dash+ Surprise runners at the finish of the 440-yd. dash with the
command to continue sprinting as far as possible.
Bench jump Stand a bench. Jump to the other side with a two-
parallel to
foot takeoff; immediately jump back to the starting position.
Repeat the action until you are no longer able to continue.
Record the total number of jumps.
Isometric charge With the legs moving continuously and shoulders and hands
placed against an immovable object (sled, wall, post), drive
forward until you are no longer able to continue.

You can check your speed endurance by retesting yourself

training progress
with the NASE repeated 20-, 30-, or 40-yard distances, depending on your
sport. Complete 10 consecutive dashes at one of these distances using a 10- to
30-second rest interval between each repetition (choose the rest interval from
table 7.3, page 151, for your sport) and compare the drop-off. Assume the
three- or four-point stance at the starting line and have a coach or friend time
you. After your first dash, slowly walk forward 10 yards and begin your second
timed sprint when the appropriate number of seconds has elapsed. Repeat
until you have completed 1 0 timed dashes with a rest period similar to what
occurs in your sport. Ideally, none of the timed distances should be more than
.3 second off your best effort.
 Chapter 8

iMMmm
IJ ecovery is some previous or higher level of per-
the ability to return to
lt formance. How well you do this will determine how well you are able to
perform. Two major factors play a role in how well you recover: your current
level of fitness and the accumulation of stress from the game and your daily
environment. Certainly, the outcomes of future competition will depend on
how well you cope with the sum stress.
Behind the scenes lurks the grueling side of sport. All that glitters on game
day has been paid for at a great price. Some common stressors for an athlete
include the daily accumulation of stress, the athlete s talent compared to an
opponent’s, injuries, stadium conditions, game site (home or away), travel
(crossing time zones, going coast to coast, flying in a plane), importance of the
game, game intensity, game length, and weather conditions.
This chapter describes important principles in the art and science of recovery
and how to use them to achieve new heights in performance. Be aware of the
times when psychological pressures of competition and winning arise. Irrational
decisions can follow. The important principles in this chapter provide a basis
for increasing recovery in a training program. These principles will help you
make the right decisions and allow you to continue toward your goal.
Scientific evidence shows that recovery can be predictable. If recovery is to
be predictable and successful, proven principles must be used at the right time
and in the right order in the recovery plan. We have only so much adaptation
energy capacity (the gas tank can hold only so much) to turn workouts into
higher levels of performance.
All athletes strive to achieve positive training effects that translate into higher
levels ofperformance. Table 8.1 relates training methods to the documented
positive effects that science has identified. We have often observed athletes
commit errors due to over- or underwork. Strange as it may seem, both pro-
duce the same result —submaximal performance. The principles in this chapter
will ensure that you are prepared for competition and are able to
sufficiently
recover sufficiently in order to avoid staleness, the bonk, and mediocre per-
formances. These conditions result from overtraining and improper adherence
to the principles of recovery. If you are overtrained, this chapter will help you
quickly return to a balanced physiological state.

157
Table 8.1 Documented Positive Effects of Different Types of Training

Endurance Strength

Sustained
Feature (marker) Aerobic Anaerobic Power Speed Max End output

Adrenaline T T T T

Bone mass t n t TT TT T
and density
(osteopenia)

Blood pressure 4. 4
(rest)

Blood volume T T T

Buffer capacity NC T t T T NC
Capillary density t NC T T

Cardiac output t Tnc

Cardiac t T
performance

Stroke volume T T NC
Kinase NC
Glucose uptake T T

Heart rate (rest) 4. i

Heart volume T T T NC T T

Heart recovery

Hemoglobin
Pseudoanemia
Iron deficiency

Immune function

Mitochondria T 4- NC T
number and
volume

Muscle glycogen T t T T T

Muscle TT TT T TT T
hypertrophy

158
 Endurance Strength

Feature (marker)

Muscle
phosphocreatine
Aerobic Anaerobic

t
—
Power Speed

T
Max

T
End
Sustained
output

Oxidative enzyme T 4 T
activity

Plasma sodium

Plasma volume t

Precision of skill

Strength T T T T T

Stress hormones 4 4

Tendon/ligament T TT tt TT TT T
strength

Urinary indices 12
Color
Specific gravity
Osmolality

Thermal (onset of t T
sweat)

Thermal T T
(temperature
regulation)

Urinary creatinine

V0 2 max f
T T

stV0 2 max/
standard

^hirreffs, S.M., and R.J. Maughan. 1998. Urine osmolality and conductivity as indices of hydration status in

athletes in the heat. Med Sci Sport Exer 30: 1598-1602.

Armstrong, C.M. Maresh, J.W. Castellani, M.F. Bergeron, R.W. Kenefick, K.E. LaGasse, and
L.E., D. Riebe. 1 994.
Urinary indices of hydration status. IntJ Sport NutrA 265-279.:

159
160 Sports SPUD

Monitoring Troiniog Response

A change in fitness level will produce a lower heart rate at a standard work-
load. Likewise, a tired condition (poor recovery state) will cause an increase
in heart rate, and a well-rested condition be associated with a lower heart
will
rate. A good test to determine the quality of your recovery is a sub -max bike
test. Modify your workout if your heart rate is three or four beats per minute

higher than your average heart rate standard.

For the sub-max bike test, select a workload that produces 120 beats per
minute during the fourth and fifth minutes. The best time to take the test is in
the morning before breakfast after using the toilet. Use the same workload and
pedal rate (70 to 90) on all tests. Time yourself on the bike for five minutes.
Take your heart rate at the fourth and fifth minutes. To find your heart rate
score, take the average (fourth -minute HR plus fifth-minute HR divided by
two; figure 8.1).
Maintain a healthy and functional body weight. It is possible to become too
lean. For every sport, there is a zone of body fat percentage in which athletes
will perform at an optimum level. If you are following the hormonal control
diet (see page 175) and find that your body fat percentage is dropping below
a desired level, add more monounsaturated fat to your diet to increase caloric
intake and maintain your desired percent of body fat. If your body fat increases
beyond a desired level, decrease the amount of added monounsaturated fat
while maintaining the same protein- to -carbohydrate ratio.
The other Holy Grail for athletes is adding new muscle mass. Athletes are
led to believe that they must consume mega doses of extra protein to achieve
that goal. In reality, the extra amount of required protein to build new muscle
is surprisingly small. To build one pound of new muscle per month is a noble

Figure 8.1 Athletic training response.

 Recovery and Nutrition 161

goal. About 70 percent of the weight of muscle is water. This means that each
pound (454 grams) of new muscle developed each month contains only 136
grams of extra protein. There are about 30 days in a month, so extra protein
beyond the amount required to maintain your existing muscle mass is something
like five extra grams of protein per day. Of course, you still want to maintain
the correct ratio of protein to carbohydrate, so you will need to adjust your
carbohydrate portion to account for this extra protein.
The release of growth hormone from the pituitary gland coupled with
testosterone transforms this extra protein into new muscle mass. You can’t
affect either hormone directly through diet, but you can use diet to set the
appropriate microenvironment for the maximum release of growth hormone.
The primary stimulus for the release of growth hormone is anaerobic training,
such as speed training. Not surprisingly, insulin can have an adverse hormonal
consequence on muscle mass development because it tends to block the release
of growth hormone. Without adequate levels of growth hormone, maximum
muscle building is impossible. Maximum new muscle development requires a
hormonal control program to maintain insulin in a tight zone (neither too high
nor too low), coupled with a well-designed resistive training program. Growth
hormone is also released during deep sleep just before REM sleep. Therefore,
a small hormonally balanced snack before going to bed can set the hormonal
environment for maximum sleep -induced release of growth hormone for tissue
repair after maximum effort and exhaustion.
Remember muscle mass gain and excess body fat loss are both governed by
hormonal events as are training and performance. Diet remains the primary
tool to control this cycle. You have to eat, so you might as well eat smart. Intel-
ligence and emotional maturity often determine the winner. Newly developing
knowledge is putting an additional premium on mental preparation and intel-
ligence for diet during training and before competition. These qualities can
influence who gets the gold and who gets the silver.

Overreaching aei Overtraining

More so than the average person, athletes have uncommon goals and drives
Many athletes maximize performances as a result of
that stretch their limits.
these extreme circumstances. An athlete’s body must be able to operate at near-
maximum output over and over. Consequently, overreaching and overtraining
are concerns for highly motivated athletes. The numerous occurrences of over-
training emphasize that there is a constant struggle in an exercising athlete.
The and superadaptation is between building, repairing,
battle for recovery
remodeling (anabolic processes), and tearing down (catabolic processes).
Not only is it necessary to have a plan, it also is important to know the
hazards that can slow you down and detour you from the most direct route to
your goals. Be aware of the signs that scientists have identified to determine
if the right amount of training is being applied and received. The two most
obvious and simple signs of proper adaptation are how you perform in practice
and competition and how you feel in general. Subjective feelings of the athlete
are one of the most reliable indicators (Uusitalo 2001).
In addition, other objective and subjective markers or signs can be used
to determine if proper adaptation training is being achieved. Remember, any
deviation from normal could be an indicator of improper training. Track
these indicators on a chart to establish a normal level and show progress in
recovery: quality of appetite, quality and amount of sleep, resting heart rate,
increased heart rate, lying-to- standing heart rate changes, percent body fat,
total testosterone concentration, ratio of total testosterone to cortisol, ratio of
free testosterone to cortisol, ratio of total testosterone to sexhormone-binding
globulin, serum testosterone, serum cortisol, sex hormone-binding globulin,
infections and diminished immune function, T- cells, V0 9 max, blood pressure,
muscle soreness, muscle glycogen, lactate, creatine kinase, cortisol concentra-
tion, sympathetic tone (nocturnal and resting catecholamines), sympathetic
stress, tissue breakdown (e.g., loss of lean mass), and androgen.
Other factors that play a role in recovery fall into four basic categories: work
(intensity, frequency, and duration); rest (quality and amount of rest or sleep);
nutrition (diet or calorie reduction); and mental pressures (daily pressures,
academic demands). Each of these categories has elements that can influence
the quality of performance. In fact, we have the ability to modify these factors
to positively or negatively affect performance.

Building a Recovery Strategy

Some time Canadian physiologist Hans Selye developed the adaptation
ago,
theory, which has been used by many coaches to guide training programs. Se-
lye s theory laid out the scientific basis —the principles — for achieving maximum
performance and avoiding overtraining. Two highly successful sport scientists
helped spread the value of the principles of adaptation theory: Jim Cormsilman,
the famous Indiana University swimming coach, and noted Russian researcher
Nikolai Volkov. Athletes of either sex and any age in many sport training pro-
grams can benefit from the application of adaptation theory.
The three stages of Selye s adaptation theory are the alarm stage (+ initial
load reduces performance levels; too much can be lethal), the resistance stage
(+ compensation and supercompensation occur), and the exhaustion stage
(- there is a limit to man’s adaptive capacity). Figure 8.2 shows the peak

performance adaptation model.

The work of these scientists spawned the use of periodization in many sport
training programs. Periodization splits the training plan into yearly, monthly,
weekly, and daily cycles. According to Costa (1994), the Bulgarians added
some interesting findings to the mix that further refine training regimes based
on how the body responds to vigorous workouts. How to apply periodization
to general and foundational training was covered in chapter 3 and will be
specifically applied in chapter 13. These chapters are practical examples of
how adaptation theory has been applied to training.
 Recovery and IMutPition 163

High
1. Conditioning 4. Active rest 7. Super nutrition Super levels
Future 3 2. Training 5. Training of peak
0 3. Competition 6. Competition performance
o
c
0
E
o
Tz
0 ©/
Future 2
CL
© Performance
range - tissue

\\@/Y
buildup

Future 1
o ©/ \
\
Resistance

\ / v

Resistance
\
\
/
/
\
\

\ / V

Present _ \

performance Alarm Exhaustion occurs

y
(readaptive) if overtrained \\

Low Time
Application of the general adaptation
syndrome to training programs
• Failure adaptation level • Tires easily
• Tissue breakdown • Sweats easily
• System breakdown in performance • Rapid - elevated heart rate
• Energy levels - mental and physical • Decrease in androgens
• Nutrition - appetite • Increase in serum cortisol
• Weight loss • Increase in injuries

Figure 8.2 The peak performance adaptation model.

The key to a highly organized plan, or to a loosely structured plan, is that

it must adhere to the principles of adaptation to be successful. The guiding

rules of maximum recovery and maximum performance should be based on

these adaptation theory principles.

Questions to Ask

In evaluating what it takes to recover from a workout, take into account work
intensity, frequency, and duration; short- and long-term
and nutrition rest;
(immediate and extended replenishment of energy). It is common knowledge
that exercise can lead to fatigue. Studies have shown that the main contributor
to fatigue is depletion of the body’s energy stores in the liver and muscles; water
deficiency can make it worse. Failure to properly balance these factors will
surely end mediocre performance. Further, understand
in disaster or, at best,
that recovery should not be thought of as independent of all other elements
involved in the training process.
This idea is book The New Science of Swimming
vividly presented in the
by Counsilman and Counsilman (1994), in which the authors pose a number
of questions about recovery. We have taken the liberty to add other critical
questions to the ones the authors presented. The questions focus on the rela-
 .

164

tionships that exist between work, rest, nutrition, and performance. Asking the
right questions about recovery will enable you
your attention to the
to direct
critical areas that need to be explored. The following questions will direct your
thinking when formulating recovery principles to help you avoid staleness, the
bonk, and mediocre performances between workouts and training cycles:

How hard should an athlete work?

How much fatigue should an athlete condition himself to endure in order
to build maximum endurance (or other resources)?

Should an athlete work hard then rest when she becomes fatigued in order
to be refreshed for the next practice?

Should an athlete impose another workload, one that is so great she will not
recover completely from one practice to the next?
Should an athlete always be slightly fatigued?

Is it possible to optimally recover in a fatigued state?

What are the rates of energy replenishment? Of glycogen replenishment?

How much time does it take for the body to recharge itself?

What steps can be taken to guarantee that maximum recovery will take
place after acute or extended bouts of exercise?

just as sports speed training more complicated than simply doing drills,
is

running wind sprints, or lifting weights, the recovery process is far more com-
plicated than just adhering to a few simple considerations. Recovery requires
complex solutions. In the past, recovery recommendations have focused on a
limited number of the critical concerns required for maximum recovery be-
tween workouts. However, the cells, the biochemically run units of the body,
must be properly maintained and supplied with an adequate amount of all
the essential elements that are practical, healthy, and legal. Therefore, today’s
recovery programs should include a range of these essential elements -to
full

ensure maximum recovery from workouts.

OomprsSieiisive Sports Training Model

Volkov (1975) stated that in order to achieve changes in performance, intense

training must be repeated numerous times with appropriate rest periods be-
tween training loads. He went on to emphasize the importance of repeating the
load (workout) alter the correct amount of rest (short- or long-term recovery)
II the next load (workout) is applied before complete restoration takes place,

it will only increase the liklihood of unfavorable changes. If this happens often

enough it will lead to overtraining. Therefore, athletes need to use a system that
lets them manage the essential elements of the training program. Kondraske

and Ward (1999) developed the comprehensive sports training model to man-
age all of the essential elements of the training program to ensure maximum
attainment of training goals and avoid overtraining (figures 8.3 and 8.4).
 Recovery and NutriUon 165

i Stress
Natural Body structure Performance Exercise
substances components resources (utilization of avail-
• Air, water (subsystems) able resources)
Subsystem
• Musculoskeletal performance
Food Sport skill building
• Neuromuscular capacities
• Practice
• Carbohydrates • Information • Strengths
processing
• Play
• Fats • Speeds
• Protein • Sensory (movement) Basic skill building
• Minerals • Cardiovascular
• Vitamins - • Respiratory
•

•
Endurances
Accuracies
• Running, jumping
• Hitting, kicking
• Enzymes • Digestive • Etc. • Throwing, catching
• Endocrine
Supplements • Immune information Performance
• Vitamins • Cognitive resources resource building
• Minerals • Contents of • Weight training
• Nutraceuticals memory • Flexibility
• Glyconutritionals • Procedures,
• Phytochemicals motor skills, etc.
• Enzymes • Spirit, will,

determination
• How to use
available perform-
ance capacities to
accomplish
specified goals

| Stress | Stress J

Figure 8.3 Basic relationships between nutrition, body structure, performance, and exercise
form the basis of the comprehensive sports training model. Kondraske and Ward (1999).

Ciironoliioiogy

Chronobiology is the science of body rhythms. Physiological cycles keep the

body operating efficiently. When an athlete gets in tune with these cycles,
recovery, building, repairing, remodeling, and better performance follow. The
science of chronobiology plays a crucial role in the training process. The ap-
propriate times relative to training and competitive priorities must be used
toproduce optimal adaptation to physical loads. Table 8.2 illustrates how to
manage many complicated elements using the principles of chronobiology.

Recovery Principles
To establish recovery principles, first find out where you are and where you
need to be. A quality program requires the following assessments at appropriate
times during the training year: clinical examination by a physician, assess-
ment of sport goals, size, body composition, calculation of optimum perfor-
mance body weight, calculation oh weight loss necessary to reach optimum
body weight, diet assessment including a seven- day dietary recall to calculate
average daily intake, biochemical assessment, assessment of supplementation
 ' ’ ' <

Measure/estimate athlete’s subsystem Measure/estimate athlete’s structural

performance capacities attributes

Athlete’s performance resource Athlete’s structural profile

availability profile (height, weight, etc.)

Assess athlete-task interface

Analyze nutritional requirements
(resource economics, threshold/ERM-based)

List ofperformance resources that limit Food performance list of nutritional

sport performance (e.g., deficits) components and recommended amounts

Define exercise plan Define nutritional plan

Exercise plan Nutritional plan

Complete training plan

\

Implement
training plan

Figure 8.4 The comprehensive sports training model uses quantitative across hierar-
links
chical performance levels provided by the elemental resource model, periodic performance
and structural measurements for a specific athlete, and nutritional analyses to arrive at a
complete training plan.

166
 (continued)

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168
 Recovery and Nutrition 169

program, monitoring of weight loss and fluid intake, and resolution of any
special concerns the athlete has. Monitoring and assessing these areas is vital
for ensuring the athlete’s continued good health and sport performance. Con-
sider the many recent deaths of young athletes and even professional athletes
during workouts in extremely hot conditions. These factors contribute to the
athlete’s overall health and ability to train and compete at a high level. Take
nutrition, for example. The diets of many athletes today are inadequate. Many
exist on fast foods that are high in saturated fats.

Second, you need to get, use, and teach the facts. In their research, Wolin-
sky and Driskell (2001) found that athletes score low on nutrition knowledge
and practices, one of the critical elements required for acceptable levels of
performance and recovery.
Third, design a scientifically based workout program. Are workouts based
on the assessments you took and what your sport requires? Your program has
to be properly cycled between work, rest, and nutrition if the best results are
to be attained. Reread chapter 3 to review the science of putting together a
proper program. Know the energy systems and how they apply to your sport.
Tables 8.3 and 8.4 put the energy systems capacities in perspective. A careful
study of the tables shows where the majority of energy must come from and
how much is available.
Taper (reduce training) leading up to major competitions to achieve super-
compensation. Anderson (2000) reported that type II muscle fibers doubled
after three months of detraining. However, most team sports don’t lend them-
selves to such periods of detraining. It may be possible to lighten workloads
and gain some of the same benefits. More research is needed to verify that
similar changes can be made within the shorter time frames in which team
sports operate. How you use this information is up to the artistic talent of the
creative coach.

Nutrition
A good diet means balancing protein, carbohydrate, and fat to optimize the pro-
duction of glucagon, insulin, and eicosanoids. The better you balance your diet,

the better the resulting hormonal response. The better the hormonal response,
the better your physical performance. Although you should try to maintain a
consistent diet (and therefore a consistent hormonal environment), there are
three distinct critical hormonal windows for maximizing performance.
The first window is 30 to 45 minutes before exercise or competition. In this
preexercise period, you should begin the hormonal changes that allow you
to lower insulin and therefore tap into stored body fat more effectively. The
number of calories consumed should be small (less than 100), so as not to
divert any significant amount of energy toward digestion, but should provide
enough protein and carbohydrate to begin changing hormonal levels before
exercise. An example of a useful snack might be one ounce of turkey breast
and half a piece of fruit.
170 Sports SPEED

Table 8.3 Major Energy Stores in the Human Body With

Appropriate Total Caloric Value

Total body Total body Oistance

Energy source SViajor form of storage calories kJ covered

ATP Tissues 1 4.2 17.5 yd.

PC Tissues 4 16.8 70 yd.

Carbohydrate Serum glucose 20 84 350 yd.

Liver glycogen 75 315 4 mi.

Muscle glycogen 2,500 10,500 15 mi.

Fat Serum free fatty acids 7 29.4 123 yd.

Serum triglycerides 75 315 1,320 yd.

Muscle triglycerides 2,500 10,500 25 mi.

Adipose tissue 80,000 336,000 800 mi.

triglycerides

Protein Muscle protein 30,000 126,000 300 mi.

Williams, M. 1995. Nutrition for fitness and sport. Brown & Benchmark: Dubuque, p. 77-78.

Table 8.4 Contribution of Anaerobic and Aerobic Energy Sources

During Different Periods of Maximal Work

Time Anaerobic (%) Aerobic (%)

10 sec. 85 15

1 min. 70 30
2 min. 50 50
4 min. 15 85

10 min. 30 70

30 min. 5 95
60 min. 2 98
130 min. 1 99
Williams, M. 1995. Nutrition for fitness and sport. Brown & Benchmark: Dubuque, p. 78.

An athlete should eat a snack 30 to 60 minutes before a workout. A preprac-

tice snack increases energy at the end of practice. Make sure that the snack is
nutrient dense. Apply this snack selection advice to all of your snacks.
Plan meals to coincide with practices and games. The only differences in
diet on game day compared to a normal day are the following:
 Recovery and Nutrition 171

Eat your last meal at least three to four hours before the game.
Eat a small hormone-balancing snack, such as two hard-boiled egg whites
and half a piece of fruit, a snack less than 100 calories, about 30 to 45
minutes before the game.
Eat another hormone-balancing snack of 100 calories at halftime.

The second hormonal window occurs immediately after exercise. Again, have
a small snack of approximately 100 calories 15 to 30 minutes after exercise
to set the appropriate hormonal balance between insulin and glucagon for the
maximum release of growth
hormone.
The final window occurs in the two-hour time period after exercise. In this
time frame, you want to eat a fairly large meal (but still maintain the appropri-
ate hormonal balance) to replenish muscle glycogen levels more effectively.
Athletes need sufficient metabolic substrate at the right time. The more
intense the training of an athlete, the greater the requirement for nutrient
replacement. Kondraske and Ward (1999) covered the subject of nutrition
and substrate availability in a Technical Report at the Ehiiversity of Texas at
Arlington. They indicate that

the role that nutritional and dietary supplements play in maximizing human
performance is in its infancy. The concept here is that if we know the level
of performance resources required (from the sport task analysis) and also
know the athlete’s performance resource availability profile and structural
information, we have the information required to compute the nutritional
requirements to support the necessary “ growth” and maintenance. It is

argued that the science exists to support development of computer-based

models that provide reasonable estimates of many important nutritional
components. For example, [figure 8.5] shows a well-known relationship
(based on the so-called Michaelis-Menten equation) between substrate con-
centration and rate or velocity at which enzymatic reactions occur. This
curve also shows that cellular synthesis reactions occur at higher rates (up
to some maximum) as substrate (i.e., nutrient) concentrations increase.
In humans, such reactions are common and the substrate is frequently a
nutritional component (McAiialley 1998). It is not surprising to expect
the rate at which biochemical reactions occur to be related to (i.e., limit)
certain aspects of performance of neuromuscular and information process-
ing subsystems. This connection is illustrated in [figure 8.5]. Thus high
substrate concentrations (i.e., greater availability of nutritional components
that serve as substrates) are linked to increased subsystem performance
capacities. These biochemical reactions are not only operational in regard

to sports performance but in recovery from all aspects of fatigue (acute,

intermediate and long-term), sickness and injury.

Athletes need to take in enough calories every day. Size and activity level play
a big part in the amount of calories needed Athletes such as football linemen
.
172 Sports SPEED

Figure 8.5 An example of the link between components and subsystem perfor-
nutritional
mance capacities, drawing on established concepts in biochemistry and physiology. Kon-
draske and Ward (1999).

and power lifters may require four to six meals per day
(60 to 80 kcal/kg/day)
to receive the proper amount of calories. Macronutrient (carbohydrates, pro-
teins, and recommendations vary, depending on the sport and individual
fats)
differences (table 8.5). The generally accepted ranges are 50 to 60 percent
carbohydrate, 15 to 20 percent protein, and 20 to 30 percent fat.
Breakfast is an important meal for an athlete. Breakfast stores energy for
afternoon practices. It takes four hours to digest and store carbohydrate in
muscle and liver. This makes breakfast the most important meal for an athlete
who has afternoon workouts.
Oxygen is required to convert food into a useable source of energy. Therefore
athletes need to make sure they have sufficient oxygen transport. One liter
of oxygen is equivalent to 5 kcal (20.92 kj). Optimizing the body’s ability
to deliver oxygen without interfering with other performance factors is very
important. All energy systems are working in concert at all times. Even in
intermittent anaerobic sports the aerobic system plays an essential role during
the game and in acute and prolonged recovery. Further, there is an additional
need for oxygen because of the close relationship that exists between energy
metabolism and oxygen consumption.

Carbohydrates
Plan to consume about one-third more carbohydrates than protein at each
meal. Tins amount equals about four grams of carbohydrates for every three
grams Remember that carbohydrates stimulate insulin, but too much
of protein.
insulin is detrimental to performance. The ratio of protein to carbohydrate is
critical to maintain the correct amount of insulin.
 Recovery and Nutrition 173

Table 8.5 Estimated Energy Needs ot Various Sports

Sport Caloric needs Average daily needs

Basketball 300 2,200

Dancing 1,000 1,500

Gymnastics 1,400 1,400

Football 2,100 4,000 to 5,000

Running (men) 1,000 4,400

Running (women) 500 2,397

Swimming 500 2,900

Cycling (Tour de France) 4,000 6,700

Triathlon 1 ,500 to 2,000 4,095

Wrestling 200 to 1 ,000 Varies with weight class

Weightlifting 2,800 to 4,600 3,200 to 4,700

Sled dog racing (Iditarod) 3 12,000

a
Dee Dee Jonrowe, Iditarod musher; interview with Dr. Bob Ward, 1996 Iditarod.

