Robert S.

Weinberg

Goal Setting in Sport

and Exercise 3
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Research to Practice

M
” y goal is to improve my free throw percentage from 70%
to 80%.”
“My objective is to reduce my unforced errors in tennis
matches from 30 to 20.”
“Our goal is to go to the conference championship.”
“I want to be able to bench press 250 pounds.”
“My goal in skateboarding is to do a 360° flip.”
The above are just a few examples of different types of
goals that athletes set in an attempt to improve their perfor-
mance. Sport psychologists do not typically have a problem
getting athletes to set goals. Rather, they have difficulty get-
ting athletes to set the right kind of goals, goals that enhance
motivation and direct attention toward goal completion.
Athletes typically do not need to be convinced that goals are
important; however, they may need to be instructed about
the most effective types of goals to set and trained to develop
a goal-setting program that works.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/14251-003
Exploring Sport and Exercise Psychology, Third Edition, J. Van Raalte and
B. Brewer (Editors)
Copyright © 2014 by the American Psychological Association.
All rights reserved.

33
 34 R obert S . W ei n ber g

This chapter is designed specifically to help individuals involved in

sport and exercise learn more about effective goal setting. A research-
to-practice orientation is taken. The chapter begins with the definitions
of goals, a brief discussion of goal-setting theory, and the presentation
of goal-setting research. From this research, principles of effective goal
setting are identified, and special cases related to goal setting for young
athletes and people with injuries are described.
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The Concept of Goal Setting

By definition, a goal is that which an individual is trying to accomplish;

it is the object or aim of an action. For example, in most goal-setting
studies, the term goal refers to attaining a specific level of proficiency
on a task, usually within a specified time limit (Locke, Shaw, Saari, &
Latham, 1981). From a practical point of view, goals focus on standards
of excellence, such as improving free throw percentage by 5 points,
losing 10 pounds, lowering one’s time in the mile run by 4 seconds, or
improving one’s batting average by 20 points. In addition, goals have to
be reached within a given time frame, such as by the end of the season or
within a certain number of days, weeks, or months. In a more descriptive
definition, Lessin argued:
Goals are like magnets that attract us to higher ground and new
horizons. They give our eyes a focus, our mind an aim, and our
strength a purpose. Without their pull, we would remain forever
stationary, incapable of moving forward. . . . A goal is a possibility
that fulfills a dream. (As cited in Kennedy, 1998, p. 25)
Finally, from a definitional perspective, goals can be either objective or
subjective. Although objective goals such as running a mile in 7 minutes
are easily measurable, subjective goals, such as having more fun in com-
petition, can also be assessed (e.g., How much fun did you have today?
can be anchored from 1, a lot less, to 7, a lot more). This type of goal setting
can be augmented by behavior changes such as the addition of training
components that make practice more fun (e.g., more positive self-talk use,
establishing more friendships on the team, working hard during drills).

Goal-Setting Theory

Locke and his colleagues (Locke, 1966, 1968, 1978; Locke & Latham,
1990, 2002, 2006; Locke, Shaw, Saari, & Latham, 1981) developed
and continued to update a theory of goal setting that has served as
 Goal Setting in Sport and Exercise 35

the stimulus for literally hundreds of studies in industrial and organi-

zational settings, and more recently in sport and exercise. The basic
assumption of goal-setting theory is that task performance is regulated
directly by the conscious goals that individuals set with regard to a
particular task. Goals operate largely through internal comparison pro-
cesses and require internal standards against which to evaluate ongoing
performance. According to the theory, hard goals result in a higher
level of performance and effort than easy goals, and specific hard goals
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result in higher levels of performance than no goals or generalized goals

such as “do your best.” Furthermore, goals mediate how performance
is affected by monetary incentives, time limits, knowledge of results,
degree of commitment, and competition. Locke argued that although
goals can influence behavior, no simple correlation between goals and
behavior can be assumed because people make errors and/or lack the
ability to attain their objectives. Although most research investigating
the goal-setting–performance relationship has set out to test the propo-
sitions put forth by Locke, other theories have been developed. These
include cognitive mediation theory (Garland, 1985), goal orientation
theory (Harwood, Spray, & Keegan, 2008; Nicholls, 1984a, 1984b), and
the updated competitive goal-setting model (Burton & Weiss, 2008),
which is discussed later in the chapter.

Goal Setting and

Task Performance in
Industrial Settings

Research on goal setting as a motivational strategy has proliferated so rap-

idly in the past 50 years that reviews have often used the statistical tech-
nique of meta-analysis to aggregate findings across studies (e.g., Klein,
Wesson, Hollenbeck, & Alge, 1999; Locke & Latham, 1990, 2006; Mento,
Steel, & Karren, 1987; Tubbs, 1986). There are now over 550 studies in the
industrial/organizational psychology literature testing the effects of goal
setting on performance. The most tested aspect of Locke’s theory revolves
around the relationship of goal difficulty/specificity and performance.
As previously mentioned, Locke (1966, 1968) has argued that specific,
difficult, challenging goals lead to higher levels of task performance than
easy goals, no goals, or “do your best” goals. Locke and Latham (1990)
reviewed 201 studies involving over 40,000 subjects. Of these studies,
91% supported Locke’s initial hypothesis. These results were found by
using approximately 90 different tasks in both laboratory and field set-
tings, highlighting the robustness and generalizability of these findings.
 36 R obert S . W ei n ber g

Locke and Latham (2002, 2006) have more recently confirmed these
findings.
A second core aspect of Locke’s goal-setting theory is that there is a
linear relationship between degree of goal difficulty and performance.
The only exception is when subjects reach the limits of their ability at
high goal-difficulty levels; in such cases, performance levels off. Three
separate meta-analyses have reviewed the empirical studies testing the
goal difficulty–performance relationship (Chidester & Grigsby, 1984;
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Mento et al., 1987; Tubbs, 1986). Results from these meta-analyses

have revealed effect sizes ranging from 0.52 to 0.82. In addition, of the
192 studies reviewed, 175 (91%) provided support for harder goals
producing higher levels of task performance than easy goals. Thus, the
goal difficulty–specificity relationships found in industrial settings pro-
vide one of the most consistent and robust effects in the social science
literature.

Goal Setting in Sport

and Exercise

Although considerable research has been conducted on goal setting in

industrial and organizational settings, sport and exercise psychology
researchers have studied the topic for only 20 to 25 years. A systematic
and concerted effort to study this relationship began with the publication
of Locke and Latham’s (1985) article on the application of goal setting
to sports. Following the emphasis in industrial psychology, goal-setting
research in sport and exercise settings has focused on the areas of goal
specificity, goal difficulty, and goal proximity.
These areas have been investigated using a variety of skilled and
physical fitness tasks such as sit-ups, basketball free throws, lacrosse
ground balls, circuit training, and swimming different distances. Although
there have been some inconsistent results, the vast majority of studies
have revealed that goal setting can help physical and athletic performance
(see Burton & Weiss, 2008; Weinberg, 1992, for reviews). Weinberg
(1994) argued that some of the earlier inconsistent findings were at least
in part due to methodological and design considerations including sponta-
neous goal setting in control groups, participant motivation and commit-
ment, task characteristics, and competition among participants. Studies
conducted in the past 15 years have improved on these methodologi-
cal shortcomings and have revealed stronger goal setting–performance
relationships (see Burton & Weiss, 2008, for a review).
Research to assess the perceived effectiveness of goal setting has also
been conducted by surveying sport psychology consultants working
 Goal Setting in Sport and Exercise 37

with U.S. Olympic athletes. Results revealed that goal setting was one
of the most often used psychological interventions in both individual
athlete–coach and group consultations (Gould, Tammen, Murphy, &
May, 1989; Sullivan & Nashman, 1998). In addition, results from Orlick
and Partington’s (1988) study of Canadian Olympic athletes and exten-
sive questionnaire research (Burton, Pickering, Weinberg, Yukelson, &
Weigand, 2010) demonstrate the extensive use of goal setting as athletes
reported daily goal setting as part of their regular training regimen.
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Overall, it seems that goal setting is an extremely powerful technique

for enhancing performance. For example, several intervention studies
conducted across athletic seasons revealed that setting specific, obtain-
able, moderately difficult goals led to higher levels of performance
than equivalent control conditions (Kingston & Hardy, 1997; Swain
& Jones, 1995; Weinberg, Stitcher, & Richardson, 1994). In addition,
other studies using athlete populations (e.g., Burton et al., 2010; Burton,
Weinberg, Yukelson, & Weigand, 1998; Filby, Maynard, & Graydon, 1999;
Weinberg, Burke, & Jackson, 1997; Weinberg, Burton, Yukelson,
& Weigand, 2000) as well as a meta-analysis (Kyllo & Landers, 1995)
and an exhaustive review (Burton & Weiss, 2008) have demonstrated
that there are certain consistencies in the goal-setting literature in sport
and exercise settings. These consistencies are as follows:

❚❚ Almost all athletes use some type of goal setting to enhance

performance and find these goals to be moderately to highly
effective.
❚❚ Athletes using multiple goal strategies exhibit the best perfor-
mances.
❚❚ Athletes and coaches are not systematic in writing down their
goals.
❚❚ The primary reason for setting goals is to provide direction and
focus.
❚❚ Major barriers to achieving goals include lack of time, stress,
fatigue, academic pressures, and social relationships.
❚❚ Goals should be moderately difficult, challenging, and realistic.
❚❚ Athletes should focus on process- as opposed to product-related
goals.
❚❚ Athletes should use both short-term and long-term goals.
❚❚ Goal commitment and acceptance are important in keeping
motivation high over time.
❚❚ Action plans facilitate the effective implementation of goal-setting
strategies.

Thus, it is clear from the research and professional practice literature that
goal setting can be effective in enhancing performance. However, these
studies have revealed that goal setting is not a foolproof method that
 38 R obert S . W ei n ber g

can be easily implemented without careful thought and planning. As

a result, individuals who attempt to implement goal-setting programs
in sport and exercise settings should have a firm understanding of the
goal-setting process.

Why Goal Setting Is Effective

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Locke et al. (1981) put forth the mechanistic explanation regarding

the effectiveness of goals in enhancing performance. They argued that
goals influence performance in four distinct ways: (a) directing attention,
(b) mobilizing effort, (c) enhancing persistence, and (d) developing new
learning strategies. Each of these mechanisms is briefly discussed next.
One way that goals can influence performance is by directing an
individual’s attention to the task and the relevant cues in the athletic or
exercise environment. In fact, college and Olympic athletes have reported
that the most important reason they set goals is to focus attention on the
task at hand (Burton et al., 2010; Weinberg et al., 2000). For example, if
a basketball player sets a goal of improving his field goal percentage,
foul shot percentage, and assists, then undoubtedly he would focus his
attention in these specific game areas. In essence, the basketball player’s
attention is focused on important elements of his game that need to be
improved.
In addition to focusing attention, goals increase effort and persistence
by providing feedback in relation to progress. For example, a long-distance
runner may not feel like putting in the required mileage day after day
or may become bored with the repetitive routine of training. By setting
short-terms goals and seeing progress toward long-term goals, motivation
can be maintained on a day-by-day basis as well as over time. Similarly,
losing 60 pounds might seem like an impossible task for an obese person
who has been overweight much of his or her life. However, by setting a
goal of losing 2 pounds a week and charting this subgoal accomplishment,
the individual can stay motivated and persist with the weight loss program
for the time required.
The final mechanism by which goals can influence performance is
through the development of relevant learning strategies. That is, when
goals are set, strategies can be put in place by coaches or athletes to
help reach the goal. This is an area in which both coaches and athletes
should be especially diligent and detailed in designing strategies to meet
goals. For example, if a basketball player had a goal of improving her free
throw percentage from 70% to 75%, she might invoke the strategy of
shooting an extra 100 free throws each day, changing her preshot routine,
or changing her mechanics of shooting. In any case, new strategies are
developed to help the player attain her free throw shooting goal.
 Goal Setting in Sport and Exercise 39

Goal-Setting Principles

It is apparent from the theoretical and empirical research reviewed pre-

viously that goal setting can enhance performance and personal growth
in sport and exercise environments. The key is to structure goal-setting
programs so that they are consistent with the basic principles derived
from the organizational and sport psychology literature as well as from
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professional practice knowledge of sport and exercise psychologists

working in field settings (Weinberg, 2010). Keep in mind that the suc-
cess of any motivational technique is dependent on the interaction of
the individuals and the situation in which the individuals are placed
(Dweck, 1986). For example, goal effectiveness is maximized when goal
orientations and specific types of goals are matched (Giannini, Weinberg,
& Jackson, 1988). Thus, task-oriented individuals are most motivated
by goals that focus on self-improvement, whereas ego-oriented indi-
viduals are most motivated by goals that focus on winning and losing
(Pierce & Burton, 1998). The goal-setting principles listed in Exhibit 3.1
and discussed subsequently should be considered within this context.