Short, S.H., and Short, W.R. 1983. Four year study of university athlete’s dietary intake. J Am Diet
Assoc 82:632.

Adequate carbohydrate needs to be taken immediately after exercise. Ac-

cording to Shirreffs (2000), muscle has an affinity for carbohydrate immedi-
ately after exercise, with the greatest amount of resynthesis occurring during
the two hours. Leutholtz and Kreider (2001) found that replenishment
first

of glycogen could be 7.5 to 15 times faster after prolonged endurance bouts if

adequate carbohydrate is consumed.
Not all carbohydrates are the same when it comes to insulin. Complex or
starchy carbohydrates such as pasta, grains, cereals, and breads tend to stimu-
late insulin to greater degrees than fruit and vegetable sources. Because fruits
and "vegetables have more fiber, they have a lower glycemic index. A lower
glycemic index means that the carbohydrate enters the bloodstream more
slowly, with a resulting decreased insulin response.
Therefore, the bulk of your carbohydrates should come from fruits and
vegetables. Treat grains, cereals, breads, and pasta as condiments, not the
main source of carbohydrates. Fruits and vegetables are low- density carbohy-
drates; pastas, starches, and grains are high-density. You have to eat a lot of
fruitsand vegetables to adversely affect insulin levels. On the other hand, it is
very easy to overconsume high- density carbohydrates and induce an adverse
insulin response.
sources of 46 grams of low-density, low-glycemic carbohydrate might
Good
be two pieces of fruit and a cup of steamed vegetables, three cups of steamed
174

vegetablesand a piece of fruit, or one cup of pasta and half a piece of fruit.
As you can see, you have to eat a lot of fruits and vegetables to get your car-
bohydrate needs.

Protein

No athlete should ever consume more protein than needed, but to consume
less is equivalent to protein malnutrition. Recent research has indicated that
protein requirements, especially for athletes, are much higher than previously
thought (tables 8.6 and 8.7).
If you are active (up to one hour of exercise per day, five times per week),

you need .7 grams of protein per pound of weight. If you are very active (one
to two hours of exercise per day, five times per week), you need .8 grams of
protein per pound of weight. If you are performing heavy weight training or
doing two workouts a day, five times per week, you need .9 grams of protein
per pound of weight.
To calculate daily protein requirement, multiply lean body mass by the
appropriate gram protein requirements for your activity level. For example,
if you are doing the speed training outlined in this book, you will probably

require about .8 grams of protein per pound of weight. If you weigh 160
pounds and have 12 percent body fat, you will require about 130 grams of
protein per day.
You can 130 grams of protein into three meals and two snacks
divide that
per day. For our sample 160-pound athlete, this requirement could be met in
three meals each consisting of 35 grams of protein and two snacks of 10 grams
of protein each. Keep in mind that the human body can t metabolize more
than 45 grams of protein at any one meal; if you eat more than that amount
of protein at a meal, the excess gets converted into fat.
Excellent sources of low-fat protein include skinless chicken and turkey,
very lean cuts of red meat, egg whites, tofu, protein powder, and soybean
fish,

products. You can find 35 grams of protein in a five-ounce chicken breast, five
ounces of sliced turkey, eight ounces of fish, 10 egg whites, or two soybean
hamburger patties.

Fat

Fat an exceptionally powerful hormonal modulator for an athlete if fat intake

is

is primarily of the monounsaturated variety. Add extra monounsaturated fat

to each meal. Good sources of monounsaturated fat are olive oil, macadamia
nuts, almonds, cashews, pistachios, avocados, and olives. Monounsaturated
fat acts as a control rod in a nuclear reactor: It slows the rate of entry of car-
bohydrates (whatever their source) into the bloodstream, thereby reducing the
extent of the insulin response. Fat also interacts with receptors in the stomach
to send other hormonal signals to the brain to govern satiety so that you are
not constantly hungry. In addition, fat supplies die building blocks for the most
 .

Recovery and Nutrition 175

Table 8.6 Carbohydrate, Protein, and Fat Requirements

System Carbohydrate Protein Fat

Range 50 to 60% 1 5 to 20% 20 to 30%

Daily recommended
value 60 10 30

Zone 40 30 30

Rod and Mark 30 40 30

Profile 1 70 20 10

Profile II 35 45 20

Profile III 50 40 10

Simonsen 1991 10 g/kg

1

Lemon 1995
Endurance 1 .2 to 1 .4 g/kg Vd 1

1
Strength 1 .4 to 1 .8 g/kg Vd'

Williams 1995
Weight gain 1 .5 to 1 .75 g/kg Vd'
1

Spruce and Ticheneal

2001
Body builders 1.4 to 2.0 g/kg Vd' 1

Simonsen, J.C., etal. 1991. Dietary carbohydrate, muscle glycogen, and power output during rowing
training. J Appl Physiol 70: 1500-1 505.

Lemon, P.W.R. 1995. Do athletes need more dietary protein and amino acids? Int J Sport Nutr 5:S39-
S61

Williams, M. 1995. Nutrition for sport and fitness. Brown & Benchmark: Dubuque, p. 158.

Spruce, N.,and Ticheneal, A. 2001 An evaluation of popular fitness-enhancing supplements. Calaba-

.

sas, CA: Evergreen Communications, p. 50-51.

powerful hormone system for an athlete: eicosanoids. Table 8.8 shows the fat
requirements for a 160-pound athlete.

Total Menu
The content of your diet influences the release and production of cell regulatory
hormones. Table 8.8 includes fat requirements to show a balanced diet for a
hypothetical 160-pound athlete. The balanced composition of this diet maxi-
mizes hormone responses that ultimately foster maximal athletic performance.
Depending on your weight and physical activity level, you can construct an
individualized hormonal -control menu.
The optimal hormonal control diet suggested for the 1 60-pound athlete in
table 8.8 advocates less carbohydrate than has typically been recommended. 11
you understand the importance of controlling insulin, the reduction in carbo-
176 Sports SPEED

Table 8.7 Necessary Protein Intake

1 Level
Category g/lb LBWa g/kg BWT b
Basic requirements 0 1 .2 to 1 .8 g/kg Vd' 1

BCAA 3 to 6 g/d pre- and postworkout

BCAA to aid 5 to 20 g pre-, during, and

performance postworkout

Growing athlete 1 .3 to 2.0

Endurance athlete 2.0

Body builder 1.4 to 2.0

Extreme 1.0 to 1.5 1.5 adult, strength training

Heavy 0.9 to 1.3 0.9 to 1 .3 adult, active

Moderately heavy 0.8 0.8 current RDA

Moderate 0.7

Light 0.6

Sedentary 0.5

a
Hatfie!d, F., and Gastelu, D. 1997. Dynamic nutrition for maximum performance. Garden City Park, NY:
Avery Publishing Group, p. 44-47.
b
Spruce,and Ticheneal A. 2001 An evaluation
N., . of popular fitness-enhancing supplements. Calabasas,
CA: Evergreen Communications, p. 50-51.
c
Maughan, R. (ed.). 2000. Nutrition and exercise. Malden, MA: Blackwell Science, p. 146-145.

Table 8.8 Diet Requirements for a 1 60-Pound Athlete

leal Protein (g) Carbohydrate (g) Fat (g)

Breakfast 35 46 16

Lunch 35 46 16

Snack 10 14 3

Dinner 35 46 16

Snack 10 14 3

Total 125 166 54

hydrate makes perfect sense. The table also suggests consuming more protein
than you probably have been consuming. Many elite athletes tend to be pro-
tein-deficient for their level of activity. Finally, even with the extra fat, this is
still a low-fat diet in terms of total grams of fat, according to U.S. government

guidelines. Table 8.9 breaks down the requirements into actual meals.
 Recovery and Nutrition 177

Table 8.9 Typical Meals for a 1 60-Pound Athlete

Meal Food

Breakfast 5-inch omelet (1 whole egg and 4 egg whites, 2 oz.

nonfat cheese, 2 tsp. olive oil)

1/2 cantaloupe
1 piece toast

Lunch 6 oz. tuna fish with 2 tsp. mayonnaise

1 orange

1 apple

2 cups steamed vegetables

Snack 2 oz. sliced turkey

1 piece fruit

Dinner 5 oz. chicken breast

4 cups steamed vegetables
1 piece fruit

Snack 2 oz. cottage cheese or 1 oz. sliced turkey

1/2 piece fruit

Although this diet than 2,000 calories, it would be difficult to con-

is less

sume all the food if the carbohydrate portion is mainly fruits and vegetables.
Furthermore, any extra calories required for training would need to come from
body fat. As a result, the athlete doesn’t need to consume excessive calories to
maintain high physical performance. If you need more calories, add them as
extra monounsaturated fats since this type of fat has no effect on insulin. As
you can see from these meals, grains, starches, and breads are not the major
component of a hormonal control diet. Remember to introduce any change
in your eating habits at least one week before competition to give your body
adequate time to adapt to the changes.
All snacks or meals eaten within the three critical hormonal windows should
have the same ratio of protein to carbohydrate to generate the optimal hormone
response. Other meals eaten during the day should also have a similar pro-
tein-to-carbohydrate balance to maintain a consistent hormonal status within
the body. To achieve maximum results, treat eating as an integral part of the
training process. The appropriate balance assures that protein, the nutrient
athletes neglect most, is sufficient.

Hydration
The most important nutrient for any athlete is water. Athletes should regard
water as an indispensible resource. The fact that 75 to 85 percent of the body is
water proves how vitally important it is for cellular life. Water’s role in forming
a gel in cells makes life possible. Dehydration is probably the greatest factor
178 Sports SPEED

to adversely affect performance. Practical experience and scientific studies

support the following recommendations.

The body most efficiently absorbs water at temperatures of 40 to 50 degrees
Fahrenheit. Drink at least eight 10-ounce servings of water per day. During
exercise, drink water every 15 to 20 minutes. Plain water provides the most ef-
fective results. Carbohydrate sports drinks have the effect of increasing insulin,
and as discussed previously, excessive insulin formation is the worst hormonal
enemy of any endurance or strength performance athlete.
It’s important for athletes to maintain good water and electrolyte balance.

Drink adequate amounts of water and supply the proper balance of electrolytes.
Dehydration will occur if fluid intake doesn’t match fluid lost.

Supplementation
Establish and maintain a normal acid-base level. Increasing the body’s alkaline
reserve before exercise by taking sodium bicarbonate or sodium citrate has
been shown to significantly improve anaerobic performance.
Wisely evaluate commonly used nutritional aids. Oranges, which are fre-
quently supplied after youth practices, contain 94 percent carbohydrate, 6
percent protein, and no fat and supply 64 calories. Sucrose is a commonly used
aid, as is coffee. According to Williams (1995), moderate use of coffee poses
few health hazards to those that tolerate caffeine. Scientists recommend two
or three 6-ounce cups of coffee per day, which is equivalent to 200 to 300 mg
of caffeine. Possible beneficial effects of drinking coffee include a significant
increase in endurance and high-intensity effort, alertness, and clearer thinking.
Tea is 100 percent carbohydrate and supplies 88 calories. A 12-ounce cola is
100 percent carbohydrate and supplies 164 calories.
Although it is wise to include certain dietary supplements, a serious athlete
should avoid drugs and alcohol. Drugs, other than those prescribed by a doctor
for medical reasons, are not acceptable in the athletic world. Alcohol, which
provides 7 kcal/ml, initially has a stimulating effect but then becomes a de-
pressant. Physiologically, alcohol has not been shown to produce any ergogenic
effects on short- or long-term exercise.
Fluid is essential for maximum absorption of nutrients. Therefore, drink
water when taking supplements. Water is the best choice when taking supple-
ments or mixing drinks because milk or other beverages may interfere with
proper absorption, either by coating the digestive tract or reacting with the
product being taken. Fluid temperature is a critical element. Heat can destroy or
interfere with products being taken. Amino acids can be destroyed by heat.
Take amino acids on an empty stomach. Food proteins are in direct competi-
tion with amino acids. Additionally, the presence of food causes digestive acids
to be secreted that can destroy amino acids. Spreading amino acid consump-
tion throughout the day will reduce amino acid competition and increase the
likelihood of greater absorption. Include vitamins when taking amino acids.
Vitamins are involved in the transport and metabolism of amino acids.
 Recovery and Nutrition 179

t he normal diet has shortages in micro- and macronutrients. The chain

of events starts with the soil and progresses through planting, watering and
fertilizing, harvesting, storing, delivering, purchasing, and cooking, all adding
up to a negative. A summary by Ward and Ward (1997)
of the studies cited
found that a cross section of foods eaten in a normal diet will not provide ad-
equate vitamins and minerals, that faulty diets along with not getting enough
vitamins and minerals are factors that contribute to many diseases, and that
animal studies positively relate higher RDA amounts of vitamin and mineral
intake to increased longevity.
Therefore important to supplement your diet. These supplements have
it is

a reasonable scientific basis for use in supporting health, fitness, and athletic
performance: multivitamins and minerals; antioxidant complex vitamins (A,
C, and E); creatine; the branch chain amino acids (BCAA) leucine, isoleucine,
and valine; echinacea (herb), which enhances immune function; glucosamine
for joint support; and Performance Optimizer System® (POS, nutritional sys-
—
tem produced by AdvoCare®) POS 1 (supports postworkout recovery, muscle
regeneration, and hormone support), POS 2 (supports total body performance
and recovery with special focus on muscle growth and minimization of muscle
damage), POS 3 (supports rehydration, immune system, electrolyte uptake, and
replacement; supplies carbohydrates, antioxidants, and energy system facilita-
tors), POS 4 (supports performance, energy capacity, and building, repairing,
and remodeling of muscle tissue), and POS 5 (supports performance, recovery
from workouts, and muscle growth; promotes loss of fat).
The branch chain amino acids (BCAA) leucine, isoleucine, and valine are
important in glutamine synthesis and can serve as a source of fuel. However,
tissue cellscan convert all proteins into Krebs cycle intermediates.
Creatine supplementation can improve structure and function. Creatine has
improved performance in explosive sports by facilitating the regeneration of
ATP, reducing lactic acid in the cells, and increasing muscle mass. Short-term
power output closely parallels the recovery curve for creatine phosphate re-
synthesis after dynamic and isometric exercise. Therefore, creatine may have
benefits for all sports but is especially important for anaerobic athletes. Other
studies have indicated the following benefits of creatine: improved performance
capacity, increased training volume, increased intramuscular creatine stores,
increased phospliocreatine stores, and greater gains in strength and muscle
mass. These findings suggest that athletes can endure greater training volumes
and have greater adaptation to exercise.
will
It’s important to take supplements that reduce oxidative stress. Oxygen

is a two-edged sword: On the one hand it plays a role in energy production

in the mitochondria; on the other hand 2 to 5 percent of the oxygen forms

free radicals such as superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, and hydroxyl radicals.
Stress from exercise and the environment produces these free radicals (highly
reactive molecules or molecular fragments that contain at least one unpaired
electron in their outer orbitals, or valence shells; McArdle, Katch, and Katcli
1996). Free radicals can damage or destroy the body’s cells. Consequently,
they interfere with normal cell function and affect the rate at which we age.
180

Subduhi and associates (2001 state that more than 60 diseases can be traced
)

back to free radicals. The sum of all the negatives has a big effect on athletic
performance.
The defense against free radicals is to environment sources and
remove their
to take supplements that are known to control them. A good way to nutrition-
ally combat free radicals is to take an array of antioxidant scavengers such
as the enzymes catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase;
vitamins A, C, and E; and beta-carotene, a precursor to vitamin A.
Along with understanding why to take supplements and which supplements
to take, it is important to understand the mechanisms by which ergogenic aids
act. Aids such as caffeine, choline, amphetamines, and alcohol initially act as
a central or peripheral stimulant to the nervous system. Carbohydrate, cre-
and chromium increase the storage or availability of a limiting
atine, carnitine,
substrate. Glucose and medium-chain triglycerides act as a supplemental fuel
source. Sodium bicarbonate, citrate, pangamic acid, and phosphate reduce
or neutralize performance -inhibiting metabolic by-products. High-glycemic
carbohydrates and water facilitate recovery.

Recovery Support
Rapid recovery from the effects of a hard workout or the accumulation of many
workouts and additional stresses may require the use of other technologies.
Athletic training has been a necessary part of sports for a long time. The oasis
of recovery has grown to include such modalities as flotation tanks, hyperbaric
chambers, and various other high-tech pieces of equipment in some advanced
programs. To stay ahead or just to stay even, it is necessary to keep an open
mind about new ways of improving recovery.
For example, chiropractic care can assist in recovery. Chiropractic and sports
medicine could actually be classified as close cousins. They both essentially
deal with and focus on optimum performance. In chiropractic, the belief is
quite simply that the body has an innate intelligence to heal itself. Removing
various interferences such as fixations or subluxations that can impede normal
nerve flow and restrict normal biomechanics gives the body the ability to oper-
ate at its optimum potential. By introducing nutrition and various soft tissue
techniques, we can help the body reach its maximum capabilities.
Sports medicine basically deals with the science of athletic performance.
It not only encompasses training techniques and supplementation that can

expand the body s physical limitations and capabilities, but it also concerns
itself with injury prevention and rehabilitation.

Chiropractic and sports medicine have become even more intertwined in

recent years. Most professional sports teams now either employ a chiropractor
on staff or have one the athletes can work with. The chiropractor s knowledge
of biomechanics as well as nutrition and healing can make him an important
member of any team. For example, Dr. Jeffrey Spencer, MA, DC, CCSP, was a
 Recovery and Nutrition 181

member of the medical team Lance Armstrong and the U.S. Postal Team.
for
It was his job to ensure that the cyclists were not only mechanically sound in
their movement patterns but also nutritionally sound.
Several specific soft tissue techniques have also been designed by chiroprac-
torsand used widely in the athletic community. Active Release Technique
(ART®) is a unique and highly effective approach to dealing with soft tissue in-
juries. Dr. Michael Leahy, a chiropractor based in Colorado Springs, developed
ART. He has worked with various professional and Olympic athletes throughout
the world. In fact, the technique has been so effective that Ironman organizers
have requested the presence of ART practitioners at all of their events.
Besides focusing on achieving normal mechanics and movement patterns
for a particular joint, rehab and support of that joint are a critical part of the
sport chiropractor’s job. One such technique developed by Tim Brown, a chi-
ropractor in Newport Beach, is called specific proprioceptive response taping
(SPRT). The objective of SPRT is to dynamically support injured soft tissue
structures with taping materials applied to the skin in anatomically correct
locations. Providing specific compression, approximation, support, and balance
is of paramount importance The intent of this
for proprioceptive stimulation.
technique is to limit contraindicated symptoms from provoking movement of the
injured tissue and to encourage nonpathological movements that enhance the
physiological pump and diminish adverse compensatory reaction to the injury
while providing protection via enhanced kinesthetic awareness feedback.
These are few examples of how chiropractic has provided the ath-
just a
letic community with recovery techniques that help get the athlete back to
maximum efficiency. The increasing demand for chiropractic care by athletes,
teams, and organizations is a reflection of the important role it has played in
sport. The use more than likely continue to grow in the
of chiropractic will
future as the benefits are realized and documented. This is already evident
by the establishment of various organizations such as the American Board of
Chiropractic Sports Physicians. The group conducts symposiums throughout
the year designed to keep doctors up to date on the latest research and findings
in sports medicine. The board includes chiropractors, physical therapists, and
medical and orthopedic doctors in its membership.
To find a chiropractor, especially one who is sport-minded and schooled
in the soft tissue technique ART, contact www.activerelease.com. If yon have
any specific questions on chiropractic, you can contact Dr. Sam Symmank at
www.sportsscience.com.
Sport massage can enhance performance and speed workout and injury recov-
The following information on myofascial sports massage was provided by
ery.

Gary L. Buhler, RMT, MTI, of the North Texas Massage Institute, 1310 S. Stem-
mons Frwy., Lewisville, TX 75067; (214) 808-3315; [email protected]
or www.sportsscience.com.
An essential element of overall body condition is proper muscle health.
Therefore, an assessment by a qualified myofascial sports massage therapist
can be of significant value. A thorough examination will reveal the athlete’s
182 Sports SPEED

present condition. The examination will reveal the effects of any prior muscle
and joint injuries and an assessment can be made as to how these injuries can
affect present and future performance. A determination can be made as to
what level of recovery in performance can be expected.
When an athlete experiences an injury, it triggers a chain of events that must
be handled with care and caution. Muscle strains, sprains, spasms, tears, and
corrective surgeries can lead to the development of adhesions and/or scar tis-
sue. A return to active duty before proper muscle healing takes place can lead
to joint pain, pain with loss of range of motion, pain at rest, or pain during
These conditions can be a factor in repetitive stress injury and general
activity.
deterioration of muscle function. Overall performance may begin to fall off.
Certain movements become difficult or impossible to perform. Muscle strength
imbalance and compensation in other muscle groups begin to appear with new
pain developing in other areas of the body.
There no such thing as an anatomically perfect person. Sometimes gene
is

deficiency can cause or contribute to muscle imbalances. Sports massage

therapy can begin to address these muscle imbalances and return apparent
lost range of motion or restore inherent muscle strength.
Scar tissue and adhesions from previous injuries and surgery can signifi-
cantly restrict proper muscle function. Scar tissue is quite rigid and will cause
varying degrees of range of motion loss. Myofascial sports massage therapy
performed by a properly trained massage therapist can begin to mobilize sur-
rounding muscle and corrective tissues. Blood flow will increase to the affected
areas and begin breaking down developed adhesions and softening scar tissue.
This specialized therapy needs to be done on an ongoing basis. Scar tissue
is permanent and needs regular and consistent manipulation to restore vital

range of motion.
Myofascial sports therapy can lead to shorter recovery time from injury or
workouts. Increasing blood flow alone goes a long way toward quicker recovery
times. A recovering athlete often experiences extreme muscle soreness or fatigue
between workouts. Muscle by-product buildup is usually at fault. The over ained
t r

athlete will experience a toxin buildup in his muscles. This can be a dangerous
condition. With tliis buildup comes the beginning formation of adhesions, a po-
tential for future muscle breakdown and injury. Myofascial spoils massage can
help reduce this buildup and help restore peak performance conditions.
Specialized sports massage therapy should be performed daily. An athlete
will benefit greatly by having his muscles warmed up prior to daily training and
specifically on game day. Posttraining massage will increase muscle recovery
by reducing muscle by-product buildup. When athletes follow this program
they will begin to see an increase in overall peak performance.
Every athlete will benefit from weekly corrective muscle therapy. This will
allow the therapist to address existing muscle problems and catch hidden
trouble areas before they become problematic. An additional benefit to the
athlete is an increased overall sense of well-being. Regular massage therapy
will make him sharper on game day.
 Recovery and Nutrition 183

Cryotherapy (ice), thermotherapy (sauna, steam baths, spa), and hydro-

therapy (either hot or cold) can be used to accelerate recovery. Charlie Francis
(1992), a Canadian sprint coach, maximizes the use of all regenerative tech-
niques. He gives the following four reasons for using regenerative techniques
as a major part of his training program:

Continuous management of muscle tension and muscle spasm

Accelerated removal of the effects of fatigue
Rapid restoration of body energy systems and energy substrate
Improved ability to renew physical activity without wasting the energy of
the athlete

Rest and Relaxation

An athlete needs sufficient sleep, naps, and between practices. Adequate
rest
sleep is an athlete in training.
essential for During 8 to 1 0 hours of sound sleep,
the body builds, repairs, and remodels itself. Hormone levels increase during
sleep to orchestrate the recovery process. If you don’t get an adequate amount
of sleep, your recovery will not be sufficient, and over time, lack of sleep will
reduce performance.
In order to get a good night’s sleep, the environment must be free of dis-
tracting stimuli. Develop patterns that support falling asleep. Consistent en-
vironmental conditions of the sleeping room, bedtime, and duration of sleep
are three very important elements that you can control. Another important
factor under your control is the positive effects of moderate exercise and fit-

ness level on sleep.

Rest between workouts or the proper spacing of workouts is necessary to
achieve improvement. It takes approximately 24 to 48 hours to remove the
by-products of exercise and replenish energy stores in the muscles and liver.
Stress control is also important. Control stress to achieve superadaptation.
According to Seiver (1996), light and sound stimulation can be used to manage
stress.* When the athlete adds preparation and competition stressors to societal

stressors, it creates a greater need to focus on recovery. Consequently, not in-

cluding mental recovery would exclude a major contributor to achieving the
superadapted state. The more you push the pedal to the metal, the higher the
RPMs and the more time you will spend in the red zone. Red zone workouts
require red zone recovery. Otherwise, optimal control over stress associated
with peak performance and distractibility, impulsiveness, hyperactivity, anxiety,
and inadequate recovery will result in poor performance.
It is valuable to employ relaxation techniques in a recovery program. High

arousal can draw on energy levels, and relaxation techniques that keep athletes
in the zone conserve energy.
 .

Chapter 9

WMMMB
print-assisted training one of the most demanding phases of a sports
is

S speed improvement program. This phase is also the most fun. You will
experience the feeling of raw power and be amazed at the results as you sprint
at high speeds, often as fast or faster than NFL halfbacks, MLB leading base
stealers, or pro soccer and NBA speedsters.

neuromuscular Training
World-class sprinters have a stride rate of about 4.5 (females) to 5 (males) steps
per second. Women sprint the 100-meter dash about .6 to .8 second slower
than males mainly because of slower stride rates and differences in strength
and power. Children take faster steps than adults. As height and leg length
increase, stride rate decreases.
There is no real advantage to having short or long legs. Long legs do allow
a longer stride but a slower stride rate. Short legs result in a faster stride rate
and shorter strides. It takes a lot more strength, power, and energy to move long
legs through the complete cycle in sprinting than it does shorter legs. Studies
show that the ability to take fast steps is not so common in young athletes.
Among 13- to 14-year-old students, only 15 had high stride rates. Only 10
youngsters in 100 had a very short down time (the support phase when one
foot is contacting the ground)
The main purpose of sprint- assisted training is to increase stride rate by
forcing you to perform at a much higher level than you are capable of without
on the neuromuscular
assistance. Sprint- assisted training produces this effect
system by getting the nervous and muscular systems used to higher contrac-
tion rates. A neurosurgeon speaking at the national convention of the National
Association of Speed and Explosion (NASE) put it in layman's terms: “After
several weeks of sprint- assisted training, the nervous system allows you to
continue these higher rates without any help. As a result, you can now take
those faster and longer steps without any assistance."
Although this statement is only theory, research shows that the number of
steps taken per second and stride length will improve after four to eight weeks

184
 Sprint-Assisted Training 185

of sprint- assisted training. This improvement is attributed to neuromuscular

adaptation to the forced higher speeds and longer steps (the neuron recruitment
level increases) and, after several months of continued training, to conversion
of the intermediate fast-twitch red fibers (type 11a) to fast-twitch white fibers
(type lib). Researchers at Lisle confirm the value of sprint- assisted training
(Jakalski 2000):

At Lisle we have done quite a bit of research on the effects of sprint- assisted

training and are convinced that two things occur when athletes are sprint-
assisted. First the towing procedure lights up the central nervous system,

bringing into play great numbers of neurons. Second it makes the legs more
responsive to ground reaction. By lighting up the central nervous system,
I mean the towing alters the timing of the nervous system to the effector
muscles. In other words, towing creates some anticipatory firing, and this

kind of firing enhances intramuscular coordination. In terms of ground

reaction response, we theorize that the increase in horizontal momentum
resulting from towing alters the capacity of joint stabilization at the ankle
and knee, thereby allowing for a greater transmission of force, (p. 95)

The proportion of fast-twitch muscle fibers can he increased by sprint-as-

sisted and speed-strength training. Intermediate fast-twitch red fibers (type
Ila) can be converted to fast-twitch white fibers (type lib). The end result is

an increase in stride rate and speed over short distances.

Electronic timing has shown that sprinters who perform repeated 30- and
60-meter fly or block starts after tw o or three repetitions of 30- to 60-meter
assisted sprintsrun their unassisted sprints noticeably faster. This enhanced
performance window remains open for a short time only; levels drop back to
normal in 5 to 10 minutes. Using two or three towing repetitions as a warm-
up immediately before the 40 -yard dash test may improve times for some
team sport athletes. It is well worth the effort to test this phenomena to see if
it enhances your 40-yard dash time.

Guidelines foe Sprint-Assisted Teeming

To receive maximum results, use sprint-assisted training correctly. Adhere to
these guidelines for each of the four sprint- assisted training methods discussed
in this chapter:

Obtain a solid conditioning base of speed endurance training and weight

training before beginning a sprint- assisted program.

Warm up thoroughly before any type of sprint-assisted training. Begin every

workout with a general warm-up routine to increase core temperature. Use
the large muscle groups first with a slow jog for 400 to 800 meters, followed
by a faster jog and three -quarter--speed striding for an additional 400 meters
186 Sports SPEED

or more. When you are perspiring freely, stop and complete the stretching
routine presented in chapter 3 for 8 to 10 minutes. You are now ready for the
w alk-jog -stride -sprint cycle (walk 15 steps, slow jog 15 steps, stride 15 steps
at three-quarter speed, and sprint 15 steps); continue this cycle for 400 me-
ters or until you feel prepared to execute your all-out sprint- assisted training
sprints.

Sprint-assisted training is an advanced program designed for athletes who

have a stable motor pattern of correct sprinting technique. Form errors by
those with poor sprinting mechanics are likely to be exaggerated by sprint-
assisted training. Take sprint-assisted training seriously, and pay attention to
the specific suggestions for each method to avoid muscle or equipment-related
injuries that may occur from horseplay or carelessness.

Perform sprint- assisted training only on a soft grassy area. Inspect the surface
for broken glass and other objects.

Apply the concept of “work fast to be fast. Since fast-twitch muscle fibers
have a high firing threshold, training must include work at high intensity
levels.

Expect to experience muscle soreness one or two days after your first sprint-
demanding and will recruit
assisted training session. Sprint-assisted training is

motor units and muscle fibers that you are not accustomed to using. Even if
you have been involved in some form of sprint training for several weeks, you
can still expect to experience considerable soreness. This soreness is an excel-
lent sign that sprint- assisted training is going beyond your normal training
routine.

Lise sprint- assisted training at the beginning of your workout, immediately

after your general warm-up and stretching. You can take long ultra-fast strides
only when you are free from fatigue. Avoid any type of sprint-assisted training
after you are fatigued from drills, calisthenics, scrimmages, speed endurance
training, weight training, or plyometrics.

Remember, you are trying to take faster and longer steps than ever before,
not improve your conditioning level for short sprints (see the speed endurance
discussion in chapter 7). Take advantage of the entire rest period specified
between each repetition, and make certain you are fully recovered before
completing the next sprint-assisted training sprint.
Emphasize quality form in all repetitions. If you are sprinting out of control,
the pull must be reduced on subsequent repetitions to allow you to complete
the run with perfect form. For maximum results, it is important to stay within
the 10 percent zone on all repetitions. The most effective training of the neu-
romuscular system for speed improvement occurs when your sprint- assisted
training program forces you to run no more than 1 0 percent faster than your
unaided maximum speed. If you can run an unassisted 40-yard dash in 4.8
seconds, your sprint- assisted towing time must be in the 4.56 (5 percent) to
 Sprint-Assisted Training 187

4.32 (10 percent) range. Faster pulls produce longer ground- contact time due
to a braking action to avoid stumbling or falling, forming habits that have a
negative impact on forward movement and are difficult to correct.
After sprinting with the assistance of a pull or decline, try to maintain the
high speed for another 10 meters without assistance.
Be patient and progress slowly from one-half- to three-quarter- to maxi-
mum-speed runs over a period of two to three weeks.

Types of Sprint-.Assisted Training

The four basicmethods of sprint-assisted training are downhill sprinting;
high-speed cycling; towing with surgical tubing, pulley devices, and the Sprint
Master®; and high-speed treadmill sprint training. Not every method is equally
effective. Some are also less costly and more practical than others. Read this
section carefully and decide how you want to proceed. Table 9.1 describes the
advantages and limitations of each sprint- assisted training technique.
Sprint- assisted training has been shown to efficiently and naturally increase
both stride rate and length. Athletes have also improved 40-yard dash times
by as much as .6 second during an 8- to 12-week period. Track athletes in the
100-meter dash have improved times by more than .8 second. Keep in mind
that such improvement won t happen overnight. Neuromuscular training takes
time, so stay with the program a minimum of 8 weeks. Eventually, you will
move to an ongoing maintenance program of one or two workouts per week
to avoid losing acquired gains.
Combining sprint-assisted training with sport loading (sprint-resisted) and
finishing the workout with regular maximum ef fort sprints is a form of contrast
training that targets neuromotor patterns and helps improve speed.

Table 9.1 ^ Comparison of Six Sprint-Assisted Training Programs

Method Cost Advantages Disadvantages Effectiveness

Downhill $0 Practical. Only Does not provide as Good. Will

sprinting slight chance of much assistance. increase stride
injury from falls or Less increase in rate, stride

muscle pulls. Easy stride rate and stride length, and

to reduce pace and length than some sprinting speed.
stop if balance is other methods.
lost. Difficult to find

proper slope.

(continued)
Table 9.1 (continued)

Method Cost Advantages Disadvantages Effectiveness

High- $500 to Can be performed Rather unproved. Fair. Focuses

speed 1,200 athome, at the Increased rate of on leg turnover.
stationary gym, or outside on leg movement per More cycling
cycling a road Wind
bike. second on the cycle research
resistance and should help increase needed. Should
gravity eliminated stride rates in be used
to permit higher sprinting. with another
leg turnover than in method.
sprinting.

Towing $35 to Inexpensive. Allows Falls may occur. Excellent.

(tubing) 99 you to train alone No bailout since Increases
safely indoors. tubing is fastened stride rate,
Provides excellent at the waist. Tubing stride length,
controllable pull. occasionally breaks and speed in

Two tubings can or comes loose at short distances.

be used to provide the belt.

larger athletes with

considerable pull.

Sprint $2,500 Operator controls Very expensive. Not Excellent.

Master or more the pull and can practical for group Same as for
back off if form is sessions because towing.
broken or athlete of time requirement.
stumbles. Athlete Only one athlete can
can bail out by train at a time.
merely releasing
the grip.

High- $8,000 Can be performed Very expensive. Excellent.

speed to inside. Elicits very Requires use of Produces high
treadmill 15,000 high stride rates. spotting belt, an stride rates and
sprinting You can grab guard assistant, and time a long stride.
rails or allow safety to learn how to Increases
belt to protect you step on and off at speed over
if you lose your very high speeds short distances.
balance. (greyhound effect).

Ultra $1 00 to Can be performed More difficult to Excellent.

Speed 150 inside. Capable conduct group Produces high
Pacer of producing sessions indoors or stride rates.
high stride rates. outdoors. Expensive Contains a
Inexpensive. for the simple bailout system
technology. Cannot if balance is

perform sport- lost or the pull

specific drills like is too great.
surgical tubing.

188
 Sprint-Assisted Training 189

Downhill Sprinting

Downhill sprinting one of the safest, most practical forms of sprint- assisted
is

training and requires no special equipment. The trick is to find the proper
slope and distance. Try to locate a 50 -yard area with a slope no greater than
1 percent. Consult your coach for suggestions. A 1- to 2.5-degree slope will

keep you within the 10-percent zone and avoid a braking effect, incorrect
form, increased ground contact, and falling, which are much more likely to
occur with higher slopes. The ideal area will allow you to sprint 20 yards on
a perfectly flat surface (to accelerate to near-maximum speed), sprint down a
15-yard 1 -degree slope (to force higher than normal stride length, stride rate,
and speed), and then end by sprinting 15 yards on a flat area (to allow you to
attempt to maintain the higher speed rates without the assistance of gravity).
The crown on a football field is close to a 1 percent grade and can he used for
both sprint- assisted training and sport loading by sprinting from one sideline
of the field to the crown, up the slope, and down the other side at high speed
to the opposite sideline. Combined downhill-uphill sprinting has been shown
to force runners to take more steps per second than flat- surface sprinting.
Table 9.2 shows a sample eight- week program that incorporates downhill
sprinting, surgical tubing, the Ultra Speed Pacer®, and the Sprint Master.
Unless you have a solid conditioning foundation, avoid sprint- assisted train-
ing until after completing the first three weeks of a speed endurance training
program (chapter 7), which will prepare you for the high-speed stride rates
and stride length experienced in this part of a speed improvement program.
The first two weeks (four workouts) will help you adjust to the use of sur-
gical tubing, to other towing devices, to downhill sprinting, and to the pull-
ing action as you maintain proper sprinting form at all times. Do not exceed
a three-quarter-speed striding action in any of the first four workouts. The
sprint- assisted distance represents the distance towed or the actual downhill
distance covered and does not include the 20- to 25-yard distance used to ac-
celerate to maximum speed or the final 10 -yard sprint without assistance at
the end of each repetition.
Because of the assisted action of the pull, starting with week three you will be
sprinting at submaximal speed in each workout. Although the preconditioning
period has prepared you for this training, you can expect to experience muscle
soreness the first five to seven days of sprint-assisted training. The distance
covered should reflect the average distance sprinted in your sport (see table 7.3,
page 151). Keep in mind that sprint-assisted training is NOT a conditioning
activity and that full recovery between each repetition is important.
Carefully examine the grounds of your school, university, park, or neighbor-
hood, looking for soccer and football fields and other grassy areas, or ask your
coach to consider building an area specifically for downhill sprint training.
Once you find a suitable place to train, follow the program shown in table 9.2;
pay attention to the recovery period between each repetition.
Table 9.2 Eight-Week Sprint-Assisted Program

Rest
3
Week Workout Overspeed distance Repetitions interval

1 1 1/2-speed runs toward the 15 pull for yd., 5 1 min.

emphasizing correct sprinting form
1 /2-speed backward runs toward the pull 3 1 min.
for 20 yd.
%

1 2 3/4-speed runs for 20 yd. with perfect 5 2 min.

sprinting form
3/4-speed backward runs toward the pull 3 2 min.
for 20 yd.

2 3 3/4-speed runs for 25 yd. 5 2 min.

3/4-speed backward runs toward the pull 3 2 min.
for 25 yd.
3/4-speed turn-and-runs at a 45-degree 3 2 min.
angle for 25 yd. (left and right)

2 4 Same as workout 3

3 5 3/4-speed runs toward the pull for 15 yd. 3 2 min.

Maximum-speed sprints toward the pull 5 2 min.
for 15 yd.

3 6 3/4-speed runs for 20 yd. 3 2 min.

Maximum-speed sprints for 20 yd. 6 2.5 min.

4 7 3/4-speed runs for 25 yd. 3 2 min.

Maximum-speed sprints for 25 yd. 6 3 min.

4 8 3/4-speed sprints for 30 yd. 3 2 min.

Maximum-speed sprints for 30 yd. 6 3 min.

5 9 3/4-speed runs toward the pull for 15 yd. 3 1 min.

Quick feet, short step, low knee lift sprint 3 2 min.
for15 yd. with rapid arm-pumping action *

Quick feet, short step, high knee lift sprint 3 2 min.

for 15 yd. with rapid arm-pumping action
Maximum-speed pulls for 30 yd. 4 3 min.

5 10 Same as workout 9

6 11 High-speed stationary cycling. With the 3 1 min.

resistance on low to average, warm up for
5 to 7 min. until you perspire freely. Pedal
at 3/4 speed for 30 sec.
Pedal at maximum speed for 2 sec. as 7 2 min.
you say “one thousand and one, one
thousand and two”
Pedal at maximum speed 3 sec. as you
for 3 2 min.
say “one thousand and one, one thousand
and two, one thousand and three”
Pedal at maximumspeed for 5 sec. 6 2.5 min.

190
 1 1

Sprint-Assisted Training 191

Rest
Week Workout Overspeed distance 3 Repetitions interval

6 12 Same as workout 1

7 13 Repeat workout 1

Two-man pull-and-resist drill for 100 yd. 2 4 min.

Maximum-speed sprints for 25 yd. 6 3 min.

7 14 Same as workout 1

8 15 3/4-speed runs toward the pull for 15 yd. 3 1 min.

Quick feet, short step, low knee lift sprint 5 2 min.
for15 yd. with rapid arm-pumping action
Quick feet, short step, high knee lift sprint 5 2 min.
for 15 yd. with rapid arm-pumping action
Maximum-speed pulls for 30 yd. 5 3 min.

8 16 Maintenance program
3/4-speed runs toward the pull for 15 yd. 2 2 min.
Quick feet, short step, high knee lift sprint 2 2 min.
for 15 yd. with rapid arm-pumping action
Maximum-speed forward for 20 yd.,
pull 3 2 min.
plant right foot and sprint diagonally left
for20 yd. Repeat, planting the left foot
and sprinting diagonally right for 20 yd.
Maximum-speed pulls forward for 30 yd. 3 2 min.
a
Overspeed distance is the actual yards you are being towed or sprinting downhill after reaching maximum
speed.

High-Speed Stationary Cycling

During high-speed cycling, wind resistance, gravity, and body weight are
eliminated to allow you to complete more revolutions per second (similar to
steps in sprinting) than you are capable of completing during the sprinting
action. This sprint-assisted training technique should be used with one other
method, such as towing or downhill sprinting, to guarantee success of increas-
ing stride rate and length. Preliminary evidence indicates that high-speed
cycling programs may increase stride rate in sprinting. A sample program is
described in table 9.3.
A tapering off period of about 5 to 10 seconds occurs after each sprint-as-
you to a slow cadence
sisted pedaling repetition. This tapering off period returns
in preparation for the next repetition. Do not stop pedaling. Continue in the
slow cadence of about 25 to 30 revolutions per minute while in the two-minute
recovery period.
Cycling can be performed indoors using a stationary cycle or outdoors using
a 10- to 30-speed racing bicycle that allows you to use the lower gears and
low-resistance pedaling. As speed increases, a higher gear will be needed to
complete the sprint-assisted phase.
192 Sports SPEED

Table 9.3 Eight-Week High-Speed Cycling Program

Acceleration Pedaling Overspeed Rest

Week Workout Repetitions time (sec.) speed time 3 (sec.) (min.)
1

1 1 2 1.5 to 2.0 1/2 1.0 to 1.5 2

2 3 Same Same Same 2
% *

2 3 3 1 .5 to 2.0 3/4 1.0 to 1.5 2

4 3 Same Same Same 2

3 5 4 2.0 to 2.5 9/10 1.5 to 2.0 2

6 4 Same Same Same 2

4 7 5 2.5 to 3.0 Maximum 1.5 to 2.0 2

8 5 Same Same Same 2

5 9 6 2.5 to 3.0 Maximum 1 .5 to 2.0 2

10 6 Same Same Same 2

6 11 7 2.5 to 3.0 Maximum 2.0 2

12 7 Same Same Same 2

7 13 8 2.5 to 3.0 Maximum 2.0 2

14 8 Same Same Same 2

8 15 9 2.5 to 3.0 Maximum 2.0 to 2.5 2

16 9 Same Same Same 2

a
Overspeed time is the actual time you are pedaling at high speeds.

Towing
Towing, or pulling, athletes to sprint faster is not new. Before the use of surgical
tubing and two-person pulleys, outdated methods such as motor scooters, mo-
torcycles, and even cars were used. In 1956, Olympic medal winner A1 Lawrence
trained by holding a rigid bar attached to a car four times per week for 100 to
600 yards. In the 1960s, towing was successfully used in Australia to reduce
the 100-meter time of one subject who held to the side of a tram car. Young
sprinters increased stride length considerably (an average of six inches) and
improved 100-yard dash time from an average of 10.5 to 9.9 seconds. In 1976,
a four-station tow bar attached to an automobile was used to improve 40-yard
dash times with a flying start. Towing has also been a regular part of our annual
speed camps since 1970, and sprint- assisted training has been an important part
of our training programs to improve 40 -yard dash times for team sports.
Towing produces higher stride rates and increases stride length more effectively
than downhill sprinting and high-speed cycling. Towing to force runners to take
more steps than would otherwise be possible has improved stride rate and 40-
yard dash times by more than .6 second. It also will improve your 20-, 30-, 40-,
or 60-yard dash time more than most other sprint-assisted training techniques.
You can choose from three methods: towing with surgical tubing, towing with
the Llltra Speed Pacer, or towing with the Sprint Master, if available.
 Sprint-Assisted Training 193

Surgical Tubing

Surgical tubing can force you to take faster and longer steps and complete
a 40-yard dash at world-record speed simply by providing you with a slight
pull throughout the high-speed portion of your sprint. A 20- to 25-foot piece
of elastic tubing attached to your waist by a belt. The opposite end can be
is

attached to another athlete or to a stationary object such as a tree or a goal

post to allow you to work out alone. Back up to stretch the tubing 15 yards
(about 25 yards total from your partner or the stationary object); run at three-
quarter speed with the pull until you learn to adjust by keeping your balance
and using proper sprinting form. After four or five practice runs, you should
be ready for the full ride.

Once you are accustomed to the tubing, back up until you are approximately
30 to 35 yards from your partner or the stationary object before sprinting at high
speed with the pull. Most good surgical tubing will safely stretch to six times
its unstretched length (20 feet X 6 - 120 feet, or 40 yards). Avoid stretching

the tubing beyond this recommended limit. You also can make stationary runs
from a three-point or track start. Athletes in our speed clinics and camps have
completed 40-yard dashes in than 3.9 seconds when being pulled with
less
surgical tubing. Remember to apply the 10 percent rule to each athlete.
Surgical tubing allows you to train any time with or without a partner. You
can use a number of different drills:

Attach one end of the tubing to a goal post and the other to your waist with
the tubing tied in front. Stretch the tubing by walking backward about 20
yards. Jog forward toward the goal post with the pull. Repeat four times, two
with a three-quarter-speed run and two with a full-speed sprint. Within the
next three sprints, back up an extra 5 to 8 yards each time to increase the pull
and the speed of your sprint.

Repeat the previous drill, emphasizing a high knee lift.

At the close of the session, complete four or five all-out sprints using the
exact rest interval recommended for your sport in table 7.3 (page 151). Al-
low the^ tubing to pull you at no more than .5 second faster than your best
40-yard dash time. It takes only a slight pull to produce this effect, and pulls
that produce more than a 10 percent improvement in your 40-yard time are
dangerous and counterproductive. Place two markers 40 yards apart and have
someone time you as you are being towed.
For athletes who are required to do so in their sport (defensive backs in
football: basketball, baseball, held hockey, lacrosse, rugby, soccer, and tennis
players), repeat the preceding drills by sprinting backward or sideways. Turn
your belt around to the center of your back or to your hip.

Choose a faster athlete and race him while you are being towed. You will

be amazed at how fast you are sprinting. You also will win the race.
Do the quick feet drill by measuring one of your strides before placing 20
sticks at a distance two to three feet shorter than your normal stride. Repeat
the first drill described in this section, emphasizing rapid stride frequency.
1 94 Sports SPEES

Complete the two -person drill by attaching one end of the tubing to your
waist and the other to your partner’s back. Have your partner sprint 25 to
30 yards ahead against the resistance and then stop. You now sprint toward
your partner in a sprint-assisted training run. Continue for two or three more
repetitions before reversing the position of the belt. You are now sprinting
against resistance (sport loading), and your partner is sprinting with assistance
(sprint-assisted training). This drill should be the last drill in your sprint-as-
sisted training workout because it does not allow adequate time between each
sprint to fully recover.

Follow the sprint-assisted training program in table 9.2 (page 190) two or
three times per week (every other day) during the preseason and one or two
times per week during the season.
Surgical tubing can be dangerous and requires adequate supervision at all
times. Tubing can break if stretched too far. Belts can come loose if they are
carelessly fastened. Too much pull can produce falls, soft tissue injuries, brak-
ing, increased ground-contact time, and inappropriate loading of the nervous
system. Runners can get tangled at the end of the run as the tubing returns
to its unstretched length. You can greatly reduce the risk of injury and other
undesirable effects by carefully following these tips:

Make certain the tubing is tied securely to the belt. After tubing is used a
few times, the knots will tighten. Newly tied belts must be inspected before
each run. After putting on the belt, there will be an extra length of leftover
belt (the tail). It is important to wrap the tail around your waist, then thread
it again through the loop formed before pulling securely to form a knot. This

process should be repeated until most of the leftover belt is used.

Inspect the tubing on the first run, by letting it slide through your hand as
you back up, to locate any nicks or rough marks. If a nick is detected, discard
and replace with new tubing.
Avoid stretching the tubing more than six times its unstretched length.
Inspect the knots on both belts and retie them if they are not tight or appear
to be coming loose.

Avoid standing with the tubing fully stretched for more than a few seconds.
During this stretched phase, knots come loose and tubing breaks.
you must assmne a three-point stance with the tubing fully stretched (e.g., at
If

the start of a test), protect your face and avoid staying in the set position for more
than .5 second. If the opposite end comes lose, it could recoil into your face.
Use tubing that attaches to a belt around your waist rather than a harness.
With only slight differences in height between you and your partner, a broken
tubing or a loose belt could snap upward and strike you in the eye. Tubing
attached to the waist that comes loose when stretched is unlikely to produce
any serious injury.
 Sprint-Assisted Training 195

Use shoes without spikes workouts until you have fully

for the first several
adjusted to the high speed and can complete each repetition with correct
form.
Use surgical tubing on soft grassy areas only.

Adhere to the 10 percent rule at all times. Deny requests to use more than
one tubing on athletes under 200 pounds, and never allow the use of three
pieces of surgical tubing.

Ultra Speed Pacer

The Ultra Speed Pacer uses thin elastic cord and a simple pulley device that
relies on leverage to produce assisted- sprinting. The pulley (fulcrum) is fas-
tened to a fixed object in the gym or on the athletic field. Each side of the rope
going through the pulley is attached to an athlete using a belt. As one athlete
sprints at a 45 -degree angle away from the pulley, the other athlete is forced
to sprint toward the pulley while receiving considerable pull
After a few trials, you and your partner will easily determine how fast the
angle sprinter should run to increase or decrease the pull. The device has the
potential to tow the athlete at a speed twice that of the outgoing runner. Since
the outgoing runner controls the speed of the pull, the 10 percent stimulus
window can be monitored by timing the towed runner.
The Ultra Speed Pacer provides a strong pull and produces very high stride
and sprinting speed. It has a bailout system that allows the
rates, stride lengths,
towed athlete to slap the pulley from his waist harness and release the tension
and pull. A Velcro® safety strip can also be adjusted to release if the load on
the towed runner is too great.

Sprint Master
After a summer speed camp in 1981 at Virginia Commonwealth University,
there was frustration over problems with the use of a motor scooter to tow
athletes at high speeds. It was then that Dr. Dintiman indicated the need for
a motorized device that could be attached to a wall and used indoors or out-
doors,, to tow athletes at high, regulated speeds. John Dolan, who assisted in
the speed camp, was immediately enthusiastic. He and a highly mechanical
friend, Michael Watkins, constructed more than 20 prototypes before the Sprint
Master was perfected.
The machine is precisely engineered to pull athletes at speeds faster than
any human can sprint. It attaches to the goal posts of a football or soccer field
or to a gym wall and provides controlled, variable speed for each athlete. It
is a safe device that eliminates the cumbersome, dangerous use of a vehicle

and allows the athlete to merely release her grip if balance is lost. The Sprint
Master also allows full use of the arms while being towed at speeds oi up to
one second faster than the athlete's best flying 40-yard dash time. The athlete
grasps the two handles and is literally reeled in by the Sprint Master.
188 Sports SPEED

To program with the Sprint Master, use the workout

start a sprint-assisted
schedule shown in table 9.2 (page 190) two or three times per week (every other
clay). Have your coach or friend pull you at approximately .5 second faster

than your best flying 40-yard dash time. The operator quickly learns to judge
pace and can group athletes of similar speed together. It is also quite simple to
place two markers 40 yards apart and time athletes as they are being pulled.
The set screw on the machine can then be fixed at the proper speed.
When you are being pulled, grasp the tow-rope handles and accelerate
slowly for 10 to 15 yards. The Sprint Master will then exert its proper pull as
you reach full speed and will continue to pull you for the recommended 20
to 25 yards; longer distances tend to produce fatigue and cause a loss of bal-
ance. Pump your arms as you would in normal sprinting instead of placing
your hands and arms in front of your body and letting yourself be pulled in
water- ski fashion.
Practice the art of letting go of the rope handles if you lose your balance.
On an athletic field, especially in full uniform, a high-speed fall and roll is

generally safe. Few runners fall at any towing speed once the operator learns
the technique.
Operating the Sprint Master is easily learned and is described precisely
in a brochure. Speeds can be individually determined for each athlete, and
the operator can make the pull safely. Most of the towing drills described for
surgical tubing cannot be used with the Sprint Master because it allows only
straight-ahead sprinting at various speeds.