Set Specific, Measurable Goals

One of the most consistent findings from the goal-setting literature is
that specific goals produce higher levels of task performance than no
goals or general “do your best” goals (Burton & Weiss, 2008; Weinberg
& Weigand, 1993). Athletes often hear coaches and teachers tell partici-
pants simply to “go out and do your best,” but the vagueness inherent
in “do your best” makes it hard to determine whether goals have been
met. Although “do your best” instructions can be motivating, they are not

Exhibit 3.1

Goal-Setting Principles

1. Set specific goals.

2. Set realistic but challenging goals.
3. Set both long- and short-term goals.
4. Set goals for practice and competition.
5. “Ink it, don’t think it.”
6. Develop goal achievement strategies.
7. Set performance and process goals.
8. Set individual and team goals.
9. Provide support for goals.
10. Provide for goal evaluation.
 40 R obert S . W ei n ber g

as powerful in enhancing motivation and performance as is encouraging

participants to achieve a specific goal. Furthermore, in identifying
specific goals, it is important that goals be measurable in behavioral terms.
For example, telling a tennis player to improve her first serve percent-
age would not be as helpful as telling her that you want her to improve
her percentage from 50% to 60% by tossing the ball out in front. This
gives the player a specific goal to shoot for and a way to determine
whether she achieved the goal. To take an exercise example, it does not
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help much to tell people taking a weight-training class that the goal is to
become stronger. Rather, a specific goal of increasing the amount they
can bench press by 25% over the next 3 months would be more useful.
Finally, specific goals should emphasize both quantity and quality if
possible. For example, a goal might be to improve the number of good
shots on goal (in soccer) by 20%.

Set Realistic but Challenging

or Moderately Difficult Goals
Another of the consistent findings from the research literature is that
goals should be challenging and difficult, yet attainable (Burton & Naylor,
2002; Burton, Naylor, & Holliday, 2001; Locke & Latham, 1990). Goals
that are too easy do not present a challenge to the individual, which
leads to less than maximum effort. This, in turn, might result in being
satisfied with a mediocre performance instead of extending oneself to
reach one’s potential. Conversely, setting goals that are too difficult and
unrealistic will often result in failure. This can lead to frustration, low-
ered self-confidence and motivation, and decreased performance. For
example, many high school and college athletes have goals and aspira-
tions of becoming professional athletes. Unfortunately, less than 1% will
likely ever reach this goal (Coakley, 2009), and thus the vast majority
of these athletes are doomed to failure and possible motivational prob-
lems. This is not to say that athletes should not strive to aspire for a
professional career. Rather, a realistic look at one’s abilities and chances
of success is needed within the context of that dream goal of becoming a
professional athlete. Thus, the secret is to find a balance between setting
oneself up for failure and pushing oneself to strive for success. In this
middle ground reside challenging, realistic, attainable goals.
Those who have been athletes, coaches, and teachers understand
that striking this balance between goal difficulty and achievability is no
easy task. For example, it is critical for sport psychologists and coaches
to know the capabilities and motivation of athletes in attempting to
help them set realistic goals. Sometimes this is a trial-and-error process.
But a good rule of thumb is to set more immediate goals no more than
5% above current performance over the past few weeks. In addition,
 Goal Setting in Sport and Exercise 41

the individual should be fairly confident that the goal is achievable. So

if a runner has a best time of 5:00 minutes for the mile, a short-term
goal might be approximately 4:50 in 3 months. If this seems too difficult
(or too easy), the goal can be adjusted upward or downward. As a general
rule, as athletes’ performances get closer to the limits of their abilities,
performance improvements of as little as 1% can be significant. For
example, a mile runner whose best time the past few weeks had been
4:00 might find cutting 2 to 3 seconds to be a significant and challenging
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goal. Thus, sport and exercise professionals can help athletes in goal set-
ting by supporting athletes in the goal-setting process, offering concrete
suggestions for challenging goals. If it becomes apparent that the goals
are too easy or too hard or the athletes meet their goals, realistic and
challenging goals should be established.