Treadmili Sprinting

In the Virginia Commonwealth University Laboratory, the A.R. Young high-

speed treadmill (capable of speeds of 0 to 26-plus miles per hour and a 100-
meter dash under 10 seconds) has been used to improve stride length, stride
rate, form, speed endurance, and sprinting speed. Cinematography identified
differences in stride length and rate at various speeds in both treadmill and
unaided flat-surface sprinting. Form was corrected by an expert standing on
a stool facing and looking downward at the subject during high-speed sprint-
ing. The treadmill is also an excellent piece of equipment for sprint-assisted
training. High-speed treadmill sprinting (up to a 9.8-second 100-meter dash)
improves stride rate and speed over short distances.
Before getting on the treadmill, use a standard warm-up procedure and
stretch. Use a harness that attaches to the support rails and allows free arm
movement, balance, and safety. One spotter is placed on each side of the tread
belt. Use a one-week acclimation period to adjust to getting on the tread belt

when it’s moving at high speeds and to treadmill sprinting. Because the tread
belt accelerates slowly and would introduce a fatigue factor if sprinters were
required to jog, stride, and sprint until higher belt speeds were reached, tread
belt speeds are preset before entry. After six to eight practice attempts, sprinters
 Sprint-Assisted Training 197

can easily enter at high speeds. The so-called greyhound effect allows athletes
to reach maximum speed in approximately two seconds.
The sample program shown in table 9.4 has been used in a number of
experiments at Virginia Commonwealth University. The high-speed cycling
program described in table 9.3 (page 192) can also be used in treadmill sprint
training.Overspeed distances are converted to seconds on the treadmill (10
yards = 1.0 second; a 25-yard sprint requires 2.5 seconds on the treadmill).
The number of repetitions, length of the rest interval, and progression are
similar for both techniques.
Treadmill sprinting is not without its special problems; the sprinting action
produces a slight slowing effect each time the foot strikes the tread belt. How-
ever, aiding factors predominate and allow a faster rate for most individuals
even without training. The braking effect when each foot strikes the tread belt
is greater for heavier athletes (over 200 pounds) and for athletes of all sizes
in the initial stages of training. It tends to be eliminated after acclimation and
form instruction. At high speeds beyond maximum (in early training sessions),
the braking effect almost reduces tread belt speed to a sprinter’s maximum
speed. This problem is soon overcome.
Additional problems exist, however. It is difficult to determine true tread
belt speed with and without a sprinter on the treadmill. In one study (Dinti-
man 1984), a highly accurate surface speed indicator was used to determine
belt speed variations with a sprinter (a 159-pound runner and a 197-pound
runner) and without a sprinter. Several findings deserve attention:

A heavier sprinter has a greater braking effect.

The percent of braking increases as tread belt speed increases for both light
and heavy subjects.
As training progresses over several weeks, the amount of braking is reduced
in both light and heavy sprinters at the higher speed rates.

At speeds in which the sprinter is being supported by the belt and is unable
to maintain belt speed, only a normal expected braking occurs.

Table 9.4 High-Speed Treadmill Sprint Program

Purpose Speed Repetitions

Acclimation 90% of maximum 6 to 20 at 2-min.

intervals for 10 sec.

Entry practice 75% maximum

of 1 0 to 30 for 2 sec.
90% of maximum
Maximum
Improve stride and 1 mph and 3 to 4
to 2 2 to 6 for 3 to5 sec.,
length mph above maximum allowing full recovery
after each
1 SB Spirts SPEED

Most of the problems of treadmill sprint training can be overcome for athletes
of all sizes by using an ample number of practice sessions at various speeds
(acclimation), seeing that athletes master proper sprinting form, and avoiding
a tread belt speed too far beyond the subject s present maximum speed (the
point at which proper sprinting form cannot be maintained) Ongoing research
.

with high-speed treadmill sprinting continues to show improvements in stride

rate and length, with this effect carried over to unassisted sprinting.

Advanced Sprint-Assisted Training Techniques

A number of effective sprint-assisted variations have been tested with athletes
at the middle school, high school, university, and professional levels. These
advanced methods are designed only for older, mature athletes who meet the
leg strength standard (2.5 times body weight) described in chapter 2 and have
completed at least four weeks of a preconditioning program that included speed
endurance training. Two different types of advanced sprint-assisted training
are recommended: contrast training and exaggerated stride rate and length.
Contrast training combines sprint-assisted and sprint-resisted training (sport
loading) in the same workout and finishes with regular maximum-velocity,
unaided sprinting repetitions. Sport-loaded towing involves the completion
of two to live repetitions at high speeds with weight added to the body (one
to live pounds using the weighted vest described in chapter 6). This method
should be used no more than twice weekly and never in consecutive workouts.
The use of contrast training on Monday and Thursday or Tuesday and Friday
for six to eight weeks meets the recommended length of time for a training
effect and 72 hours of rest for this type of training. Experts indicate that the
nervous system is slower to recover than the cardiovascular system and suggest
a longer rest period for this demanding routine.
To train using an exaggerated stride rate and length, add two to six repeti-
tions at the end of your sprint- assisted workout and focus on fast and long
strides. Use towing with a shortened stride that allows you to consciously
increase stride rate as much as possible. Complete two or three more repeti-
tions while you consciously lengthen your stride by no more than three to six
inches. For each drill, place sticks or markers close together for the stride rate
repetitions and three to six inches farther apart than your normal stride for
the stride length pulls.
Sprint-assisted training is one of your most important training programs.
All athletes can benefit from this training, regardless of their 20-, 40-, or
60-yard dash times. It is nearly impossible to reach maximum speed poten-
tial without this type of training. A six- to eight-week program can produce

dramatic results.
 roper starting and stopping form is a major part of quickness in team
f sports and must be taught through the use of sport- specific drills that
closely resemble the actual movements during competition. These techniques
do not occur naturally. In performing the actions of sprinting, starting, and
stopping, most athletes have some faulty traits that need to be corrected or
relearned. No two athletes sprint exactly the same, nor do two athletes start
and stop exactly the same. There also is no perfect style that fits all body types.
The key is to improve basic technique without trying to mimic the exact form
of others. Learn the ideals of starting, stopping, and sprinting in theory and
adapt them to your personal traits. Unless start and stop and cut form is flaw-
less, take the time to master the techniques and drills described in this chapter,

and eliminate your major errors in each area.

Correct starting, stopping, and sprinting form is important for team sport
athletes and can result in significant improvement in acceleration, maximum
speed, quickness, agility, and overall times in short distances.

Starting and Stopping Strength

Combining speed and strength into a training program involves three compo-
nents. First is explosive strength, developing the greatest force in the shortest
time frame. Second is starting strength. Third is absolute strength, the maxi-
mum amount of weight you can lift, excluding time.
Starting strength one of the keys to speed strength and refers specifically
is

to the power required to begin a movement, such as the initial push to initi-
ate a sprint or the stopping or cutting action commonly used in team sports.
Speed-strength training in the weight room, plyometrics, and the drills in this
chapter develop starting and stopping strength. Exercises in each of these three
training areas must be sport-specific in terms of the mechanics of the move-
ment and velocity. Each drill and exercise must closely relate to the demands
of the sport.

199
 200 Sports SPEED

Starting From a Stationary Position

Although not all team sport athletes use three-point or four-point stationary
starts during competition, timed 20- to 60-yard dashes are a key part of the
evaluation processwhen selecting players for university scholarships or the pro
draft and for making the team in the high school, university, and professional
ranks. Unfortunately, team sport athletes rarely take the time to work on an
effective start and the proper way to
run a short dash even though this is

critical for achieving their best times

in these tests. During competition,
only football uses a three-point or
four-point stationary start to begin
play. Athletes in baseball, basketball,
field hockey, lacrosse, rugby, and
soccer accelerate to maximum speed
from a standing stationary position,
slow walk, or jog and need to develop
the best preparatory posture to per-
form as effective a start as possible.
Because speed tests of 20 to 60
yards cover very short distances,
the stationary start is critical to
peak performance. The first phase
to examine in the start is the stance.
I I lllll Choose either the three-point or four-
®**Hi
point stance.
For the three-point stance (figure
10.1), have your stronger leg, usu-
ally the leg you jump with, in front.
For most athletes, if you are right-
handed, your left leg will be your
stronger leg.
From a kneeling position, place
the stronger foot forward so that the
edges of your toes are approximately
16 to 20 inches behind the starting
line. With the knee of your back leg
on the ground, position it even with
the ball of your front foot. Extend
your right arm just behind the line,
and raise your body to a position
Figure 10.1 Starting from a three-point stance:
(a)ready position with stronger leg in front; (b)
where the angle of the front leg is
push off both legs to begin the sprint. about 90 degrees and the angle of
 Starting and Stopping 201

the rear leg is 135 degrees. Extend the right hand on the fingertips
close to
with the fingers far apart to provide more stability. The left arm should rest
on the thigh of your left leg or in a position behind your body as if in running
position. Assume a relaxed position with most of your body weight on the legs
and a small amount of your weight on the extended front arm.
The power of the start comes from your legs, not your arm, so don t lean so
far forward that too much weight is on your arm. If most of your body weight
is on your arm, there will not be enough pressure on your legs to drive and push

out properly. If there is too much pressure on your arm, you will stumble out
and catch yourself before regaining balance. Drive and push out with both legs
when starting; don’t try to throw your arms out and forward. Your arms are
just working to create proper stride length and frequency; they do not replace
the power of the legs.
After the initial
thrust off both feet,
the rear leg leaves the
ground first, followed
by the drive off the
front leg in a straight a»ia»
line from your foot It

I .
tmit
through the top of
'

your head. A good

:

* * > - H <.

f
start will combine a : ;
- > '
< s
'
*s \'}
*
s */? r

t
.
. i v . S
balanced and stable 1|

position followed by -
' .
:

it 1 -1 ill A
correct driving and .

i :

. v...i

pushing with the legs.

Emphasize pushing
backward and down-
ward to set the body
in motion.
The four-point
stance*^ figure 10.2)
is the same as the
three-point stance
except both arms
are extended to the
ground. From a
kneeling position,
place your stronger
.

leg forward with toes

'

^
^ ;

approximately 16 to
20 inches behind the
Figure 10.2 Starting from a four-point stance: (a) ready position
starting line. With the with both arms extended to the ground; (b) push off both legs to
knee of your back leg begin the sprint.
202 Sports SPIES

on the ground, position it even with the ball of your front foot. Extend and
spread out both arms behind the starting line about shoulder- width apart. Keep
your fingers spread and arms straight. Rise to a set position where the front leg
is at a 90-degree angle and the back leg is at a 135-degree angle.

Keep most of the weight on your legs so that you are comfortable and bal-
anced. The driving action will come from the legs. Keep your arms straight
in the set position and do not bend at the elbows. The two key factors when
starting the 40-yard dash or other short sprint are balance and the driving and
pushing action. As in the three-point stance, forward momentum is created by
an initial thrust off both legs before the drive off the front leg in a line through
the top of your head. Emphasize pushing backward and downward with both
feet to set your body in motion.
When racing the 20-, 40-, or 60-yard dash, it is important to accelerate
from start to finish. Although this sounds simple or even obvious, athletes who
fail to understand acceleration are cheating themselves of their best times. The

scientific analysis of sprinting has proven that you cannot run at your very top
speed for much more than one second. In the 20-, 40-, or 60-yard dash, most
athletes believe they have to run at maximum speed over the entire distance.
They also believe that if they focus on increasing stride frequency, they will run
a fast time. The more efficient approach to running a 20- to 60-yard dash is
to accelerate over the entire distance and through the finish in order to reach
your top speed toward the end of the race. Your fastest times will be recorded
when you feel yourself accelerating through the finish line.

Checklist for the Stationary Three- and Four-Point Start

Each practice repetition of the start should cover a minimum of 10 to 15

yards or 8 to 10 strides. The checklist includes important aspects a coach
or training partner can look for when analyzing your three- or four-point
crouched start and the acceleration phase of sprinting.

Preparatory Position

Relaxed position with proper foot and arm spacing

Body weight evenly distributed between hands, knees, and feet

Straight arms are shoulder-width apart

Head aligned with the back, relaxed neck

Set Position

Movement of the center of gravity above the front foot

Front leg bent at 90-degree angle, rear leg near 135 degrees
Hips slightly higher than shoulders
Both feet apply pressure to the ground
Straight arms shoulder-width apart and in front of hands
 Starting and Stopping 203

Takeoff (Starting Action)

Explosive thrust exerted off both the lead and rear foot
Rear foot leaves the ground first

Fast, flat forward swing of the rear leg

Active alternate side-arm motion

Drive (Acceleration) Phase

Gradual straightening of the body and lengthening of the stride

Landing on the balls of the feet and limited lowering of the heels

Head down, looking at the ground

Straight line forward drive, no sideways placement of feet

In the 20 yards of a short sprint, stride length increases are easily

first

handled by most team sport athletes. At this stage, concentration is placed on

leg turnover (stride rate). As the sprint continues beyond 60 yards, athletes
shift their efforts from stride rate to stride length.
Drive out of the starting position and gradually come into full running
position. Don t stay low or bent at the waist during the race because this will
keep you from running with correct body position. In addition, you must stay
relaxed. Speed over any distance requires the athlete to be disciplined enough
to relax through the entire race.
Reacliing maximum speed requires training. Many sport professionals believe
that running is a natural act that needs no special focus. This belief has prevented
many from improving performance. As you consider your training, con-
athletes
centrate on the principles of sprinting mechanics and your speed will improve.

Starting From a Standing Pasitian

The standing start may
be more suitable for younger athletes who do not
possess the necessary strength and power to produce the forceful push off of
both feet and the powerful leg action required to accelerate from a crouched
position. It also may be the best choice for athletes in sports such as baseball,
basketball, soccer, lacrosse, and field hockey who are forced to use a type of
standing start during competition. Others who are unaccustomed to a crouched
start or who have not taken the time to master the technique will also benefit
from the standing start.
The errors of an improper crouched start result in poor times. The standing
start is easier to learn, places the lead foot closer to the starting line, is more
forgiving executed improperly, and is likely to result in a better time than
if

that recorded after incorrectly performing a crouched start. However, high

school and college athletes should not use the standing start lor the 40 -yard
dash or other speed tests. The fastest time will occur through the use of a
perfected crouch start.
 204 Sports SPEED

Assume a standing position with the foot of your strongest leg as close as
possible to the starting line. Kneel down and place the knee of your rear leg
even with the toe of your lead Stand up, keeping the rear foot in that same
leg.

spot, feet about shoulder- width apart; this is proper foot spacing. Bend your
knees, lower your head, and lean forward with approximately two-thirds of
your weight on the front foot. Experiment with straight arms or with bend-
ing both elbows to 90 degrees to see which way works best for you. The arm
opposite the lead leg is in front and the arm opposite the rear leg is in back
(figure 10.3a).
Bush -off begins with both feet to get the body moving forward before the
rear foot is lifted and the remaining push-off is performed by the lead leg. As
described in the three-point and four-point start, drive out of the start and
gradually come low or bent at the waist
into full running position. Don’t stay
during the race because this will keep you from running with correct body
position. The rear arm is thrust forward and the lead arm backward as you
push off both feet and begin the sprinting cycle.

Checklist for the Standing Stationary Start

Preparatory Position

Relaxed position with proper foot spacing

Body weight evenly distributed on both feet

Arms bent at right angles and shoulder-width apart

Figure 10.3 The standing start: (a) ready position with knees and elbows bent; (b) push off with
both feet.
 Set Position

Movement of the center of gravity above the front foot

Front leg bent at slightly less than a 90 -degree angle

Opposite arm of lead leg back, other arm forward
Arms bent at 90 degrees or straight

About two-thirds of weight on the lead foot

Both feet apply pressure to the ground

Takeoff (Starting Action)

Explosive thrust exerted off both the lead and rear foot
Rear foot leaves the ground first

Fast, flat forward swing of the rear leg

Forward thrust of the rear arm

Drive (Acceleration) Phase

Gradual straightening of the body and lengthening of stride

Landing on the balls of the feet and limited lowering of the heels

Head down, looking at the ground

Limited bending at the waist

Regardless of the type of start you choose, read and practice the tips pro-
vided in the 40-Yard Dash Clinic sidebar to improve 20-, 40-, and 60-yard
dash times. You will be surprised at how much you can improve by practicing
these tips.

40-Yard Dash Clinic

The timed 20-, 40-, or 60-yard dash is a very important test in team
sports, yet the test is taken by athletes who know very little about proper
starting techniques. The following tips can immediately improve times.
For both the crouched and standing start, place your stronger leg in
front; the lead leg is responsible for about two-thirds of the velocity at
the start. To identify your stronger leg, compare your scores in the single-
leg press, single-leg extension, and single-leg kickback tests described in
chapter 2.
A common error is to back foot as the front foot
step forward with the
pushes off. No track athlete would ever make this mistake. Near equal
thrust off the front and back foot must be exerted to initiate die drive
phase of sprinting and get out of the starting stance. The force exerted
by the rear foot is about 65 to 75 percent of the force applied by the lead
foot. This thrust off both feet occurs before the rear foot steps forward. To
form the habit of pushing off both the lead and rear foot requires hours
206 Sports IPEES

of concentrated practice and the use of the special drills described in this
chapter. Begin by having your workout partner block both feet with his
feet and tell you about the thrust you are applying on each start.
If possible, stay with the four-point track start since it makes it easier

to support your forward weight. Place considerable weight on both hands

in the set position without being so forward that your feet cannot exert
a forceful thrust against the ground. Lean forward until your shoulders
are over the line, keeping your right knee on the ground. It is easier to
hold your weight over the line with one knee on the ground until you
move to the set position.
Rise up slowly. Maintain the set position (keeping your shoulders over
the starting line) only a very short time to reduce the strain on your hands.
LJnlike the start of the 100-meter dash in track, the start of the clock in
team sports occurs on your first noticeable movement forward, and the
set position with extra weight forward needs to be held for only one- to
two-tenths of a second rather than one to two seconds. Eyes should be
fixed on the running surface as you keep your head down and lean forward
for the start and drive (acceleration) phase of your sprint. Wear spiked
shoes to improve push-off power if permitted to do so.
If you are being tested on natural turf, dig two small holes in the ground

to increase your traction during the push-off, or have a friend block your
feet with her feet while standing behind you.
Use vigorous, smooth arm movements for the first 10 yards. Continue
to work the arms hard throughout the sprint. To sprint fast, you must
concentrate on sprinting fast; it does not occur automatically. Stay low for
the first 8 to 12 yards with your head slightly down in a natural position.
Sprint 5 to 8 yards past the finish line.
If you get a bad start, are having a bad run, or slip, stop and ask for an-
other trial. If you complete the test, you may not get a second chance.

Starting From an Upright Moving Position

In team sports such as basketball, soccer, rugby, field hockey, and lacrosse,
athletes continuously move and need to develop efficient techniques for making
the transition from a slow walk or jog to an all-out sprint. The sprinting form
techniques during acceleration, or the drive phase of a sprint (after clearing
the ground and completing the initial two or three steps), apply to the walk-
or jog-to-sprint transition (see chapter 12). The transition requires a quick
forward lean with little bend at the trunk,
shift in the center of gravity, slight
vigorous arm action, and forceful push-back at ground contact with both legs
(figure 10.4). The pushing action of the legs comes from the balls of the feet,
not the toes. Pushing from the toes causes loss of power, stability, and speed.
Read the section on the stride cycle in chapter 12 (page 233), and study the
technique carefully before practicing the transition drills in this chapter.
Figure 10.4 The moving start: (a) from a slow jog or walk, (b) push off the balls of the feet
to generate speed.

Checklist for the Moving Start

Preparatory Position

Relaxed walking or jogging form

Proper arm use during walking or jogging
Only a slight, natural forward lean is evident

Drive (Acceleration) Phase

Explosive thrust exerted off both the lead and rear foot
Gradual straightening of the body and lengthening of stride

Landing on the balls of the feet and limited lowering of the heels
Head slightly down, looking at the ground
Strong use of the arms in synch with the legs

Starting Drills
These drills develop the explosive leg power required in starting. They are
stressful enough be a workout, or can be part of a workout. They are not
to
designed as warm-up or cool-down drills. Starting strength can be improved
by using exercises with weigh ts and resistance of 60 to 80 percent of maximum
strength at high speed.
208 Sports SPBB

STRAIGHT BOUNDING

Beginning from a slow jog, try to bound as Figure 10.5

high into the air as possible, using a run-
ning form that emphasizes a high knee lift

Land on the opposite

(figure 10.5). leg and
continue bounding down the field.
The intensity of this drill is controlled by
altering the height and number of repeti-
tions. For beginners and heavier players,
the height of the bound should be limited
and the number of bounds kept at no more
than four per leg. As experience and train-
ing progress, increase the height and
number of repetitions.

OUTSIDE BOUNDING

Outside bounding is similar to straight Figure 10.6

bounding except that the foot is placed lat-
erally outside the normal landing position
and the body is projected laterally as well
as up and forward (figure 10.6). You should
have experience with straight bounding be-
fore trying this drill.
 Starting and Stopping 209

INSIDE BOUNDING

Inside bounding (figure 10.7) is similar to Figure 10.7

outside bounding except that the foot is

placed laterally inside the normal landing

position and the body is projected laterally
as well as up and forward. You should have
experience with straight bounding before
trying this drill.

TW0-F00T PUSH-OFF AND DIVE

Assume a crouched startand move to the set position. Exert as much initial thrust
as possible off both feet and dive forward onto a grassy or matted area (figure 1 0.8).
Complete 15 to 20 repetitions each session. Pushing off both feet to get the body
moving from your starting posture is the most difficult habit to form; is also the it

most important.

Figure 10.8
210 Sports SPEED

TWO-FOOT PUSH-OFF AND DRIVE

From the crouched set position, exert maximum thrust off both feet momentarily to
get your body in motion. Now make the transition by continuing the thrust with the
lead foot and stepping forward with the back foot to begin the sprint cycle. Sprint 8
to 1 0 yards in each of 1 5 to 20 repetitions. Your task is to develop the feel for thrust-
ing off both feet to establish the initial forward movement then driving the back leg
forward to begin the sprint cycle.

FALLING STARTS

From a stationary start, move your body weight forward on the command Set by
falling to about 90 degrees without moving your feet (figure 10.9a). On the com-

mand Go, swing your forward arm back and your back arm forward as you drive off
your back leg and front leg simultaneously and then your front leg independently to
initiate the first stride (figure 10.9b).

Figure 10.9a

Figure 10.9b
 SlaHiny and Stopping 211

PARTNER-ASSISTED STARTS

Have a partner hold you at the Figure 10.10

waist from behind after you as-
sume the standing start position
Lean forward 45
(figure 10.10).
degrees and complete four or
five strides as your partner pro-
vides enough resistance to allow
you to move slowly forward before
releasing the hold and permitting
an all-out sprint for 8 to 10 yards.

HARNESS STARTS

Using a shoulder harness held by

a partner, assume the crouched or
standing start position. Move into
the set position, holding it for only
a short time. On the Go command,
execute a powerful push-off and
start as your partner provides
enough resistance to allow you
to cover approximately 10 to 15
yards in two to three seconds.

HARNESS AND RELEASE STARTS

_
Repeat the drillharness starts with your partner using a quick release harness or
for
bullet belt after the count of “one-thousand-and one, one-thousand-and two” to permit
one to two seconds of heavy resistance, followed by an 8- to 10-yard sprint.

SPRINT-ASSISTED START USING TUBING

Attach surgical tubing to your waist and your partner’s waist in the front. Walk back
to stretch the tubing about 25 yards. Assume the proper standing start, then execute
a high-speed 10- to 15-yard start and sprint with the pull. Repeat using a crouched
start, taking special care to ensure that knots and belts are securely fastened and

the tubing is free of nicks and cuts. A spotter should stand just in front of you to pro-
tect your head and face if the tubing snaps from your partner’s side. The crouched
position immediately assumed after the tubing is stretched, and the
is start is quickly
executed to shorten the time you are in this vulnerable position.
212 Sports SPIED

SPRINT-ASSISTED START USING A DOWNHILL AREA

RMWIMWlWKWWWsaiW®

Assume a crouched or standing start position in the center mound (50-yard line) of

a football field.Complete three to five starts for 10 to 15 yards, using the force of
gravity to aid your movement.

START AND SPRINT

From the stationary crouched or standing position, start quickly and feel the power
being applied behind your body. After 0 yards, quickly shift from running in
1 back of
the body to sprinting in front of the body. This drill should emphasize the difference
between starting technique (behind the body) and sprinting technique (in front of
the body).

Transition Starting Drills

SMHMMMif

GEARS

Place five cones 20 yards apart. Each Figure 10.11

cone represents a higher gear. Run
in first gear (starting speed) between

cones one and two, third gear between

cones two and three, and fourth gear
(maximum speed) between cones four
and five. Now use an easy standing start
to a jog to cone one, one-half speed to
cone two, and maximum speed to cone
three before reducing intensity and try-
ing to maintain stride frequency through
cones four and five.

INS AND OUTS

Place five cones 20 yards apart. Pro-

gress from a slow walk to a jog by
cone one, accelerate to near-maximum
speed by cone two, then to maximum
speed (figure 10.11) by cone three. At
cone three, attempt to sprint faster than
ever before. At cone four, reduce inten-
sity and try to maintain stride frequency

to cone five.
 Starting and Stopping 21

PICKUP SPRINTS

Walk 10 yards, jog 10 yards, and sprint 10 yards around a track or field, concen-
trating on the rapid transition from a jog to a sprint. Complete 15 to 20 repetitions.
Later, use longer distances of 15 to 25 yards and a walk-jog-stride-sprint cycle (use
three-quarter speed for the stride), emphasizing proper transition form on each
repetition.

DOWNHILL SPRINTING

Locate a downhill area. Complete four or five repetitions of a jog-stride-downhill

sprint-hold cycle. (On the hold element, reduce intensity as you attempt to maintain
the sprint-assisted downhill speed on a flat area for 15 to 20 yards.)

Stopping in Team Sports

High-speed stopping in team sports produces extremely high forces on the
body that must be countered by the muscular system to prevent injury and
bring a moving body to a complete stop or pause before executing a change
in direction. A football, basketball, or soccer player who is sprinting at high
speed often must come to a rapid stop to execute a tackle, change direction,
or secure the ball. The reactive forces of the ground or floor hit the athlete’s
body with the same force that flits the ground and must be rapidly absorbed
to counter the shock and stress.
Even with proper technique, it may be difficult to extend the time to soften
the impact. Special equipment and padding in football, soccer, field hockey,
and lacrosse provide additional assistance; however, proper technique produces
most of the needed delay for extending the time force is absorbed and spreading
the force to allow explosive stopping and starting action in team sports.

Slapping Technique

The technique to produce an injury-free, high-speed stop after a rebound or

after reaching maximum sprinting speed involves proper flexing of the ankles,
hips, and knees at landing or during the first one or two steps of the stopping
action; this extends the time the force is absorbed and spread throughout the
body. Most athletes bend their knees as they land after a jump and during the
stopping action while sprinting. The stopping action loads the legs with elastic
energy as muscles stretch (lengthen) to absorb and control the high-speed stop.
The countermovement must now take place as quickly as possible to avoid
losing this elastic energy as heat. The faster the countermovement is made
after stopping, the more explosive the concentric contraction and the quicker
the countermovement in another direction is made.
 .

214 Sports SPEED

During a rapid stop in team sports, the quadriceps are stretched and loaded
eccentrically to produce stored elastic energy. If the stretch (stop) is too slow,
no energy is stored and the countermovement will be slow. To improve quick-
ness, an athlete must possess sufficient strength in the muscles involved to
decelerate and stop rapidly.
Explosive stopping is the key to quickness in team sports and paves the way
to executing rapid changes in direction under all types of competitive conditions.
The objective is to train the neuromuscular system and teach the muscles to
fire more quickly. le nervous system will eventually increase the firing rate
I I

of motor neurons, causing maxim urn recruitment of fast -twitch fibers, quicker
reaction, and improved explosive force of the stop and start.
Figure 10.12 shows the proper technique for coming to a stop (pause),
shifting body weight and center of gravity, and rapidly moving laterally or in
the opposite direction. This technique is used over and over in team sports.
Coming to a complete stop is not as common. More often, high-speed forward
movement is shifted by executing a ‘plant with the right or left foot and a
high-speed cut in the opposite direction. bis action and the various types of
I

'
cuts and 'fakes used in team sports are described in chapter 1 1

Figure 10.12 (a) Coming to a stop; (b) moving in another direction.

 Starting and Stopping 215

Stopping Drills

Each stopping drill must involve a rapid countermovement and minimum pause
between the stopping and starting actions to produce quickness. According
to Twist (2001 ), a simple test can be used to determine whether an athlete is
ready for this type of training.

When the player performs a simple lateral stop-and-start drill, does he land
evenly with both feet at the same time? Is the footprint consistent, or does
the athlete land at different places throughout the drill?

Athletes who do not meet these criteria may need to improve their quickness
foundation through the use of additional speed endurance training, weight
training, balanced flexibility training, and plyometrics.
Keep in mind that quickness is improved by teaching and practicing correct
form and technique in sport- specific stopping and starting quickness drills that
emphasize quality, not quantity. As in sprint-assisted training, the emphasis
is on training the neuromuscular system; it requires all-out maximum effort

in each drill and repetition, followed by near- complete recovery. Inadequate

recovery time between repetitions and drills will produce fatigue and slow
movement time, leading to incorrect form and technique. Athletes without
excess body fat who possess adequate strength and power in the legs and ab-
dominal muscles, lower back, adductors, abductors, hip rotators, hip flexors,
hip extensors, and ghites will benefit the most from this type of training.

START, STOP, AND CUT DRILL

The start, stop, and cut test in an excellent drill to develop the
figure 2.2 (page 1 5) is

ability to accelerate quickly and execute high-speed stops, backward and forward

sprints, and 90-degree cuts. Each repetition is timed to compare performance as

improvement in technique and skill occurs. Proper form is emphasized on each
of the four separate maneuvers in the test (stationary start; high-speed stop and
backward sprint; side shuffle; and plant, cut, and sprint). A three- to four-minute rest
is taken between each repetition.

BACKWARD TO LATERAL AND FORWARD MOVEMENT

Sprint backward using proper arm action. At the command Left, plant your right
foot to initiate the stopping action, rotate your left foot outward, execute a right-foot
crossover step, and laterally sprint five to eight yards. Complete five to eight repeti-
tions to the left and right.

Once again backward. At the command Forward, plant either your right
sprint
or left foot behind your body to create the stopping action, followed by a vigorous
push-off. Sprint forward for five to eight yards.
 '

216 Sports mm

BOX JUMP DROP AND CUT

mmmmmmm%mm m / - immtmmm.

Begin with a box 1 2 to 1 5 inches high. Step Figure 10.13

off the box, absorbing the landing on both

feet, then cut and sprint to the left or right

for four or five strides, depending on the
signal given by your partner (figure 10.13).
Repeat the drill box
after stepping off the
backward, rotating one leg outward, and
sprinting four or five strides.

HIGH-SPEED STOPS WITH

SURGICAL TUBING

Attach surgical tubing around your waist

and your partner’s waist. Stretch 20 to it

25 yards. Sprint toward the pull to a cone

20 yards from the starting line. Execute a
high-speed stopping action by shifting your
center of gravity before planting either your
right or left foot, then use the opposite foot
to push off and execute a five- to eight-
yard backward sprint, lateral sprint, and
90-degree-angle sprint in three separate
Figure 10.14
repetitions.

SIDE, FRONT, AND BACK SHUFFLE

mam m 1

sbbksiw ’ <v

Begin the side shuffle (figure 10.14) by

standing with your left foot on an angle
board and your right foot on the flat run.
Take a short lateral step with your right
foot, then step with the left foot before hit-
ting the opposite angle board with the right
foot. Take a short lateral step with your left
foot, then step with the right foot before hit-

ting the opposite angle board with the left

foot. Continue for 8 to 10 repetitions. This

drill requires a hard foot-plant on the angle

board to initiate the stopping action and a

strong push-off to change the direction of
momentum.
 Begin the front shuffle (figure 10.15) by standing with both feet on the flat run
facing one of the angle boards. Take a short forward step onto the angle board with
your left foot, then execute a shuffle step with your right foot onto the angle board.
Step back to the flat run with your left foot before repeating the action on the same
angle board, beginning with the other foot.
Begin the backward shuffle (figure 10.16) by standing with both feet on the flat
run facing away from one of the angle boards. Take a short step back to the angle
board with your left foot, then execute a shuffle step with your right foot onto the
angle board. Step on the flat run with your left foot before repeating the action on
the same angle board, beginning with the other foot.

Figure 10.15 Figure 10.16

lii
,

FOUR-CORNER DRILL

Mark a 10-yard square on a field or gymnasium floor using four cones. Begin in

the top left corner of the square

a standing start. Sprint for 10 yards to the right.
in

At cone one, make an inward pivot to begin a crossing-leg movement (carioca) for
10 yards to the bottom right corner (cone two). Pivot again and sprint backward to
cone three. Pivot and sprint to the top left corner of the square past cone four to
complete the test.
 Chapter 11

f there were any secrets to high-level sports performance, any keys that
/ unlock doors to higher achievement, they would be found in this chapter.
However, finding one of these secrets is beginning of a long journey of
just the
practice and integration to turn the secret into action. Gaining the control over
these skills that maximizes their use takes many hours of practice. You can’t
practice for this kind of magic in the traditional way. Rather, it is a matter of
learning the language of movement and then writing sentences, paragraphs,
chapters, and books on the playing field. Only then will you have a chance
to play the game as an echo to every situation that arises on the field. Play-
ers who do this seem to live in another dimension and appear to have a sixth
sense beyond sight, sound, smell, touch, and taste. They are in the zone. These
spectacular players take your breath away with dazzling plays.
This magic is part of the big plays that everyone enjoys. Fans know that big
plays are rare and that consistent, small plays keep you in the game, but we
admire the kings of the big play, players such as Shaquille O’Neal, Michael
still

Jordan, Barry Bonds, Walter Payton, Barry Sanders, and Emmitt Smith.
Great players can keep fans on the edge of their seats, expecting that at any
moment an explosive cut here, a cut there, and a burst into daylight can turn
an impossible situation into a big game -winning play. A big run, a fast break,
a dazzling dribble, or a stolen base is a fan’s delight and can win big games
and bring in big dollars to a professional athlete. It’s the skills, the language,
that enable the athlete to break away to pay dirt with blinding speed. It is the
athlete’s ability toevade the opponent by being aware of the situation and alert
to the possibilities, anticipating lie reactions of opponents, feinting, faking,
t

cutting, and accelerating, all wrapped into the language of maneuvering or

playing the game.
(Consider the 2002 LSU-Kentucky game at Kentucky. Only two seconds
remained on the clock. LSU had the ball, but they were behind and 75 yards
from pay dirt. What else was there to do but the old Flail Mary, made famous
by Roger Staubach? With Kentucky fans on the field ready to bring down the
goal posts and fireworks already going off, LSU’s quarterback launched the
ball 75 yards from the end zone. Numerous players converged on the ball. After
several tips, the ball finally fell into the out-stretched hands of an LSU player,

218
 Cutting and Accelerating 219

who hauled it in and raced into the end zone. Can you plan for a situation like
this? Quite simply, yes you can.

Beuniaries ef Human Performance

Every one of the senses provides important information for rapid decision
making on the playing field. In addition, the sixth sense offers a powerful
dimension that can add immensely to the quality of performance or make up
for deficiencies in other qualities. No dimensions of sport benefit more from
this than feinting, faking, cutting, and accelerating.
Table I 1.1 clarifies how fast and at what common sporting
level of force
events happen. Study the table to gain a better understanding of why atten-
tion, focus, decision making, and movements are so crucial during the game.
A careful study of the events listed and their times of occurrence helps us
understand how critical a blink of the eye or a millisecond can be.
It is interesting to speculate as to what is happening to time when outstanding
athletes say that time slows down during their best games. Rest assured that
events are still happening in the physical realm at the same high speeds.

Power am! a Came ef Steps

unusual to win one championship at any level of competition. It is especially
It is

rare to put together a streak of championships. Even when teams have the
same players, situations are different and so are the results. Consider the Los
Angeles Lakers for a moment. What more can you ask a professional basketball
team to do? Win a fourth consecutive NBA championship? When asked what
—
makes the Lakers tick other than talent, a good coach, a good front office,
—
and rabid fans trainer Gary Yitti got right to the source.
Gary Vitti explained that the Lakers believe power output and quickness
are extremely important in identifying and training players. The qualities and
measures they generally look for are related to power output and quickness
(acceleration). Remember, quickness is determined by an athlete’s awareness
and explosiveness. Great athletes are able to generate blinding quickness and
use a higher percentage of their explosiveness at various speeds of movement
than average athletes. Walter Payton, for example, would use a feint to get
the defender off balance and then run right over him to make extra yards or
break away for a touchdown. Other running backs, guards in basketball, soccer
players, hitters, or baserunners also draw on this quality when they explode
from a stationary position or cut at very high speed.
Vitti went on to say that the first and second steps, die first and second
jumps, and the sustained power and quickness of repeated steps or jumps are
what the Lakers measure, assess, and try to develop through their conditioning
program. Special equipment is fitted with devices (transducers) to measure
Table 11.1 Speed and Force of Sporting Events

Time of foot
Contact event contact (sec.) Force (lb.)

Awareness threshold >.0000

Reaction .09 to .016

Reaction time .090

Sprinting .090 1,050

Sprinter ground contact .090 1,034
Sprint Master .128 700
Sled (full load) .175 488
'
Sprint load sled pulling .175 to .195 590
Bounding .175 1,200
Bound .175 1,182
High jumper .130 1 ,000 to 1 ,300

Long jumper, takeoff .110 1,371

Hop .180 585

Hopping .180 585
Cut 20 degrees .250 682
Cut 60 degrees .250 700
Cut 90 degrees >.250 350
Depth jump, 16 to 100 cm .200 to .285 945 to 1 ,327

Depth jump, 16 cm .210 945

Depth jump, 40 cm .200 990
Depth jump, 100 cm .300 585
Kicker, plant foot .285 503
Race walker .400

Marathon 3 <.400
Quarterback, back foot throw .500 364
Quarterback, front foot throw .500 268
Impact Time
Golf ball hit by driver .001
Baseball hit off tee .013
Handball serve .013
Baseball hit from pitcher .020
Soccer ball header .023
Softball hit off tee .035
Tennis forehand .050
Football kick .080
Striking force (boxer, martial artist) .088 800 to 2,000
a
Marathon: +10,000 steps x 2 x .400 sec = 8,000 sec. (133.3 min., or 2 hr. 13.3 min.)

220
 Cutting and Accelerating 221

power output as players do their various lifts. The Lakers are on the cutting
edge, and we are impressed by how they train players and emphasize the truly
important areas of performance.
Still, What information can be used to accurately
the big question remains:
identify a player’s power and quickness? One approach involves using the
research completed by Paul Ward at Indiana University in 1973 on the ability
of a sprinter to accelerate in the first three steps. Results of his study allow
us to make some useful comparisons. Another excellent source of information
is Mann and Bob Ward in 1993 on how football
the data collected by Ralph
players maneuver on the field. A computer graphic method (OFAS, 1985 to
1993) developed by Mann was used to evaluate many NFL and college play-
ers movement patterns during actual games.
There doubt that today’s coaches have an advantage in technology
is little

that makes the future look very bright for measuring a player’s movements
during competition. In addition, there are companies that estimate the amount
of energy expended and measure heart rate, stride length, stride rate, and split
times for important distances. In the near future, players may be connected to
satellite technology (global positioning satellite, or GPS) to track their move-
ments on the field. New methods are rapidly evolving for those who want the
facts to help explain performance in a more objective way.
The times in table 1 1.2 serve as a reference point for how fast male and fe-
male athletes move in the first three steps. Females complete the first three steps
more slowly mainly because muscle mass and hormone levels (testosterone) are
lower in women, reducing strength, speed, power, and sustained power output
required in explosive sports. On average, a woman’s ability to compete in highly
explosive and contact sports is diminished primarily because of this.

Table 1 1 .2 Speed, Length, and Force of the First Three Steps in Track and Football

First step Second step Third step

Male Female Male Female Male Female

Track 3 10.50 to 7.40 to 12.54 to 12.00 to 16.57 to 14.40 to

*
13.89 fps 13.50 fps 16.33 fps 18.40 fps 20.00 fps 18.40 fps

Football*3 8 to 15 (9.5 40 13 to 16 (10.5 40 16 to 20 (7.3 40

fps (8.7 yd.) fps (9.7 yd.) fps (6.7 yd.)
40 yd.) 40 yd.) 40 yd.)

Step length 2.98 to 3.00 to 3.74 to

(in.) 4.02 4.26 5.10

Force (lb.) 222 to 186 to

523 450
Note: Gender estimations based on percent differences found in Adrian and Cooper 1989.
a
Ward, P. 1973. An analysis of kinetic and kinematic factors of the standup and the preferred crouch starting
techniques with respect to sprint performance. Unpublished dissertation.
b
On-field analysis, 1993.
222 Sports SPEED

Fable 11.3 shows a time analysis of a play. On-field analysis can easily
produce this kind of breakdown for every play of the game. However, it is

rather difficult and tedious to make visual observations and notations on the
subtleties of each play. Video analysis done by most coaches today is "notice
and note.
Few experts have tried to identify the nuclear glue that makes things work
on the playing field. Most people who come up with subjective ideas that
try
leave a lot of room for error. Some scientists and sports team administrators
1
call these unknowns “intangibles. ’
We believe the key element is akin to psy-
chological warfare, which establishes uncertainty in your opposition. What
makes a bully successful? Fear based on alleged strengths. But when you put
the bully to the test, these strengths usually melt away because they are based
on smoke and mirrors with no flames.

Table 1 1 .3 Time Analysis of a Play

Total time Split time

(sec:ms) Preplay and playing speed events (sec:ms)

00:000 Awareness threshold anticipation lag time ± big 00:000

performance advantage
00:000 Play starts (clock starts) 00:000
00:150 Time reacting to a key 00:150
00:350 Starting (first step) 00:200
00:000 Second step 00:000
00:000 Third step 00:000
00:000 Breakdown (cha-cha-cha) 00:000
00:000 Red zone (6 inches) —engaging the opponent 00:000
00:000 Contact, focus, distance 00:000
'
00:000 Holding, controlling, blocking, tackling, catching 00:000
00:000 Driving, touching, muscle sensing 00:000
00:000 Disengaging, playing quickness 00:000
00:000 Avoiding, maneuvering, running, pursuing, playing 00:000
speed
00:000 Breakdown (cha-cha-cha) 00:000
00:000 Red zone (6 inches)— engaging the opponent 00:000
00:000 Contact, focus, distance 00:000
00:000 Driving, touching, muscle sensing 00:000
05:000 Play ends 05:000
00:000 Rest period between plays begins 45:000
50:000 Play starts (clock starts) 00:000
 Cutting and Accelerating 223

Psychological warfare starts with your previous performance (your myth,

or image), which is always game -dependent. Every new game is a new dis-
play of talent. During the game, you can and must establish or reestablish
this uncertainty in the opposing team and players. This level of uncertainty
deals with the application of your tactical skills in running a particular play
to implement a strategy. The nuclear glue that holds everything together is
developed in two dimensions. Intrinsic qualities are the psychological aspects
—
within the athlete what the athlete brings to he game. Extrinsic qualities
t

are the external elements presented to the athlete from the outside, such as
opponents, tactics, strategies, and game conditions.
All you have to do is play a game to recognize the disparity between game
plans and the actual play-by-play. There can be some resemblance to what
you thought the opponent and you would do, but rarely does it go as planned.
It is impossible to prepare for such a game when the opponent’s philosophy is

‘Herecome, ready or not. Learn to use the skills you possess and express
I

—
your speed and quickness that is expected. The other side of the coin is the
unexpected actions that you or your opponent add to obtain an advantage.
For example, an expected element of a team might be that the players will try
to run to daylight and outrun or overpower the opponent. What may be unex-
pected are the false cues the team shows the opponent and the rapid changes
of speed and direction the players are capable of.
Any biomechanist will confirm that coordinated timing of the accelerations
and decelerations of each body part remains more important than absolute
strength or speed of movement of each independent basic element of perfor-
mance. Likewise, the coordinated timing of total body resources and segments
is more important than your ability to independently generate maximum power,

speed strength, speed, or strength in those segments.

Maneuvering on the field or court is similar to how a boxer uses combina-
tions to defeat his opponent. The boxer uses a jab to set up other combinations.
If he never lands a punch or if his punch isn’t very effective, the opponent is

going to react offensively. On the other hand, if the boxer lands a staggering
left jab or two at the very beginning, the opponent will respond defensively

to the slightest hint of a jab because the boxer laid the groundwork for future
uncertainty. In fact, this approach uses the same science of conditioning that
Pavlov used when he trained his dogs to salivate to the ringing of a bell.

Stances ot Readiness: Beometry ot Movement

Shapes about structure, function, and object stability.
in nature tell us a lot
I in sure you ve seen a huge rock with a small base perched on a rock forma-
tion and wondered how it was able to stay standing. Laws of physics explain
how a very unstable -looking formation can still stand. Similarly, the shapes
our bodies assume during sports activities reveal a lot about how we are able
224 Sports SPEED

to move on the field from a stationary position, from moving slowly, and from
moving at high speed.
In fact, we suggest that you study how animals move and make notes of the
shapes and positions their bodies assume as they move through various activi-
ties. Go to a zoo or just tune in to TV shows to find animal subjects. You 11 be
pleasantly surprised at what you learn about movement and how to apply the
things you see to your game.

Maneuvering on tlw Field

Learn to apply the following six principles to improve your level of play con-
siderably. These principles are based on fact (actual deeds during competition)
or fiction (propaganda about alleged, rumored, or potential deeds).
Invariably, dominance brings negative thinking, fear, and hesitation into the
minds of the opponent. Consequently, you could say it facilitates the imple-
mentation of the other principles. The principles are listed in their order of
importance.
dominance by adding uncertainty and discouragement to
First, establish
the concerns of your opposition. Use your playing skills, speed, power, and
strength to get the job done. In overmatched situations, this may be all that is
necessary to win the game. However, few games present a complete mismatch.
Therefore, other skills have to be employed.
Second, be the first to display sufficient force. This is one of the golden rules
of sport. In other words, if it takes 250 pounds of force to move a player in a
desired direction, then get in there before he has a chance to do the same to
you.
Third, neutralize the defender by slowing his movement, breaking his con-
centration, altering his center of gravity, delaying his total commitment, and
placing doubt in his mind. Fourth, change direction. Make the defender move
away from where you want to go. Fifth, practice skillful misdirection. Trick
your opponent into moving in the wrong direction.
Finally, draw the defender into the danger zone, which allows you to ma-
nipulate the situation. For instance, an effective cut must occur two to three
yards from die defender. A fake straight-ahead break will draw him into an
effective range. Keep in mind that faking or feinting is used first to neutralize
the opponent and then to allow you to go by untouched. Any fake will help
neutralize, and any fake is better than no fake at all.
Just as every language has its alphabet and grannnar, so too does the language
of maneuvering. In this chapter, we
you some of these elements that we
offer
have developed and those we have taken from individual and team sports that
will help you develop your own form of movement on the field.
There can be no better time to lay the foundation of movement than in early
childhood (elementary school). Coaches at all higher levels will reap the benefits
from such programs. You must practice all types of total body, head, shoulder,
 Cutting and Accelerating 225

arm, and leg fakes daily to develop the proper skill. These basic moves and
cuts should be mastered to increase your vocabulary of movement. Dancing
of all kinds and gynmastics are highly recommended for developing the fine,
subtle shifts of body weight needed to refine movement patterns.
Sufficient force has been previously defined. All principles are directed to
delivering sufficient resources to a task before your opponent can. Stillness,
or absence of movement, is key. A time will come in the progress of play when
you realize that stillness is the best choice. You 11 learn that your opponent can
take himself out of the play.
Try dancing in your shoes. Shift your weight back and forth without lift-
ing your feet. This can be classified as a simpler version of the slow phasic
bent-knee position. The slow phasic bent-knee position was first promoted by
Bruce Lee, who recognized that it is best if an athlete is in a ready position.
This was nothing new. However, if the body
moving slightly it is easier to
is

overcome inertia and improve performance. Experiment with shuffling. Move

in any direction for a short distance without lifting your feet off the ground.
In other words, slide your shoes on the ground.
The cha-cha-cha movement and related actions are important. Bruce Lee
was an accomplished cha-cha dancer in Hong Kong and reputedly won many
dance competitions. Experiment, too, with broken rhythm. Insert a half beat
or a slight variation into the rhythm.
Think back to the basic movement patterns you learned in elementary school,
such as starting from stationary positions; stopping the body while moving;
sliding left or right, including a step to the side with a hop; leaping (jumping
from one foot to the other), which is the first step in learning to long jump;
skipping (a step and hop sequence that can be used with many variations in
rhythm and movement); galloping (a step and a jump before landing with the
same foot forward); hopping (jumping and landing on the same foot); turn-
ing or spinning (pivoting on one foot), which enables you to change directions
and avoid opponents; and using combinations, which involves sequencing any
number of basic moves. In fact, the cha-cha-cha is one of the most practical
combinations in sport. Any number of movements can be added to this criti-
cal cojmbination.
Add a creative warm-up your usual routine. Jog, skip, hop, or gallop.
to
Practice established patterns with pacing, matching the movements of your
opponent. Watch your cadence. Make your movement coincide with your op-
ponent s. Try forcing your opponent to slow down and follow your cadence.
Basic footwork is developed through all forms of movement. Various elemen-
tary school games such as hopscotch were designed with this end in mind. All
forms of dance are excellent for footwork development.
Classic training drills are useful, too. Run forward with a zigzag, run
backward with a zigzag, and move side to side, from left to right. Watch your
tempo. Choose the exact psychological and physical moment of weakness in
your opponent. Stop and hit. Attack an opponent s attack in order to arrest his
attack. Use the straight arm (long range), establishing it as a jab for keeping
 226 Sports SPEED

your opponent at a distance and as a movement for feinting and faking. Use
your forearm to keep your opponent at a distance in close range.
Overpower your opponent. This may seem out of place in a faking chapter,
but it is an excellent example of how to establish uncertainty. Once established,
it can become a visual cue that can be used as a part of your maneuvering

vocabulary. It is referred to as “conditioning the opponent.