Set Both Short- and Long-Term Goals

In working with sport and exercise participants, the focus tends to be
on long-term or seasonal goals such as winning the state championship
or losing 30 pounds in 6 months. However, research has shown that
both short- and long-term goals are necessary in keeping motivation and
performance high over time (Weinberg, Burton, Yukelson, & Weigand,
1993; Weinberg et al., 2000). Short-term goals are important because
they can provide feedback concerning progress toward the long-term
goal. The feedback can serve a motivational function and allow the
adjustment of goals either upward or downward, depending on the
situation. Short-term goals by their nature allow sport and exercise par-
ticipants to focus on improvement in smaller increments, which may
make goals seem more attainable than would an otherwise seemingly
impossible long-term goal.
For example, a swimmer getting ready for the Olympic Games
calculated that he would have to cut 2 seconds off his time in the
200-meter backstroke if he was to win a medal in the upcoming games.
Two seconds is an enormous amount of time in a short race, and the
swimmer felt this to be impossible. But then instead of focusing on
the long-term goal, he figured out how to break it up into manageable
short-term goals. Specifically, the Olympics were 2 years away, so he
figured that he would have to knock off 1 second per year. Furthermore,
given that there are 12 months in a year, he figured he would have to
knock off 0.08 seconds each month. Finally, because there are 4 weeks
in a month, he would have to shave off 0.02 seconds each week. The
swimmer felt he could do this! Thus, achieving short-term weekly goals
of reducing his time by 0.02 seconds became his goal. The result was a
gold medal in the backstroke for John Nabor.
Although short-term goals are obviously important, long-term
goals are also necessary. Long-term goals provide the direction and
 42 R obert S . W ei n ber g

final destination for sport and exercise participants and sometimes act
as a dream goal. In essence, they keep the focus on where to end up. If
progress toward this goal is not fast enough, or if it is ahead of schedule,
then the long-term goal can be adjusted so that it is in tune with the
new short-term goals. A good way to envision the interaction of short-
term and long-term goals is to think of a staircase with the long-term
goal at the top, the present level of performance at the bottom, and a
sequence of progressively linked short-term goals connecting the top
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and the bottom of the stairs.

Set Goals for Practice and Competition

One of the mistakes that is often made in setting goals is focusing solely
or predominantly on competition goals. This does not imply that setting
competitive goals is inappropriate; rather, it suggests that practice goals
should not be forgotten (Bell, 1983). With the emphasis placed on
winning in most competitive sports, it is no wonder that competition
goals that focus on competitive outcomes are predominant. However,
for most sports, daily practices encompass much more time commitment
than do competitions. This is especially the case in sports such as gym-
nastics, figure skating, and track and field, where usually there are only
a few important meets; the rest of the time is spent on practice, practice,
practice. Moreover, most athletes report that it is easier to “get up” and
get motivated for a game or match, whereas additional motivation is
needed for daily practice (Gould, 2010).
Practice goals should focus on both performance and nonperformance
outcomes. In addition, practice goals should focus on the quantity or
quality of skill mechanics and should push athletes past their comfort
zone. Practice goals should be difficult enough to encourage athletes to
strive to improve in some way every day. Some typical practice goals
could include arriving at practice on time, giving teammates positive
reinforcement and encouragement, displaying leadership behaviors,
and achieving certain performance standards for specific drills. For
example, a basketball player might set a goal of hitting 10 consecutive
free throws at the end of practice. This practice goal can serve several
purposes. First, it will help the player focus on his free throw shooting
and possibly developing different strategies to improve his free throw
shooting percentage (e.g., preshot routine). In addition, as the player
gets closer to hitting 10 in a row, the pressure starts to build because
the player certainly does not want to miss after making eight or nine in
a row and then have to start all over. This creates a sense of pressure
that will help transfer to the pressure of real game situations. Finally,
research indicates that practice goals are as important as competition goals
(Filby et al., 1999). But competition goals are also valuable, particularly
 Goal Setting in Sport and Exercise 43

when they are focused on doing the things that lead to winning, rather
than solely on outcomes such as winning. Thus, swimmers might set
a competition goal of executing their turns correctly using a cue word
such “push-off” or “head up” to ensure proper turning. (See Chapter 5
in this volume for more information about self-talk.)