Develop effective tactics for contact, such as the hit and and
side step, the hit
spin, the full spin, and the fake spin. The hit and side step is based on making
good solid contact then using the energy the opponent gives you to initiate
the side step. Walter Payton was a brilliant runner and a good example of a
player who was so advanced that he dictated all aspects of play, even the use
of contact. In all aspects of play, make sure you develop the ability to go left
or right. The hit and spin is based on making good solid contact first and then
using the energy the opponent gives you to initiate the spin. The full spin is a
precontact spin that is especially good for moving around a clutter of players
or changing directions. The fake spin is just that: a fake spin.
Use a ball change. Practice switching arms with the ball to become highly
skilled. Then you can use the ball change to make your opponent think you
will be going a certain direction.
For the single cut, angle
away from the defender to
force hiscommitment before
planting the outside foot and
cutting in the opposite direc-
tion. For the double cut, run
at the opponent before plant-
ing the left foot and breaking
right, only to plant that foot
also and return left to go by
the defender. The first cut
will neutralize, the second
cut will draw, and the third
will be one he'll only be able
to watch.
Once you master these ba-
sic skills in various situations
at maximum speed, you can
advance to more complicated
faking by building various
combination much as a boxer
does.
Every sport has critical
elements of performance.
A well-executed cut in the proper zone will stall the de- Teaming to estimate distance
fender and open the way to the goal. to the opponent or target is
 Cutting and Accelerating 227

one oi them. Being able to estimate this distance is crucial if you are to ma-
neuver effectively on the field. Players must match their resources with those
of their opponents if they are to be effective.
Fencers, boxers, and martial artists know the importance of distance better
than any other athletes. Their survival depends on staying in or out of their
opponents range as the situation demands. Certainly, athletes in most sports
draw on the principles of distance in order to win. If the principles of distance
are important to successful play in all sports, it would be wise for all team sport
athletes to study one or all of these arts to learn their secrets.
Maneuvers must be used in the proper zone. Attempts in an inappropriate
zone, where the opponent is too close or too far away, negate the effects of the
feint, fake, or movement. Therefore, athletes must practice in varying situa-
tions that duplicate actual game conditions to input important information
into their biological computers. This information will form the database for
making split-second decisions in future games. Each zone or distance requires
specific skills to manage the situation.
In the contact zone, you are your opponent. Close-range skills
in contact with
are needed. In the touch zone, you are close enough to touch your opponent
(arm’s length). In the evasion zone, you are one or two steps away from your
opponent. The one- step zone is any distance beyond the touch zone with a clos-
ing distance of one step. The two-step zone is any distance beyond the touch
zone with a closing distance of two steps. The three-step zone is any distance
beyond the touch zone with a closing distance of three steps.

feinting
Athletes in team from the experience and tips of Bruce Lee
sports can benefit
on the principles of control, breakdown, feinting, and faking.
The objective of the feint is to open the line in which you intend to move,
make the opponent hesitate, and defeat the movement the feint produced. The
feint can be defined as a movement designed to mislead an opponent as to your
intention, conceal your intended movement, distract your opponent’s attention,
lead your opponent to believe an action is coming, and induce a reaction. Body
movements that aren’t an immediate threat but bring a reaction must be long
enough to suggest intent, including speed and rhythm changes.
Bruce Lee (1975) suggested several principles for feinting. Leads should
be preceded by a feint. A slight wave of the hand, a stomp of the foot, or a
sudden shout can produce sensory distractions sufficient to reduce coordina-
tion. A feint is composed of a false move and a real or evasive move. The false
move must appear so real that it will threaten the opponent to make a move.
No feint can be considered effective unless it forces the opponent to move.
The feint must appear as an attack. Good feints are decisive, expressive, and
threatening. Good feints establish proper distance to accomplish the intended
action. Feinting is an essential part of an attack.
228 Sports SPEED

Practice one-two feints (inside/outside, outside/inside, forwar d/back ward,

and diagonal). Change your cadence (short, long, short). If your opponent
doesn’t respond to feints, attack by hitting your opponent in contact sports or
by making positive directional moves.
According to Lee (1975) and Lukovich (1971), there is a great risk of
counteraction if too many feints or inappropriate feints are made. The fewest
number of feints is best. In addition, keep your real intention secret and be
fast and explosive with an appropriate sense of tempo. Act without hesitation.
Perform a straight action, keeping aware of your opponent’s action. Remember,
your intention is to score. Use a longer (slower) feint against an opponent who
doesn’t react aggressively. Use a shorter (quicker) feint against an opponent
who can respond more quickly. A single feint ends on the same side.
If you train all the tools your body possesses (the total body joint system),

your success rate will be phenomenal. Let’s illustrate this point using basketball.
What if you weren’t able to dribble effectively with your left hand? The answer
is simple: You would be a one-dimensional basketball player. In fact, the level

of dexterity that is demonstrated on the courts of America is a wonderful sight

to behold. Not only do many players display ambidexterity, they use a variety
of creative ways to move the ball to the left and right sides.
On the other hand, move a football player to the other side, even at the
pro level, and you’ll see dramatic differences in performance. Coaches should
provide activities that train hitting actions, pushing actions, guiding actions,
circling actions, figure -eight actions, and pulling actions.

Response Tune
In your search for automatic actions, trained reflexes, and successful decisions,
you will have to many hours of technical work. Without exception,
commit to
everyone treads on the common ground of hard work. Reputedly, noted concert
pianist Van Cliburn practiced eight to nine hours a day. Two of those hours were
spent on finger exercises. To gain freedom in performance, your mind must be
free of the response you just made, right or wrong. Otherwise, you won't be
able to attend immediately to the next signal, which is the most important.
Nerve impulses don’t travel fast enough to sort out all the possible alter-
natives required in playing Beethoven, Rachmaninoff, or any other musical
masterpiece. The master pianist isn’t thinking about his fingers; he
contem- is

plating the masterpiece. An athlete must contemplate the surroundings and be

ready to apply the acquired skill that has been conditioned into her nervous
system. Skills are based on a language that can be applied at any time, whether
the situation is expected or unexpected. Just a simple eye blink at the wrong
time can bring disastrous results. Therefore, the action must be conditioned,
or brought under the voluntary control of the athlete. Mastery of total body
control takes many years of training. Application of a vast library of learning
experiences will become a part of immediate results when they are forgotten
 Cutting and Accelerating 229

and called oil automatically as needed.Wisdom comes from realizing that you
can add more elements to your dictionary of movement tasks to get the job
done more effectively.
The player s response to a single stimulus or a complex group of stimuli can
be broken down into a reaction time of less than .37 second, a process time
of about .20 second, and a movement time of .17 second, for a total time of
.74 second. It will take more than world-record speed to become all -league or
all-pro or to even make first team.

Training for Tniai Control

Acceleration produces great feats on the field but can also generate the forces
that cause injuries. Quickness is the most critical factor in sports, not only for
level of performance but also for protection. It is expressed in the repeated starts,
stops, and changes of direction that the player is called on to make. Therefore,
an athlete must strengthen his whole body. The trunk (57 to 59 percent) and
legs (about 16 percent) make up about 85 percent of the body’s total weight.
Many games can be used to develop faking and cutting skills. These games
require little organization, are free form and free flowing, and require a mul-
titude of body movements and postures for escape and evasion. The simple
elementary school game of tag is one example. Both sides of the body are
forced into action, thereby producing a well-rounded library of multidirec-
tional movements.
Games are important for a variety of reasons. They condition the body in
sportlike movements and at the same time teach the art of competition. Coaches
can use games to develop a winning attitude in their athletes and to teach the
importance of giving all you have at all times. It is better for athletes to learn
these things in games that have only intrinsic value rather than those that have
extrinsic value, such as league games. Badminton, handball, basketball, and
various forms of soccer are a few games that have a lot to offer for training
athletes of all ages and skill levels, from young, growing athletes to pros.
The beauty of badminton is that it combines a feinting, soft touch with ac-
curacy, includes quick starts and stops with good footwork and body position,
and involves explosive hits that send a speeding birdie toward the opposition
at over 200 mph.
The most obvious benefit of handball is that both sides of the body have to
be used. It is rugged enough in singles matches, but in cutthroat and doubles
matches players must manage other players and space. Quick thinking and ac-
tion are essential traits of a good handball player and a good athlete as well.
There isn’t a better way to train the anaerobic and neuromuscular systems
of the body than basketball. The player has to control the ball and relate to
teammates, opponents, and the basket. However, a few assumptions must be
made: balanced use of both sides of the body, varied patterns of foot- and
handwork, and high-speed effort.
230 Sports SPEED

Soccer (handball rules) is game for building sound footwork,

a fantastic
leg control, and overall quickness. Bob Ward devised this game while with the
Dallas Cowboys. It is a great way to efficiently train players because it is pos-
sible to get more kicks in a given training session. The court precludes having
to chase the ball, and at the same time the players have to deal with a variety
of shots from both sides of the body.
Soccer tennis is another game Bob Ward used when lie was with the Cowboys.
The game requires higher skill than the handball version and better condition-
ing because longer distances must be covered. Therefore, it would be prudent
to develop some level of efficiency in the handball court before venturing out
on the tennis court.

Plan for Everything, Expect Nothing

In 1986 at the NASE Symposium, Dr. Les Felrmi introduced the concept of
open focus. This is the perfect way to Think of the
summarize this chapter.
times when you were integrating the total control principles and excelling in
performance. You 11 know you’re on the right road toward total control when
you experience some of the following situations:

Witnessed your own performance

Functioned effortlessly while remaining effective
Felt that time sped up or slowed down
Experienced a sense of team unity during the game
Effortlessly responded to game situations in a creative manner
Rose to high performance levels on high- demand occasions
When struggling, remained patient until a flow state was achieved
Increased power to prolong endurance
Performed at full speed effortlessly

Chose the point of impact and effortlessly exploded through it

Dissolved physical and emotional pain

Experienced high levels of motivation and confidence and performed effort-
lessly

Executed and actions and remained in the center while observa-

specific acts
tions, motives, and sensations remained in the background
Experienced the presence and direction of movement of all players on the
field simultaneously

Simultaneously focused on a narrow key

•> J
and die total playJ action while 1

witnessing your play

Ifyou have experienced most of these situations, you are well on your way
to taking control of the game and becoming a master performer.
 Chapter 12

A n analysis of correct sprinting form has allowed researchers to identify key

Al factors contributing to efficient movement. It has also revealed a diversity
of styles and techniques among champion athletes. This diversity suggests the
need for athletes to improve their basic styles without trying to mimic the exact
techniques of others.
Although no two people sprint precisely the same way, basic sprinting me-
chanics should remain the same for all team sport athletes. Form and technique
are important in a holistic speed improvement program. Athletes need to take
the time to develop proper sprinting mechanics and eliminate faulty actions
that do not contribute to forward movement.
This chapter explains the mechanics of sprinting, including stride length,
stride frequency, and arm action during the acceleration and maximum effort
phase for team sport athletes. Proper starting techniques for football, soc-
cer, baseball, basketball, field hockey, rugby, and lacrosse were presented in

chapter 10.
Running is instinctive, but misinterpretation of the fundamental phases of
running sometimes interferes with natural and correct form. Athletes must be
aware of what is natural and what is unnatural. If you are unaware of this
difference, your efforts can make you run slower.
Often athletes feel that they have to bear down and stay low and pull in
order to run fast. Scientific analysis of running suggests just the opposite.
Reaching maximum speed depends greatly on staying relaxed in a naturally
upright position. The human machine is much better at pushing than pull-
ing, partly because the formation of the leg is unsuitable as a pulling force.
Therefore, the suggestion to stay low and pull prevents maximum speed. If
you want to run faster, remember that sprinting is primarily a pushing action
against the ground.

Sprinting Speed: Stride length x Stride Frequency

Sprinting involves a series of jumps from one foot to the other. Stride is
lengthened by increasing the power of the push-off and jumping farther

231
 without touching the lead foot down
ahead of the center of gravity. Stride
length also is increased by exerting
more force during high-speed move-
ment. This force requires additional
strength, power, and flexibility.

Sprinting speed is the product of

stride length and stride frequency.
Maximum speed is achieved only
when these components are in cor-
rect proportion. Stride length is
best improved by increasing force
against the ground. The resulting
reaction drives the body’s center of
mass farther forward, lengthening
the stride naturally (figure 12.1).
When the footmakes contact with
the ground, it must be directly under
the body’s center of gravity (figure
12.2). If the foot lands too far out
Figure 12.1 Lengthen the stride naturally by
in front and ahead of the center of
driving the center of mass forward.
gravity when sprinting (a condition
known as overstriding), it will cause
a braking effect, resulting in a loss
of speed.
Stride frequency is the time re-
quired to complete a stride and is

limitedby the length of the stride.

Whereas stride length is determined
when force is applied by pushing
against the ground, stride frequency
ismerely the time required to com-
plete that stride. Forcing a stride
frequency of more than 10 percent
above the natural rate will produce
only a shorter stride length and
reduce speed. Emphasis should be
on improving stride length (through
form, strength, and power training
to improve technique and increase
the push- off force against the ground
without overstriding) and on practic-
ing the techniques to increase stride
Figure 12.2 The foot is directly under the frequency presented in chapter 9.
center of gravity when it contacts the ground.
 Sprinting Form and Technique 233

Stride Cycle
During any running through three different phases: the
stride, the leg cycles
di ive phase, when the foot is in contact with the ground; the recovery phase,
when the leg swings from the hip while the foot clears the ground; and the
support phase, when the runner’s weight is on the entire foot.
During the drive phase, power comes from a pushing action off the ball of
the foot (figure 12.1). Recall that stride length, and therefore sprinting speed,
results from a pushing action. The goal of the drive phase is to create maximum
push off the ground. The ball is the only part of the foot capable of creating
an efficient and powerful push. Some misinformed sport professionals believe
that the drive phase s pushing action comes from the toes. However, pushing
from the toes reduces both power and stability and slows the runner. The drive
phase contributes to overall speed only when the runner pushes off the ground
using the ball of the foot.
During the recovery phase, the knee joint closes and the foot cycles through
as it comes close to the body (figure 12.2). As the knee joint opens and the leg
begins to straighten, the foot comes closer to the ground in preparation for the
support phase. The runner does not reach for the ground or force a stamping
action. The leg should remain relaxed; the runner should allow the foot to
naturally strike the ground.
During the support phase, the foot
makes initial contact with the ground
on the outside edge of the ball of the foot.
The weigh t of the body is then supported
at a point that varies according to the
speed of the athlete (figure 12.3). The
faster the speed, the higher the contact
point on the ball of the foot. Striking
the ground first with this part of the foot
maximizes speed but takes great energy.
At slower speeds (jogging, for example),
the contact point moves toward the rear
of the foot between the arch and heel.
During longer and slower runs, energy is
saved by using a fiat foot. At all running
speeds, the support phase begins with
a slight load on the support foot that
then rides onto the full sole. Even dur-
ing sprinting, the heel makes a brief but
definite contact with the ground. This
analysis of the support phase shows how
il is impossible to reach your maximum Figure 12 . 3 The foot makes contact with the
speed by running on your toes. ground in the support phase.
234 Sports SPEED

The drive of the supporting leg during the sprinting action takes approxi-
mately .09 to . 1 1 second, even though it takes .7 to .9 second to reach maximum
strength in contracted muscles. Obviously, maximum strength is not reached
during the sprinting action. Fast training that improves speed strength, there-
fore, has the best chance of decreasing supporting leg time and improving
sprinting speed. After an adequate strength foundation has been acquired,
directyour attention toward the improvement of speed strength. Poor form
and lack of leg extensor strength can result in a poor stride length pattern.

Arm Action
Arm action in sprinting is critical when developing the most efficient stride
length. The arms work in opposition to the legs, with the right arm and left
leg coming forward as the left arm and right leg go backward and vice versa.
The shoulders should be as relaxed as possible, with the swing coming from
the shoulder joint. The shoulders should stay square (perpendicular) to the
direction of the run. The swing should be strong but relaxed. The hands should
also be relaxed. On the upswing, the hand should rise naturally to a point just
in front of the chin and just inside the shoulder (figure 12.1, page 232). During
the upswing, the arm angle is about 90 degrees or less, coordinating with the
quick recovery of the forward swing of the leg (figure 12.2, page 232).
During the downswing, a natural straightening at the elbow corresponds
with the longer leverage of the driving on the opposite side of the body to
leg
allow horizontal drive. As the arm swings down, the elbow extends slightly
(figure 12.1, page 232). At the bottom of the swing, the hand is next to the
thigh. However, toward the end of backward movement, the arm bends
its

and speeds up again to match the final, fast stage of the leg drive. The elbows
should stay close to the body. Attempts to keep the elbows away from the body
will prevent relaxation of the shoulders and limit efficient running mechanics.
The arm action in sprinting is never forced or tense.
The mechanics of sprinting dictate that athletes who want to run faster must
concentrate on pushing off the ground, landing with the proper foot placement,
using the correct arm action, and staying relaxed.

Troubleshooting Sprinting Mechanics

Ifyou run with tense arms, try practicing loose swinging movements
from a standing position. Remember to swing from the shoulder and keep
your arms relaxed at all times. Although your arms work in opposition to
your legs, they must be coordinated with your leg action for maximum
sprinting efficiency.
Many athletes and some sport professionals suggest too much body lean.
Your body should have a slight lean in the direction you are running. It
is important to note that the lean comes from the ground and not from
 Sprinting Form and Technique 235

the waist. The lean is only a result of displacing the center of gravity in
the direction you are running. Leaning hy bending at the waist interferes
with the correct mechanics of sprinting.
Don’t run up on your toes. The toes have no power or stability. If you
run on your toes, you will not be able to run fast. Stay on the balls of
your feet and push against the ground. Don’t reach for and pull toward
the ground; this will cause injuries and result in poor sprinting mechanics
and slow times. Allow your heel to make contact with the ground when
running at any distance.
Overstriding is the worst and most misunderstood element of sprint-
ing. Don’t reach and overstride to increase stride length. Push against
the ground and let your foot land underneath your center of gravity. Any
placement of the foot in front of the center of gravity will cause the body
to slow down.
Avoid understriding as well. Try not to be too quick. Too much turn-
over will cause you to run fast in one place, and you will not cover any
ground. Quality sprint speed is a combination of both stride frequency
and stride length. One does not replace the other.
Don’t try to power your way through a race or sprint effort. You will
not run fast if you are tight. To run fast, you must stay relaxed.

Key Sprinting form Drills

Sprinting form drills help establish correct neuromuscular movement patterns.
Establishing as near error-free movement as possible may improve stride rate
and stride lengthand eliminate wasted energy that does not contribute to
forward movement.
Four muscle groups highly associated with fast sprinting are the quadriceps,
plantar flexors, hamstrings, and dorsiflexors. The flexor muscles overcome limb
weight and inertia; the extensors overcome their own weight and gravity. Form
training and speed- strength training concentrate on these four groups. Since
speed improvement occurs through well- developed, efficient reflex patterns of
action, correct repetitions using proper form are essential in every drill.
Other factors that are a part of the total speed improvement program de-
scribed in this book also improve form and technique. Increasing the strength
of the knee extensors and plantar flexor muscles of the feet, for example, helps
the legs handle the workload during the drive phase, or push-off at ground
contact. When these muscles are stronger, the less distance the center of mass
drops and the faster the muscles contract with each stride. A strong upper
body and trunk also help maintain good sprinting posture. All key muscle
groups involved in sprinting, such as the hip flexors, are strengthened through
plyometrics, strength and power training, speed- strength training, sport load-
ing, and other training programs. While some training programs focus on
236 Sports SPEED

specific areas, others have a positive effect on many different aspects of speed
improvement.
Ralph Mann, former Olympic silver medalist in the 400-meter hurdles and
current speed improvement specialist, evaluated more than 1,000 drills for
downtime, proper technique, and duplication of skills. The following hound-
ing, sprinting, and workout drills have been successfully used by Mann and
coach Tom Tellez to improve speed over short distances.

Sprinting Drills

These (drills are designed to develop the mechanics, strength, and power needed
to produce maximum performance in sprinting. Use these drills while warming
up before a workout. The length and difficulty of each drill can be altered to
any desired distance and intensity.

BUTT KICKERS

From a jog, allow your lower leg to swing back and bounce off your buttocks (figure
12.4).Your upper leg should stay vertical and not move much. Place emphasis on
allowing (not forcing) your heel to come up to your butt.

Figure 12.4
 Sprinting Form and Technique 237

WALL SLIDE

From a jog, complete the same action as you Figure 12.5

did for the butt kickers drill, but do not let the
heel of your recovery leg travel behind your
body (figure 12.5). Imagine a wall of glass
running down your back, and do not allow
your heel to break the glass. This will pro-
duce knee lift without forcing the action. As in

butt kickers, when this drill is done properly,

your heel will bounce off your butt.

QUICK FEET DRILL

From a jog, increase your stride rate so

that you take as many steps as possible
in a 10-yard interval. Jog for 10 yards and
repeat.Emphasize quick turnover with your
legs moving in front of, not behind or under,
your body.

Workout Drills

These were designed as a workout

drills

or as part of a workout. Typically, three

sets of each drill are performed. Start
each of these drills on your toes, and make an effort to remain in this position
during the drill.

CYCLING

While leaning against a wall, bar, or any support, cycle one leg through a sprinting
action. Emphasize keeping your leg from extending behind your body, allowing your
foot to kick your butt during recovery, and pawing the ground to complete the action.
Complete 10 cycles with each leg to make up one set.

BUTT KICKERS

This drill is the same as butt kickers in the sprinting drills except that the emphasis
is more on quickness. Complete 10 kicks with each leg to make up one set.
238 Sports SPIED

DOWN ANDmmm
OFFS
m
•&> • •
>,
<m

Jog in place using high knees (figure 12.6). Figure 12.6

Emphasize decreasing foot contact by hitting
the ground with the ball of your foot and get-
ting off as quickly as possible. The effort on
the ground should bounce your leg up into
the high knee position. Complete 10 down
and offs for one set.

PULL-THROUGHS

Extend your leg in front of your Figure 12.7

body as a hurdler does. Bring
your leg down and paw at the
ground in a power motion (figure
1 2.7). Complete 1 0 pull-throughs

Vvith each leg to make up one

set.
 Sprinting Form ami Technique 239

STICK DRILL

Place 20 sticks (18 to 24 inches long) 18 inches apart on a grass surface. Sprint
through the sticks as fast as possible, touching one foot down between each stick.
Emphasize high knee and quick ground contact. Coaches can time athletes by
lift

starting a stopwatch when the foot contacts the ground between the first and second
stick and by stopping the watch when the foot contacts the ground after passing the
final stick. One completion of the drill makes up one set.

AFRICAN DANCE

While running forward, raise each leg to the side of your body as in hurdling and tap
each heel with your hand (figure 1 2.8). A 1 0-yard run equals one set. Start this drill
easily and gradually build up the intensity. For variety, you can run using the same
leg motion but keep your arms at your sides in a sprinting action.

DRUM MAJOR

While running forward, rotate your leg in to the midline of your body and tap your heel
at the midline (figure 12.9). A 10-yard run equals one set. For variety, you can run
using the same leg motion but keep your arms at your sides in a sprinting action.

Figure 12.8 Figure 12.9

 Chapter 13

ou now have enough information in four main areas to begin your personal
K program: you understand the key areas to emphasize for improving speed
in your sport, you know how important each of these areas is to your specific
sport, you are aware of your weaknesses based on test results, and you know
how to properly utilize each training program to eliminate weaknesses and
improve speed through a holistic approach to speed improvement.
The speed improvement attack areas for your sport and the specific train-
ing programs designed to strengthen these areas were presented in chapter
1, tables 1.1 and 1.2 (pages 4-5). Take a moment now to write the areas for
your sport in a column on the left side of a piece of paper. Now list the specific
training programs designed to improve the attack areas. In general, you don’t
need to concentrate on any of the training programs specified in table 1.2 un-
less test results revealed a weakness. You do, however, need to maintain what

you already have. Sometimes it is beneficial to focus on speed improvement

in an area such as stride rate even when a weakness has not been revealed
because further improvement is likely to occur with training. However, such
areas should not be the major focus of your program.

Preseason Speed Improvement

Although there are some differences of opinion among conditioning coaches,
there is a logical research- supported sequence for the placement of different
training programs in a workout session (see table 13.1).
After a formal warm-up, complete stretching exercises. Form training is next,
followed by sprint-assisted training, which must be done when the body is still
free of fatigue and capable of very high speed. Conditioning activities such as
calisthenics, speed endurance training, sport loading, plyometrics, and weight
training are completed near the end of the workout. A final 5- to 10-minute
cool-down period is followed by static stretching to end the workout.
Research supports a system introduced by Italian coach Carlo Vittori for the
proper order of conditioning activities in the latter part of a workout: weight
training followed by plyometrics, ending with a series of short all-out sprints.

240
Table 13.1 Order of Training Programs tor Team Sport Athletes
Length
Training program 3 (min.) Order Frequency Explanation

General warm-up 8 to 12 1 Before each Warm-up continues until you

workout are perspiring freely. You
are now ready to begin the
stretching or flexibility session.

Stretching 10 to 15 2 Each Avoid stretching cold muscles

workout by warming up first. Use some
dynamic stretching and some
static stretching exercises.

Form training 15 to 20 3 Each Practice starting, accelerating,

workout and sprinting form using the
Olympic form drills.

Sprint-assisted 10 to 15 4 2 or 3 times Complete before you

training a week are fatigued from other
conditioning. Rest between
each repetition should result
in near-full recovery. The
objective is not to condition
but to exert submaximal
stride rates and train the
neuromuscular system.

Speed endurance 15 to 20 5 2 or 3 times The main objective is to

training a week improve your ability to make
repeated short or long sprints
in your sport without slowing

because of fatigue.

Sport loading 10 to 15 6 2 times Include uphill sprinting, sleds,

a week or lightly weighted vests.

Strength, power, 30 to 60 7 3 times Conditioning items 7, 8,and

and speed- a week 9 are grouped in sequence
strength training at the end of the workout.
Although other systems are
in use, research indicates

that this orderhas both

a practical and scientific
basis. Upper-body strength
training coupled with lower-
body plyometrics and vice
versa is recommended when
both weight training and
plyometrics are used in the
same workout.

(continued)

241
 242 Sports SPUD

Tattl e 13.1
_ _ (cont nued)
i

Length
Training program 3 (min.) Order Frequency Explanation

Plyometrics 15 to 20 8 1 or 2 times Plyometric exercises

a week closely mimic the starting,
accelerating, and sprinting
actionand attempt to use a
ground contact time shorter
than that during the sprinting
action.

Short all-out 10 to 12 9 Each Perform a series of 4 to 10 30-

sprints workout to 40-yd. sprints.

Cool-down and 10 10 Each Light jogging and a second

stretching workout stretching session (static)
follows weight training,
plyometrics, and short sprints.

a
Not all training programs will be used in the same workout.

Your workout schedule uses a variation of this method in some sessions. Keep
in mind that other approaches have also been shown to yield good results.
Study the logic behind this suggested order, and follow it as carefully as pos-
sible during the eight-week preseason period.
The preseason period presented book begins two months before the
in this
first scheduled practice day. For best results, count hack eight weeks from

the start of your in-season period (first day of regularly scheduled practice).
It is assumed that you have maintained a solid aerobic, strength, and power

foundation before beginning this eight- week period.

Tables 13.2 through 13.5 describe the general speed improvement training
programs to follow in a typical workout week (in the order they are presented).
Specific programs for foundation training (chapter 3); strength, power, and
speed-strength training (chapter 4); ballistics and plyometrics (chapter 5); sport
loading (chapter 6); speed endurance training (chapter 7); and sprint-assisted
training (chapter 9) were presented throughout this book.
These programs are designed so you will approach peak performance by
the first official practice day in your sport. You then
hands of the are in the
coaching staff, who will bring you to peak performance by mid-season without
losing any of the gains acquired through your preseason speed improvement
program.
This eight-week time period allows you to concentrate specifically on the
foundation areas that may be preventing you from sprinting faster and moving
quicker and the strength and power, speed- strength, sport loading, speed endur-
ance, sprint-assisted training, starting and stopping, cutting and accelerating,
and sprinting form programs that will take you to the next speed level. You
will not have time during the season to improve these areas; your only hope is
Table 1 3.2 Weekly Preseason Schedule for Football Players

Day Training programs Guidelines

Daily General warm-up Slow jogging 1/2 to 3/4 mile, increasing the
Dynamic stretching pace the final 100 yd. of each 1/4 mile. Use
Olympic form drills dynamic stretching before completing the
Static stretching form drills. End each workout with a static
stretching session.

Monday Sprint-assisted training Follow the program in table 9.2.

Starting and stopping Follow the program in chapter 10. Use the
drills stance required by your position for the
start.
speed
Football Use repeated high-speed sprints following
endurance the program described in table 7.3. Use
some backward high-speed sprints on
both a level surface and a slight incline to
Strength, power, and develop the hamstring muscle group.
speed-strength training Follow the programs in tables 4.3 to 4.7.

Tuesday Aerobics Continuous work at target heart rate for 20

to 30 min.
Football skill session Integrate speed into your football drills.
High-speed sprinting is the major objective;
think speed and quickness as you work
out. Include drills using the three-point and
four-point stances, emphasizing a two-foot
push-off for offensive backs and linemen
and the standing start for defensive backs
and linebackers.
Football cutting and Practice the feints, cuts, and drills in chapter
acceleration drills 1 1 for 20 min. Master at least eight different

cuts and fakes if you are a running back,

defensive back, or receiver.
Sport loading Follow the program in table 6.6. Use
weighted vests, harnesses, or parachutes to
execute power starts from the three-point,
four-point, or standing start depending on
your position.
Plyometrics Follow the program in table 5.2.
Short all-out sprints Complete 4 to 10 repetitions of 10- to 20-yd.
sprints with a 30-sec. rest interval.

(continued)

243
Table 13.2 (continued)

Day Training programs Guidelines

Wednesday Starting and stopping Follow the program in chapter 10. Use the
drills stance required by your position for the
start.

speed
Football Use repeated high-speed sprints following
endurance the program described in table 7.3. Use
some backward high-speed sprints on
both a level surface and a slight incline to
develop the hamstring muscle group.
Strength, power, and Follow the programs in tables 4.3 to 4.7.
speed-strength training
(upper body)

Thursday Aerobics Continuous work at target heart rate for 20

to 30 min.
Football skill session Integrate speed into your football drills.
High-speed sprinting is the major objective;
think speed and quickness as you work
out. Include drills using the three-point and
four-point stances, emphasizing a two-foot
push-off for offensive backs and linemen
and the standing start for defensive backs
and linebackers.
Sport loading Follow the program in table 6.6. Perform
hillbursts using 2.5- to 7-degree stadium
steps or a hill for 10 to 60 yd. Use weighted
vests, harnesses, or parachutes to execute
power starts from the three-point, four-point,
or standing start depending on position.
Strength, power, and Follow the programs in tables 4.3 to 4.7.
* speed-strength training
(lower body)

Friday Sprint-assisted training Follow the program in table 9.2.

speed
Football Use repeated high-speed sprints following
endurance the program described in table 7.3. Use
some backward high-speed sprints on
both a level surface and a slight incline to
develop the hamstring muscle group.
Strength, power, and Follow the programs in tables 4.3 to 4.8.
speed-strength training Complete 4 to 10 repetitions of 10- to 20-yd.
Short all-out sprints sprints with a 30-sec. rest interval.

244
 Day Training programs Guidelines

Saturday Aerobics Continuous work at target heart rate for 20

to 30 min.
Starting and stopping Follow the program in chapter 10. Use the
drills stance required by your position for the
start.
Football cutting and Practice the feints, cuts, and drills in chapter
acceleration drills 1 1 20 min. Master at least eight different
for
cuts and fakes you are a running back,
if

defensive back, or receiver.

Football skill session Integrate speed into your football drills.

High-speed sprinting is the major objective;

think speed and quickness as you work
out. Include drills using the three-point and
four-point stances, emphasizing a two-foot
push-off for offensive backs and linemen
and the standing start for defensive backs
and linebackers.
Plyometrics Follow the program in table 5.2.
Muscle endurance Circuit weight training. Do 3 sets at 50 to 85
percent 1RM, 8 to 12 reps, resting 15 to 40
sec. between exercises.

Note: Each workout begins with a general warm-up consisting of light jogging and striding until the athlete is

perspiring freely and body temperature has one or two degrees, a relaxed session of dynamic stretching,
risen
and a series of walk-jog-stride-sprint cycles. Workouts end with a cool-down that includes static stretching.

245
Table 1 3.3 Weekly Preseason Schedule for Baseball Players

Day Training programs Guidelines

Daily General warm-up Slow jogging 1/2 to 3/4 mile, increasing the
Dynamic stretching pace the final 100 yd. of each 1/4 mile. Use
Olympic form drills dynamic stretching before completing the
Static stretching form drills. End each workout with a static
stretching session.

Monday Sprint-assisted training Follow the program in table 9.2.

Starting and stopping Follow the program in chapter 10. Use the
drills standing start and crouched position of a
baserunner or fielder.
Baseball speed Use repeated high-speed sprints following
endurance the program described in table 7.3. Use
some backward high-speed sprints on both
a level surface and a slight incline to develop
the hamstring muscle group.
Strength, power, Follow the programs in tables 4.3 to 4.8.
and speed-strength
training

Tuesday Aerobics Continuous work at target heart rate for 20

to 30 min.
Baseball skill session Integratespeed into your baseball drills.
Baseball cutting and High-speed sprinting is the major objective;
acceleration drills think speed and quickness as you work
out. Include drills using the standing
emphasizing a two-foot push-off for
start,

baserunners and explosive lateral starting

movement for all players.
Sport loading Practice the feints, cuts and drills in chapter
1 1 20 min. Master proper baserunning
for
technique and high-speed changes of
direction.
Plyometrics Follow the program in table 6.6. Use
weighted vests, harnesses, or parachutes to
execute power starts from a standing start
and from the batter’s box, first and second
bases, and infield and outfield positions.
Follow the program in table 5.2.
Short all-out sprints Complete 4 to 10 repetitions of 30- to 40-yd.
sprints with a 30-sec. rest interval.

246
Day Training programs Guidelines

Wednesday Starting and stopping Follow the program in chapter 10. Use the
drills standing start and crouched position of a
baserunrier or fielder.
Baseball speed Use repeated high-speed sprints following
endurance the program described in table 7.3. Use
some backward high-speed sprints on both
a level surface and a slight incline to develop
the hamstring muscle group.
Strength, power, Follow the programs in tables 4.3 to 4.7.
and speed-strength
training (upper body)

Thursday Aerobics Continuous work at target heart rate for 15

to 30 min.
Baseball skill session Integratespeed into your baseball drills.
High-speed sprinting is the major objective;
think speed and quickness as you work
out. Include drills using the standing
emphasizing a two-foot push-off for
start,

baserunners and explosive lateral starting

movement for all players.
Sport loading Follow the program in table 6.6. Perform
hillbursts using 2.5- to 7-degree stadium
steps or a hill for 10 to 60 yd. Use weighted
vests, harnesses, or parachutes to execute
power starts from a standing position.
Strength, power, Follow the programs in tables 4.3 to 4.7.
and speed-strength
training (lower body)

Friday Sprint-assisted training Follow the program in table 9.2.

Baseball speed Use repeated high-speed sprints following
endurance the program described in table 7.3. Use
some backward high-speed sprints on both
a level surface and a slight incline to develop
the hamstring muscle group.
Strength, power, Follow the programs in tables 4.3 to 4.7.
and speed-strength
training
Short all-out sprints Complete 4 to 10 repetitions of 30- to 40-yd.
sprints with a 30-sec. rest interval.

(continued)

247
Table 13.3 (continued)

Day Training programs Guidelines

Saturday Aerobics Continuous work at target heart rate for 20

to 30 min.
Starting and stopping Follow the program in chapter 10. Use the
drills standing start and crouched position of a
baserunner or fielder.
Baseball cutting and Practice the feints, cuts, and drills in chapter
acceleration drills 1 1 for 20 min. Master proper baserunning

technique and high-speed changes of

direction.
Baseball skill session Integrate speed your baseball drills.
into
High-speed sprinting is the major objective;
think speed and quickness as you work
out. Include drills using the standing
emphasizing a two-foot push-off for
start,
baserunners and explosive lateral starting
movement for all players.
Plyometrics Follow the program in table 5.2.
Muscle endurance Circuit weight training. Do 3 sets at 50 to 85
percent 1RM, 8 to 12 reps, resting 15 to 40
sec. between exercises.

Note: Each workout begins with a general warm-up consisting of light jogging and striding until the athlete is

perspiring freely and body temperature has risen one or two degrees, a relaxed session of dynamic stretching,
and a series of walk-jog-stride-sprint cycles. Workouts end with a cool-down that includes static stretching.

Table 1 3.4 Weekly Preseason Schedule for Basketball Players

Day Training programs Guidelines

Daily General warm-up Slow jogging 1/2 to 3/4 mile, increasing the
Dynamic stretching pace the final 100 yd. of each 1/4 mile. Use
Olympic form drills dynamic stretching before completing the
Static stretching form drills. End each workout with a static
stretching session.

Monday Sprint-assisted Follow the program in table 9.2.

training
Starting and stopping Follow the program in chapter 10. Execute
drills stops and starts from a defensive stance
and an offensive posture.
Basketball speed Use repeated high-speed sprints following
endurance the program described in table 7.3. Use
some backward high-speed sprints to
develop the hamstring muscle group.
Strength, power, Follow the programs in tables 4.3. to 4.7.
and speed-strength
training

248
Day Training programs Guidelines

Tuesday Aerobics Continuous work at target heart rate for 20

to 30 min.
Basketball skill Integrate speed into your basketball drills.

session High-speed sprinting is the major objective;

think speed and quickness as you work out.
Include drills using the defensive stance.
Basketball cutting and Practice the feints, cuts, and drills in chapter
acceleration drills 1 1 20 min. Master the basic fakes and
for
cuts with and without the ball and accelerate
for8 to 10 yd.
Sport loading Follow the program in table 6.6. Use
weighted vests, harnesses, or parachutes
to execute power starts from a defensive
stance and from an offensive posture with
and without the ball.
Plyometrics Follow the program in table 5.2.
Short all-out sprints Complete 4 to 10 repetitions of 10- to 20-yd.
sprints with a 30-sec. rest interval.

Wednesday Starting and stopping Follow the program in chapter 10. Execute
drills stops and starts from a defensive stance
and an offensive posture.
Basketball speed Use repeated high-speed sprints following
endurance the program described in table 7.3. Use
some backward high-speed sprints to
develop the hamstring muscle group.
Strength, power, Follow the programs in tables 4.3 to 4.7.
and speed-strength
training (upper body)

Thursday Aerobics Continuous work at target heart rate for 20

to 30 min.
Basketball skill Integrate speed into your basketball drills.
session High-speed sprinting is the major objective;
think speed and quickness as you work out.
Include drills using the defensive stance.
Sport loading Follow the program in table 6.6. Perform
hillbursts using 2.5- to 7-degree stadium
steps or a hill for 10 to 60 yd. Use weighted
vests, harnesses, or parachutes to execute
power starts from a defensive stance and
from an offensive posture with and without
the ball.

Strength, power, Follow the programs in tables 4.3 to 4.7.

and speed-strength
training (lower body)

(continued)

249
Table 13.4 (continued)

Day Training programs Guidelines

Friday Sprint-assisted Follow the program in table 9.2.

training
Basketball speed Use repeated high-speed sprints following
endurance the program described in table 7.3. Use
some backward high-speed sprints to
develop the hamstring muscle group.
Strength, power, Follow the programs in tables 4.3 to 4.7.
and speed-strength
training
Short all-out sprints Complete 4 to 10 repetitions of 10- to 20-yd.
sprints with a 30-sec. rest interval.

Saturday Aerobics Continuous work at target heart rate for 20

to 30 min.
Starting and stopping Follow the program in chapter 10. Execute
drills stops and starts from a defensive stance
and an offensive posture.
Basketball cutting and Practice the feints, cuts, and drills in chapter
acceleration drills 1 1 for 20 min. Master the basic fakes and

cuts with and without the ball and accelerate

for 8 to 10 yd.
Basketball skill Integrate speed into your basketball drills.

session High-speed sprinting is the major objective;

think speed and quickness as you work out.
Include drills using the defensive stance.
Plyometrics Follow the program in table 5.2.
Muscle endurance Circuit weight training. Do 3 sets at 50 to 85
percent 1RM, 8 to 12 reps, resting 15 to 40
sec. between exercises.

Note: Each workout begins with a general warm-up consisting of light jogging and striding until the
athlete is perspiring freely and body temperature has risen one or two degrees, a relaxed session of
dynamic stretching, and a series of walk-jog-stride-sprint cycles. Workouts end with a cool-down that
includes static stretching.

250
Table 1 3.5 Weekly Preseason Schedule for Soccer Players
Day Training programs Guidelines

Daily General warm-up Slow jogging 1/2 to 3/4 mile, increasing the
Dynamic stretching pace the final 100 yd. of each 1/4 mile. Use
Olympic form drills dynamic stretching before completing the form
Static stretching drills. End each workout with a static stretching

session.

Monday Sprint-assisted training Follow the program in table 9.2.

Starting and stopping Follow the program in chapter 10. Use a
drills standing and walking start.

Soccer speed Use repeated high-speed sprints following

endurance the program described in table 7.3. Use some
backward high-speed sprints on both a level
surface and a slight incline to develop the
hamstring muscle group.
Strength, power, and Follow the programs in tables 4.3 to 4.7.
speed-strength training

Tuesday Aerobics Continuous work at target heart rate for 20 to

30 min.
Soccer skill session Integrate speed into your soccer drills. High-
speed sprinting is the major objective; think
speed and quickness as you work out. Include
drills using a walk and jog to a sprint for 10 to

30 yd., emphasizing proper acceleration form

and technique. Repeat with the ball.
Soccer cutting and Practice the feints, cuts, and drills in chapter
acceleration drills 1 1 for 20 min. Master the basic cuts and fakes

used in soccer with and without the ball.

Sport loading Follow the program in table 6.6. Use weighted
vests, harnesses, or parachutes to execute
power starts from a walking, jogging, and 3/4
striding action.
Plyometrics Follow the program in table 5.2.

>
Short all-out sprints Complete 4 to 10 repetitions of 10- to 20-yd.
sprints with a 30-sec. rest interval.

Wednesday Starting and stopping Follow the program in chapter 10. Use a
drills standing and walking start.

Soccer speed Use repeated high-speed sprints following

endurance the program described in table 7.3. Use some
backward high-speed sprints on both a level
surface and a slight incline to develop the
hamstring muscle group.
Strength, power, and Follow the programs in tables 4.3 to 4.7.
speed-strength training
(upper body)

(continued)

251
Table 13.5 (continued)

Day Training programs Guidelines

Thursday Aerobics Continuous work at target heart rate for 20 to

30 min.
Soccer skill session Integrate speed into your soccer drills. High-
speed sprinting is the major objective; think
speed and quickness as you work out. Include
drills using a walk and jog to a sprint for 1 0 to

30 yd., emphasizing proper acceleration form

and technique. Repeat with the ball.
Sport loading Follow the program in table 6.6. Perform
hillbursts using 2.5- to 7-degree stadium steps
or a hill for 10 to 60 yd. Use weighted vests,
harnesses, or parachutes to execute power
starts from a walking, jogging, and 3/4 striding
action.
Strength, power, and Follow the programs in tables 4.3 to 4.7.
speed-strength training
(lower body)

Friday Sprint-assisted training Follow the program in table 9.2.

Soccer speed Use repeated high-speed sprints following
endurance the program described in table 7.3. Use some
backward high-speed sprints on both a level
surface and a slight incline to develop the
hamstring muscle group.
Strength, power, and Follow the programs in tables 4.3 to 4.7.
speed-strength training
Short all-out sprints Complete 4 to 10 repetitions of 10- to 20-yd.
sprints with a 30-sec. rest interval.

Saturday Aerobics Continuous work at target heart rate for 15 to

30 min.
%
Starting and stopping Follow the program in chapter 10. Use a
drills standing and walking start.
Soccer cutting and Practice the feints, cuts, and drills in chapter
acceleration drills 1 1 20 min. Master the basic cuts and fakes
for
used in soccer with and without the ball.
Soccer skill session Integrate speed into your soccer drills. High-
speed sprinting is the major objective; think
speed and quickness as you work out. Include
drills using a walk and jog to a sprint for 10 to

30 yd., emphasizing proper acceleration form

and technique. Repeat with the ball.
Follow the program in table 5.2.
Plyometrics Circuit weight training. Do 3 sets at 50 to 85
Muscle endurance percent 1RM, 8 to 12 reps, resting 15 to 40
sec. between exercises.

Note: Each workout begins with a general warm-up consisting of light jogging and striding until the athlete is

perspiring freely and body temperature has one or two degrees, a relaxed session of dynamic stretching,
risen
and a series of walk-jog-stride-sprint cycles. Workouts end with a cool-down that includes static stretching.

252
to maintain them. Take each training program seriously, and practice proper
recovery nutrition (chapter 8) during this critical period. This is the key time
to focus only on improving speed over short distances. No other period of time
allows you to totally devote your efforts to one objective. Make it pay off. Use
the time wisely, and it will pay big dividends next season.
Plan to retest yourself at the end of the first four- week period and again
after completing the eight-week period. Use the speed profile form discussed
later in this chapter to chart your progress. Your coach may also test you at
the start of the in-season period.

In-Season Speed Improvement

Normal practice sessions during the in-season period in most sports are not
long enough to bring about great improvement in most basic training areas.
Coaches may have difficulty finding enough time and deciding where to
also
place the key maintenance programs that will prevent athletes from losing
much of their off-season gains. This section provides some guidelines for the
proper placement of various training programs and a reasonable time frame
that does not significantly detract from the practice schedule and still main-
tains off-season gains in speed, quickness, strength, power, flexibility, and
speed endurance.

Jr./SportsChrome

Tringali

Rob

A good in-season maintenance program will help athletes keep speed gains made
during the off-season, allowing them to excel on the field.
254

Without a well- designed in-season program, it is common in most sports

for athletes to lose a percentage of the gains acquired in the off-season. Al-
though additional improvement can occur in an attempt to peak for a specific
game or tournament at the latter part of the season, the primary objective of
an in-season program is to prevent loss of strength, power, flexibility, speed
endurance, speed, and quickness.
Fortunately, there is also a logical order for coaches and athletes to consider.
Let’s review this order along with the conditioning and training objectives of
each program.

1. General warm-up (jogging, striding, and light sprinting) and dynamic

stretching exercises have little conditioning value. Their main contribution
is to increase range of motion, help prevent injuries, and warm the body in
preparation for the more vigorous aspects of the program. These exercises are
completed at the beginning of each workout.
2. Sprint- assisted training is specifically designed to improve stride rate
(number of steps per second) and stride length. Because sprint- assisted training
requires the complete absence of fatigue, it should be scheduled second in the
workout, immediately after the general warm-up and stretching exercises.
Scrimmage should follow sprint- assisted training. Keep in mind that
3.
the body is still unfatigued, less apt to be injured, and more likely to execute
skills at high speed under game conditions.

4. Sport-specific drills for the purpose of skill development are fourth. At

this point in the practice session, you are still relatively free from fatigue and
can execute at high speed under game conditions. These drills could also precede
scrimmage if the emphasis is on mastery of skills rather than conditioning.

5. Calisthenics improve general conditioning, develop strength and mus-

cular endurance, and improve aerobic fitness. They are conditioning-oriented
and should not be at the beginning of the workout. After 30 minutes of hard
calisthenics, a fresh athlete will turn into a fatigued athlete. Such fatigue will
interfere with skill and timing and make you more susceptible to injury.

6. Speed endurance training such as interval sprint training commonly used

in football, baseball, basketball, soccer, and other team sports is also a condi-
tioning activity. Because such training brings about a high level of fatigue and
makes it difficult to continue a workout much longer, speed endurance training
should be near the end of the workout, rather than at the beginning.
7. can be incorporated here if practice time allows. Because this
Ballistics
is also a conditioning activity, it should occur near the end of the workout.

8. Strength and power training (weight training, plyometrics, and sport

loading) is the most fatiguing of any program. It leaves you weak and vulner-
able to injury. It is therefore placed close to the end of the workout.

9. A
cool-down period is desirable as the last item in a workout and may
involve a slow jog or walk and a relaxed static stretching period, particularly
after strength and power training.
 Sport-Specific Training Programs 255

Under conditioning coach Bob Ward, the Dallas Cowboys used a unique
method referred to as speedweek that remains an effective approach during
the in-season period for team sports. The program is easy for players to un-
derstand and apply and is veiy effective. Speedweek divides each seven- day
period into three phases:

1. Early nonfatigued phase (Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday morning): No

leg work (strength and power training or endurance training) is permitted
during this period. High-intensity work with sprint-assisted training (tub-
ing, downhill sprinting) dominates this three- day period while athletes are
relatively fatigue-free. The proper order described previously is still followed.
Upper-body strength and power training takes place.
2. Fate fatigued phase (Wednesday afternoon, Thursday, Friday) Training :

now moves to strength and power training activities (sprint loading, weight
training, plyometrics)and speed endurance. During the final four to eight weeks
of the preseason period, plyometrics involve only short jumps and hops for
30 to 50 meters at very high speed as opposed to longer jumps at a moderate
pace. Sprint-assisted training is not used during this period. Again, the proper
order described previously in this chapter is carefully followed.

3. Rest period (Saturday) : A light workout is combined with team strategy

sessions and one-on-one meetings with specialty coaches.

Maintenance Programs
A maintenance program for strength and power training, plyometrics, speed
strength, speed endurance, and sprint-assisted training is presented in each
of those chapters in your eight-week program. The Olympic form and stop-
ping, starting, should be performed twice weekly during
and cutting drills

the in-season period. (See table 13.6 for a sample in-season maintenance
program.) Although time becomes precious during the competitive season in
most sports, not difficult to work with these maintenance loads to pre-
it is

vent loss of speed. Only a slight adjustment and departure from the normal
practice routine will be necessary to work the maintenance program into your
regular practice schedule. If practice time is a problem, check with your coach
about completing your maintenance schedule at the close of a workout one
or two times weekly. To make this adjustment, coaches may also consider
the following suggestions:

Commit a part of each practice day to speed improvement.

Include testing at least twice per season in the major areas described in
chapter 2 to locate weaknesses that are restricting fast and quick movement
and preventing athletes from reaching their genetic speed potential.

Assign a sprint coach specifically to the task of maintenance and testing. A

track coach is generally an excellent choice.
 1

256

Table 13.6 Maintenance Loads During the Season

Quality In-season maintenance loads

Flexibility Daily sessions of dynamic stretching as part of the

warm-up and static stretching as part of the cool-
down at the end of the workout
Speed Two 15- to 20-min. sprint-assisted workouts per
week (five to eight towing pulls each session)
Strength, power, and One vigorous weight training workout weekly plus
speed strength one plyometric session
Speed endurance Two pickup sprint training workouts weekly to
replace wind sprints

Starting, stopping, Two 15-min. sessions using the drills specific to

cutting, and accelerating your sport that were presented in chapters 10
and 1

Eliminate traditional wind sprints from the program. Substitute one of the
speed endurance programs described in chapter 7 that maintains adequate
records and guarantees progress and improvement.

Use explosive power and strength training and sprint-assisted training one
or two times weekly to maintain the strength, power, quickness, and speed
acquired during the preseason.
Use plyometric training no more than one or two times weekly.
Use the speed improvement maintenance programs in the proper order.

Tracking Your Progress

To properly track your progress, isolate the factors responsible for your im-
provement or lack of improvement and find out where you need to work harder
through additional emphasis. Proper tracking involves careful record keeping in
two and the actual workout schedule you complete.
areas: test score results
Follow these simple steps in each of the two areas to make certain you are
fully aware of what you are doing, how it is affecting your speed test scores, and
what you need to change to stay on course to improve speed for your sport.
Record your initial scores on the speed profile form (figure 13.1). Make a
copy and place it on a clipboard. Retest yourself in each area after the fourth
workout week. Compare scores in each area for improvement. If no improve-
ment has occurred, alter your workout by increasing the number of times a
specific program is used and the intensity of that phase of the workout. If
you now meet the standard where you were previously deficient and feel you
no longer need as much effort, reduce the use and intensity and resort to the
 Sport-Specific Training Programs 257

maintenance load specified in each training program to merely keep the gains
you have acquired. At the close of the eight-week preseason training period,
retest yourself once again in each area and make comparisons and changes.
Make two copies of the workout record form (figure 13.2). Place one on a
clipboard and take it with you to each training session. The first copy covers
weeks one to four and the second copy covers weeks five to eight. Record the
information requested for each speed improvement training program immedi-
ately after completing each separate program in a workout. This information
is now available for review and analysis to help you understand why test score

improvement in some areas may not have occurred or was lower than antici-
pated. This record keeping also ensures that you are applying the principle of
progressive resistance exercise to each speed improvement training program by
increasing the number of repetitions, distance covered, and intensity and alter-
ing the rest interval between each repetition to complete more work (volume)
and more work per unit of time (intensity) each session. Study the workout
record form carefully until you understand how to record what you
did each workout.
You are now ready to begin a personalized program designed specifically
for you. Don t put it off. This is your chance to move to a higher level for your
sport and significantly improve speed and quickness. Take a serious approach
and master each training program. You will be amazed at the results.
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Figure 13.2 Workout Record Form

Name Age Height Weight

Sport Position Starting date

Second test date Third test date

Weeks Weeks Weeks Weeks

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Number of workouts

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Two-foot pushoff (reps) and

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261
Figure 13.2 (continued)

Weeks Weeks Weeks Weeks

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(reps)

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262
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Ward-Smith, A.J. 2001. Energy conversion strategies during 100 m
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 / £ ,

Note: The italicized / and t following page numbers refer to figures and tables, respectively.

A combine tests for 38-39

professional, drive phase
speed endurance training for 150, 1526 in sprinting 231-233, 232/ 235
acceleration
155 in starts 202-203, 204-206, 206-207,
in comprehensive testing battery 6, It,
starts and stops for 200, 203, 206, 213 207/
106 26-27
body weight
feintingand 218-219, 224, 226-228
in-season maintenance of 255-256, 86 15-16, 89
to leg strength ratio E
256 1
maximum recommendations for 106
fat energy management, sport-specific 93, 96-
22, 23£-246 24-25, 54 97, 172, 173/
in maneuvering 218,224-227
in NFL combine testing 33-34 energy systems
power and quickness for 69, 219-223,
bone 92-93, 93/ in periodization training 59, 60£-6l£
22\t-222t
boxing 62, 71, 94, 226-227 in speed endurance 146-148,1496 154
programmable techniques of 70-71
in stopping 213-214
readiness stances for 223-224
response time in 228-229
C equipment
specific training programs for 3, 12 1, 196,
calisthenics 254 for hamstring conditioning 90, 90/
calorie intake 25, 162, 169, 1706 171- for movement tracking 219, 221
229-231, 240
172, 173£ for periodization training 61 £
sport loading drills for 137-138, 140,
center of gravity for strength and power training 70-71
144-145
in sprinting technique 232, 232/ 234- for surgical tubing drills 193-195
sport loading drills for uphill 140, 142-
235 exercise (s)
144, 143£-144£
in starts 202-203, 204-206, 206-207,
during starts 200-203, 200/201/ 203- in foundation training 40-41
206, 204/ 206-207, 207/ periodization of 58-59, 60t-6l£
207f
chronobiology 165, 167£-168£ recovery and 164, 165/166/ 183
total body control for 228-230
combine tests, team sport explosive power/ strength
aerobic endurance/fitness
major league baseball 37-38, 37f in comprehensive testing battery 6, 9t,
in comprehensive testing battery 10£, 25-
26, 36
NBA 38-39 20-22
documented positive effects of 157, 1 58/-
NFL 33-36, 35£-36£ plyometrics training for 97-98,100
pro soccer 36-37 programmable techniques for 70-71
159f
comprehensive sports training model 164, specific drills for 207-212, 208/211/
in foundation training 2-5, 54-55, 55
166/ specific training programs for 1 2t, 5 1 70, ,
anaerobic activity/capacity 229
comprehensive testing battery 6-27 80, 199
documented positive effects of 157, 1 58/-
advanced program for 116 27, 30-32,
159i, 229
in foundation training 54-55, 55 1
3l£ F
specific tests of 12-27, 200 faking
performance and 25, 36, 139
conditioning as maneuvering 218, 224-227, 229
in periodization training 59, 60£-6l£ in stopping technique 214, 214/
B for playing speed 1-2, 240, 254-255 falling starts 210. 210/
ballistiqs 92-96 conditioning program schedule fatigue
energy systems and 92-93, 93/ in-season 253-255 endurance training for 3-4, 154, 186,
movement principles of 2, 92 for periodization training 58, 596 162, 196
training programs for 94, 94/95/ 96, 166/ in-season conditioning programs for 254-
254 preseason 240-253, 24l£-252£ 255
baseball core activities, in foundation training 40-41, in plyometrics training 99, 101-102
key improvement areas for 3, 4 1, 1 4£, 91 58-59, 60£-6l£ recovery strategies for 164, 183, 215
219 cutting 218-230 feinting 218-219, 224, 226-228
predominant energy systems used in 148, in comprehensive testing battery 6, It field hockey

149t feinting and 218-219, 224, 226-228 key improvement areas for 3, 14£
preseason speed improvement program for in-season maintenance of 255, 256/ predominant energy systems used in 148,
246£-248£ as maneuvering 218,224,226-227 149t
professional, combine tests for 37-38, power and quickness for 219-223, 22l£- speed endurance training for 150, 152£,
37 222 1 155
speed endurance training for 150, 1 52/, readiness stances for 223-224 starts for 200, 203, 206
155 response time in 228-229 flexibility tests

starts for 200, 203 specific training for 116 225-227, 229- comprehensive 6, 8£, 19-20
basketball 230 in team sport combine testing 37, 39
key improvement areas for 3, 4 1, 146 52, in stopping technique 214, 214f flexibility training

129 total body control for 228-230 in functional strength program 78£-80£
maneuvering in 218-219, 226/ 228- in-season 255, 256£
229 D in periodization training 63-66
predominant energy systems used in 148, decline grades, for training 140, 1446 fl\ing starts, in sport loading 142, 145
1496 173t 186-187, 189 football
preseason speed improvement program for downhill running 1876 189, 190£-19l£, aerobic fitness for 25-26
248£-250 1 212-213 explosive power ratings for 22 1£

268
 Index 269

key improvement areas for 3, 4 *, 14 incline grades, for training 140, 144*, in periodization training 56, 59*
maneuvering in 218, 221, 230 186-187, 189 movement (s)
predominant energy systems used in 148, injury(ies) analysis technologies for 42, 53, 221-222,
149*, 173* prevention strategies for 63-64, 67-68, 221 *- 222 *
preseason speed improvement program for 100-102 ballistics training for 94-96, 94/95/
243*-245* recovery factors of 64, 182 foundation tr aining for basic patterns 40-
speed endurance training for 150, 1 52/, in-season speed improvement 253-255 41, 92, 224-225
155 intensity geometry of 223-224
sprint loading programs for 142-144, in plyometrics training 100-103, 103*- language of 51,218-219, 223
144*, 145 104*, 105 in plyometrics 97-100
starts and stops for 200, 213 iri speed endurance tr aining 154-155 intensity guidelines
'
100-103, 103*- 104*,
force in sprint-assisted training 186 105
plyometrics training for 98-99 of weighting, in sport loading 136, 140- in sport loading 134-136, 141, 141*
in sporting events 219, 220*, 224 141 moving from upright position 200,
starts,
strength training for 67-68 interval sprint training 1, 14, 14*, 54 206-207, 207/
work and power relationship in 68-69, for speed endurance 150, 153*, 154- muscle(s)
69 155 energy-absorption by 92-93, 93/
fonn involved in sprinting 27, 32, 235
in comprehensive testing battery 10 1, 12 1, J in proper breathing mechanics 44, 46,
25, 93 jumps 49
in preseason speed improvement program in plyometrics training 97, 100-102, in stopping technique 213-215, 214f
240, 241 103*- 140* warm-up strategies for 62-63
specific training programs for 12 1, 215 in speed endurance training 150, 151*- musculoskeletal system
for sprinting. See sprinting form/ 152*, 156* positive effects of training on 51, 158*-
technique in sport loading 134, 140, 141* 159*
foundation training 40-66 as sprinting component 231-232, 232/ recovery factors of 180-183
anaerobic versus aerobic 55, 55 in sprinting form drills 235-236
for basic movement patterns 40-41, 224- K
225 knee joint N
breathing mechanics 44, 46, 49-50 isokinetic movement ratios for 31*
NASE 7*, 11*, 13, 27, 55, 156
critical task selection for 44, 45*-46*, power tr aining for 91
NBA 38-39, 129
58-59, 60*-61* in sprinting cycle 233, 233/ NFL
maximum playing speed 53, 54* in stopping technique 213-214, 214/ combine tests for 33-36
objectives of 40-41, 51
gr ade scale for 34-35
periodization of 40, 56-66, 57*-61*, 62, L kicker grading 35, 36*
66, 162, 164, 166f lacrosse
minimum standards by position 35-36,
in power training 51-54, 22 It key improvement areas for 3, 14*
35*
scorecard for 6, 32, 41-44, 43*, 45f-48* predominant energy systems used in 148, 33-34
physical tests and drills
speed endurance, long versus short 55- 148/ 149* snapper grading 35
56 speed endurance training for 150, 152*,
periodization training in 56, 57*
for sprint-assisted training 185,189 155 sport loading in 128-129
four-point stationary start 201-203, 201/ 200, 203, 206
starts for
neuromuscular system
206 leaning, during sprinting 234-235
229
effective training of 1-2, 51, 131,
loading
235
sensitization training of 94, 96,
G as plyometrics principle 97-99
in stopping technique 213-215,214/
as recovery factor 162, 164, 165/ nutrition, recovery and 169-178
gender
aerobic test scores 55, 55* carbohydrate intake 169, 171-174, 175*-
explosivepower 221,221*
M 176*
maximum body fat 10*, 22, 23*- 24*, 24 macrocycle(s) 3, 56, 57* fat intake160, 169, 172, 174-175, 175*-
stride ratings 17, 18*, 184
maintenance programs, sport- specific 255- 176*
genetics, as speed factor 1-2, 182 256, 256 hydration factor 177-178
gymnastics, energy needs of 173* MLB 37-38,37/ as interrelated 162, 164, 165/166/ 169

H ^ maneuvering
feinting
on the
218-219, 224, 226-228
224-227
field principles
protein intake 169, 171-172, 174, 175*-
176*
substrate concentration 171, 172/ 180,
handball 229-230 language 218-219, 223 183
heart rate 158*, 160-162, 161/
power and quickness 219-223, 221*- total menu plan 172, 175-177, 176*-
holistic programs, for speed improvement 222 * 177*
2-5, 231 response tim e 228-229 training impact on 54, 160-162, 160/
specific attack areas for 3-4, 4*-5*, 56, 64,
total body control 51, 228-230 178
92, 96-97, 240 martial arts 51-52, 225, 227
hollow sprints 150, 153*, 154-155 maximum oxygen uptake (VOqnax) 0
hops and hopping 225 with aerobic activity 147-148, 149*
in plyometrics training 97, 104*, 111/ Olympic lifts 73-76, 74/76/ 77, 77*, 80,
effects of training on 150, 153*, 159*, '

112/ 123/125/ 162 89,255

rightand left leg 9*, 21-22 overreaching, recovery and 161-162
maximum playing speed
in speed endurance training 150, 151*, overspeed training 90, 140
sport loading drills for 139-141
156* overstriding 232, 235
in sprint-assisted training 197-198,
hypergravity training overtraining 161-162, 182
197*
for hamstring conditioning 89-90 training for 53, 54*, 203, 223, 231
weighted vests for 131, 132*-133* mesocycles 56, 58*
P
microcycle (s) partner- assisted sprints, widi tubing 190*-
I
8-week preseason 3, 240, 241*-242*, 242, 191*, 192-195,211
ice hockey 149*, 150, 152* 253 partner-assisted starts 21 1, 21 1/
 / /

270 Index

peak performance strengthening 89-90, 90/ sport loading drills for 139-140, 142-143,
adaptation model of 162, 163/ strength testing 8/, 11/, 16, 30, 31/ 143/-144/
recovery and 157, 158/-159/, 162, 183 stretching 65 in sprint-assisted training 185-186, 193,
training strategies for 3, 128, 133, 242 quickness 203, 231
performance in comprehensive testing battery 6, 9/, 21 with 200, 206-207, 207/
starts

boundaries of 219, 220/ for maneuvering 1, 219-223, 221/-222/,

monitoring during training 160-161, 229 S
161/ specific training programs for 12/, 53, set position

recovery and 164, 165/- 166/ 97 for standing starts 204/ 205-206
tracking progress of 256-257, 258/262/ in stopping technique 213-215, 214 for stationary starts 200/201/ 202
periodization training 56-66 soccer
activity selection for 59, 60/-61/ R key improvement areas for 3, 4/, 14/
in comprehensive model 164,166/ range of motion 8/, 20, 63-66 maneuvering in 219, 229-230
cool-down routines 63, 65-66 reaction time 49, 51 predominant energy systems used in 148,
flexibility strategies with 63-66 recovery 157-169 149/
macrocycles for 56, 57 adaptation model of 73, 160-162, 160/ preseason speed improvement program for
mesocycles for 56, 58/ energy sources for 164, 169-171, 170/, 251/-252/
microcycles for 56, 59/ 183 professional, combine tests for 36-37
in plyometrics training 101-103, 103/- factors influencing 157,162 speed endurance training for 150, 152/,
104/ hydr ation and 177-178 155
program schedule for 58, 59/ monitoring training response for 1 60- 161, sport check scorecard 44, 45/-48/
setting objectives for 40, 58-59 161/ starts and stops for 200, 203, 206, 213
warm-up routines 62-63 nutrition and 159/, 160/ 165/166/ 169- softball. See baseball
pickup spiints 150, 153-155, 153/, 213 177, 172/ 175/-176/ specificity principle 68,134
playing speed 1-5 overreaching and overtraining 161-162, speed
holistic approach to 2-5,231,240 182 in comprehensive testing battery 12-14,
key improvement areas for 1, 3-4, 4/-5/ periodization and 58, 60/, 62, 66, 162, 13/
plyometrics 97-127 164, 166/ documented positive effects of training for
exercises and chills for 97, 105-126, 105 f- in plyometrics training 100, 102, 103/- 157, 158/-159/
126/ 105
104/, improvement programs for 240-255,
intensity guidelines for 100-103, 103/- rest and relaxation in 162, 164, 169, 241/-252/
104/,' 105 183 maintenance of sport-specific 255-256,
objectives of 2-5, 92, 97-98, 102, 103/- scientific principles of 157, 158/- 159/, 256/
104/ 162, 169 in plyometrics training 99-100
program design considerations 101-103, in speed endurance training 146-147, of sporting events 219, 220/
103/- 104/ 153-155 tracking progress on 256-257, 258/
recovery time for 100, 102, 103/- 104/, 105 in sprint-assisted training 186, 189, 191, 262/
safety precautions for 99-101 193, 197 speed assessment 6-39
sport loading skills for 97-99, 129, 140 impact on 157, 164, 165/
stress advanced testing program for 11/, 27,
in sport-specific programs 240, 242/, support modalities for 180-183 30-32,31/
254-256, 256/ rehabilitation 70-71 comprehensive testing battery for 6-27,
weight considerations 99, 101-102, 104/, repetitions 7/- 12/, 32

117/ 127/ in functional strength program 78-80, sport-specific comparisons of 53, 54/
power training 67-91 78/-81/, 90 team sport combine tests for 33-39
acceleration versusmass in 69-70, 69/, in periodization training 62, 64 training applications of 6, 32, 41-43, 43/,
186 in plyometrics training 102, 103/- 104/ 240
documented positive effects of 157, 158/- in speed endurance training 55-56, 150, speed endurance 146-156
159/ 151/ 152/, 154-155 in comprehensive testing battery" 6, 7/,
objectives of 67-68 in sprint-assisted training 186,189,191, 12-14,13/’ '

Olympic lifts in 73-76, 74/76/ 89 197-198 energy" systems and 146-148, 149/, 154
sample program for 77-79, 77/-81/, 83/ resistance training. See also weights and importance of 3-4, 70, 146
88/ weight training speed endurance training
in sport-specific programs 67-68, 240, plyometrics as 97-100 eight- week program for 150, 151/-152/
241/, 254-256, 256/ sport loading as 128, 130-131, 135, 141 - intensity in 154-155
sprint loading in 70, 142-145, 143/- 142, 142/ 145 maximum effort training in 155, 156/
144/ response time, training applications of 181, physiology" perspectives 146-148, 149/
weight throwing in 71-73,72/73/ 228-229 repetitions in 55-56, 150, 151/-152/,
preparatory position rest 162, 164, 169, 183 154-155
for standing starts 204, 204/ 206 rest intervals specific programs for 2, 5/, 11/, 55-56,
for stationary^ starts 200/201/ 202 for in-season training 255 90, 150, 153
for upright moving 206-207, 207/
starts for plyometrics training 100, 102, 103/- in sport- specific programs 240, 241/,
preseason speed improvement, tr aining pro- 104/ 254-256, 256/
gram for 240, 241/-242/, 242 for speed endurance trairring 146-147, 146, 154-156, 156/
tips for
sport- specific 242, 243/-2S2/, 253 153-155 speed repeats 55, 140, 156, 156/
progression 256-257, 258/262/’ for sprints 14, 14/, 26, 193, 197 speed-strength 67-68, 70, 199
pud throwing 7 1 -73 72/73/ ,
rugby speed-strength training
push-off action key improvement areas for 3, 14/, 148, documented positive effects of 157, 158/-
in plyometrics training 97 200, 206 159/
in sprinting 231-233, 232/ 235 speed endurance training for 150, 152/, plyometrics trairring in 98, 102, 103/-
in standing starts 204, 204/ 206 155 104/
200/201/ 201-202
in stationary starts runs and running. See also sprinting and in preseason improvement program 240,
in upright moving starts 206, 207f sprints 241/
energy needs of 173/, 203, 233-235 sport loading drills for 139- 141
Q in foundation training 62-64, 66 maintenance 255-256,
for sport-specific
quadriceps in speed endurance training 55-56, 150, 256/
in stopping technique 214, 214/ 151/- 153/, 153, 155, 156/ speedweek 77, 77/, 80, 255
 Index 271

spoil loading 128-145 splint loading. See sprint-assisted training tapering 136, 169
in acceleration training 137-138, 140 stairrunning 140, 142-143, 143*-144f technique
in maximum speed training 139-141, 14- stationary start 203-206, 204/
standing 25
in comprehensive testing battery 1 0*,
198 stalling power/ strength 199-213 programs for 12*
specific training
movement fundamentals in 134, 136, in comprehensive testing battery 6, It, for sprinting. See sprinting form/
141, I4lt 15, 15/37 technique
141-
objectives of 6, 70, 128-129 in-season maintenance of 255, 256* tennis
in plyometrics training 129, 140 key chills for 52, 207-212, 208/211/ predominant energy systems used in 1 48,
as resistance training 128, 130-131, 135, progran unable techniques of 70-71 149*
142- 142, 142/ 145 specific training programs for 3-4, 5*, 12*, speed endurance training for 14*, 150,
sport-specific examples of 128-129, 129/, 52, 98, 199 152*
240, 24 It, 254 sport loading drills for 137, HO, 142-145, three-point stationary start 200-203, 200/
sprint-assisted training as 140, 141t, 143*-144f total body control, training for 51, 228-
143, 143t-144t from standing position 203-206, 204/ 230
training variables of 135-137 from stationary position 200-203, 200/ towing, in sprint-assisted training 1 86- 1 87,
weighted equipment for 128, 130-131, 201/ 188*, 189, 192-193, 198
132*- 133*, 133-135, 134 1, 141-142, 212-213,212/
transition drills for track and field 149*, 221*
142/ from upright moving position 206-207, training programs
spoil- specific s kill s 68 207f assessment information for 6, 32, 41-43,
in sport loading 133-137, 134t stationary starts 202-203 43*, 240
in splint training 3, 5t, 14, 14t four-point 201-202,201/206 basic phases of 56
programs 240-262 15-
spoil-specific training three-point 200-201, 200/ documented positive effects of types of
development of 42, 44, 146-147, 240 stopping 213-217 157, 158*- 159*, 162
in-season speed improvement 253-255 incomprehensive testing battery 6, 7* training response
for maintenance 255-256, 256t in-season maintenance of 255, 256* monitoring of 160-161,161/
preseason speed improvement 240-253, key drills for 11*, 215-217, 216/217/ tracking progress of 256-257, 258/262/
241t-252t programmable techniques of 70-71 training zones
tracking progress in 256-257, 258/262/ technique for 213-214, 214/ equilibrium formula for 49-50, 93, 183,
sprint-assisted training 184-198 strength 218
for form and technique 39, 236-239, in comprehensive testing battery 6, 8*, recovery monitoring and 160-161, 160/
'

236/239/ 17, 18* 183

guidelines for 14, Ht, 185-187 positive training effects on 157, 158*- sport-specific, for sport loading 133-134,
holistic approach to 1-3, 5t, 56, 64, 231 159* 134*
maximum speed potential 197-198, programs for 11*, 199
specific training treadmill sprinting, high-speed 188*, 196-
197t strength training 67-91 198, 197*
in neuromuscular training 90, 1 84- 1 85 functional program for 67, 78-88, 78*- triathlon, energy needs of 173*
in power training 70, 145 82*, 83/88/ 105
repetitions in 186, 189, 191, 197-198 holistic approach to 2-5, 231, 240 U
running strategies 185-186, 1 93 203 ,
inertial impulse machines for 70-71 understriding 235
in speed endurance training 150, 151 1- objectives of 1-2, 67-68 uphill running 140, 142-143, 143*-144*
153t, 153-154, 153*, 156t Olympic 73-76, 74/76/ 89
lifts in upright moving starts 200, 206-207,
in sport loading HO, 141 *, 142-143, hi sport-specific programs 67-68, 240, 207
143*- 144* 241*, 254, 255-256, 256
in sport- specific programs 240, 241*- weight throwing in 71-73, 72/73/ V
242*, 254-256, 256 work and power principles of 68-70, 69*, vertical jumps
for starting strength 211-212 105, 186 in plyometrics training 104*, 121/
types of 187-198, 187*- 188* stretching exercises in team sport combine tests 33, 35, 38
sprinting and sprints for cool-down 66 vests, weighted
downhill 187*, 189, 190*-191 *, 212- 63-66
for flexibility7 hypergravity 131, 132*-133*
213 for plyometrics training 98-99, 102 integration into training programs 133-
high-speed treadmill 188*, 196-198, in preseason speed improvement program 135, 134*, 145
197* 240, 241 *-242* for sport-loading 130-131, 131/ 132*
interval 1, 14, 14*, 54, 150, 153*, 154- for sprint-assisted training 1 86 training variables of 135-137
155 for warm-up 62-63
NASE repetitions 7*, 11*, 13, 27, 55, stride and striding, in training 62, 150, W
156 151*-153* warm-up
for playing speed 1-3, 5* stride length in functional strength program 78*-80*
in preseason speed improvement program in comprehensive testing battery 6, 8*, for maneuvering 225
240, 242* 17 in periodization training 62-63, 102
prime muscle movers for 27, 32, 235 ideal, by age and gender 17, 18* in plyometrics training 1 0
relaxation for 203, 233-235 specific training programs for 3, 5*, 11* lor sport loading 134*, HI*
uphill 140, 142-143, 143*- 144* sprint-assisted training and 184-187, 195, in sport-specific training programs 240,
sprinting distance, sport-specific guidelines 198 241*, 254
for 14, 14* as sprinting speed factor 231-232, 232/ in sprint-assisted training 185-1 87
splinting form/ technique 23 1 -239 stride rate weights and weight training. See also sport
arm action in 234-235 in comprehensive testing battery 1 Of, 26- loading
key 235-239, 236/239/
drills for 27 versus acceleration, in power training 69-
in sprint-assisted training 186-187, 196 figuring 10*, 26, 28*-29* 70, 69*, 186
stride cycle in 233-234, 233/ specific training programs for 3, 5*, 12* energy needs of 173*
stride frequency in 231-232, 232/ as speed factor 139, 184, 203 for muscle balance 30, 31*
stride length in231-232,232/ sprint-assisted training and 184, 187, for playing speed 1, 199, 207
troubleshooting 234-235 191, 195, 198 in plyometrics training 99, 1 0 1 - 1 02, 1 04*,

sprinting speed 11* swimming 71, 173* 1 17/ 127/

in comprehensive testing battery 6, It, for strength and power 70, 131, 135, HO,
12-14, 13/ I 207
stride components of 231-232, 232/ takeoff phase 202-206 wrestling, energy needs of 173*
 George B. Dintiman, a professor emeritus of
health and physical education at Virginia Com-
monwealth University, has more than 30 years
experience working on speed improvement with
athletes at all levels. The author of 40 books and
four videos on speed improvement and health
and wellness, Dintiman also is cofounder and
president of the National Association of Speed
and Explosion and an internationally recognized
authority on speed improvement for team sports.
Dintiman received an EdD from the Teachers
College of Columbia University in 1964. In 1993
he was an inductee in the Capital Area chapter
of the Pennsylvania Sports Hall of Fame.

Bob Ward was conditioning coach for the

Dallas Cowboys from 1976 to 1989. He is di-
rector of sports science for Advocare in Dallas.
An author, columnist, and lecturer, Ward has
coached several Olympic champions and nu-
merous championship football and track teams.
Ward has authored other books on sport speed
and has lectured extensively on conditioning,
track and field, and nutritional support for ath-
letes. He developed a software program based on

many forms of the martial arts that is currently

used in the NFL and at many colleges. Ward
also developed a sport martial arts video. Creat-
ing Big Plays, with NFL Hall-of-Famer Randy
White and world-class martial artist Valentine Espiriceuta. Ward received a
PED from Indiana Lfiiiversity in 1973. He is a member of the National Strength
and Conditioning Association.

272
Achieve your playing speed potential! Sports
Speed shows how through the most effective
• tests and assessments,

• strength base building,

• ballistic and plyometric training,
• speed endurance training,
• running techniques,
• footwork drills,
• overspeed training, and
• program planning and periodization.
All-new techniques and drills will help you
improve starts and stops, changes in direction,
and acceleration. Boost your performance to the
max with Sports Speed.

ISBN 0-7360-46A9-6
5 19 9 5

Human Kinetics
$19.95
In Canada $33.95