“Ink It, Don’t Think It”

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Several sport psychologists (e.g., Burton & Raedeke, 2008; Gould,

2010; Weinberg et al., 2000) have emphasized the importance of writ-
ing down and recording goals. Not only should goals be written down,
they also should be recorded in a place where they can be easily seen.
This can be done in a number of ways, such as by putting goals (as well
as goal progress) on a bulletin board outside a swimming pool with a
graph recording the number of miles that each swimmer has completed
each week. Athletes can write their goals on a 3 × 5 card before each
practice. The key is not simply that the goals are written down but that
goals are available and remain salient to each individual, that is, that the
goals garner goal commitment (see Burton & Weiss, 2008, for a review).
Often coaches will go through elaborate goal-setting procedures with
their athletes at the beginning of the season, writing down all sorts of goals
that are placed in a drawer, never to be looked at again. Particularly in
working with individuals with little goal-setting experience, it is useful
to set a limited number of goals, choosing those of the highest priority.
Coaches or sport and exercise psychologists should set and record the
highest-priority goals, then find a highly visible spot to keep them fresh
in the participant’s mind. Some athletes post goals in their lockers or
on their bedroom mirrors.

Develop Goal Achievement Strategies

Locke (1968), in his seminal work, proposed that one of the mechanisms
underlying the effectiveness of goals in enhancing performance is the
development of relevant learning strategies. Unfortunately, this aspect
of goal setting is often neglected, as goals are set without a solid series
of strategies for achieving these them. Setting goals without also setting
appropriate strategies for achieving them is like setting a goal to drive
from New York City to Los Angeles in 4 days but forgetting to bring a map.
A good example of an athlete who was systematic in planning to
reach his goals was Michael Johnson, Olympic gold medalist in the
200 and 400 meters.
You must understand, I am not by nature a daydreamer. I try
to control those parts of my life that can be controlled, to plan
everything that I want to happen down to the most insignificant
 44 R obert S . W ei n ber g

detail. I “traffic” in a world where fractions of a second separate

success and failure, so I’d visualized the 1996 Olympics down
to the millisecond. I’d crafted a decade of dreams into ambitions,
refined ambitions into goals, and finally hammered goals into
plans. (Johnson, 1996, p. xiv)
Many athletes and exercisers are great in setting goals but lack
specific action plans for reaching them. For example, if someone who
has been sedentary for a long time wants to start exercising, she might set
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a goal of walking for 15 minutes five times a week. Specific plans might
include when to walk, where to walk, with whom to walk, how fast to
walk, and even what to do about child care. The point is that specific
action plans can really help in achieving goals. Thus, an athlete who
sets a goal of running a 10-km race in under 40 minutes will also benefit
from planning such things as how many miles a day to train, how fast
a pace to train and race, how to gain improved biomechanics, how to
maintain proper mental focus when running, and whether to train with
a partner. Imagining the goal can be a powerful tool in enhancing goal
commitment and achievement (Burton & Weiss, 2008).

Prioritize Process, Performance,

and Outcome Goals
It is extremely important for individuals to set goals that are based on
their own levels of performance, rather than solely on the outcome of
winning and losing. Unfortunately, given the emphasis society places
on competition and winning, it is often difficult not to focus on the
final score and outcome of the competition. The ironic thing about this
focus on outcome goals is that sport psychologists working with elite
athletes have found that the best way to win a championship or gold
medal is to focus on performance or process goals (Kingston & Hardy,
1997; Orlick & Partington, 1988; Weinberg, 2010). Too much emphasis
placed on outcome goals (i.e., winning) at the time of the competition
can increase competitive anxiety. This can result in the athlete focusing
on the consequences of success or failure (“What will my coach and
friends think about me if I lose?”) instead of on the task at hand.
Once again, the key point is not that outcome goals are inappropriate;
rather, problems arise when individuals focus on outcome goals to the
exclusion of performance goals (one’s performance in relation to a stan-
dard such as high-jumping 6 feet 4 inches) and process goals (how one
performs a skill such as jumping explosively for extra height). In fact,
as most coaches will confirm, if athletes meet process and performance
goals, then the outcome goal of winning will usually take care of itself.
For example, if a basketball team meets its goals in the areas of effort,
assists, field goal percentage, rebounds, and foul shot percentage, then
the team’s chances of winning will go up dramatically. Some research
 Goal Setting in Sport and Exercise 45

(Weinberg et al., 1993) indicates that fun (along with performance and
outcome goals) was given by collegiate athletes as one of their top three
goals. Mixing in some fun in the practices and games can help keep
motivation high and enhance persistence over the long haul.

Set Individual and Team Goals

Coaches of team sports often ask, “Should I have my players set indi-
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vidual goals in addition to team goals?” It depends on the nature of

the individual goals. That is, there is a place for individual goals within
a team sport, as long as the individual goals do not conflict with team
goals (Weinberg et al., 2000). Thus, a hockey player’s goal of scoring
30 goals throughout the season has the potential to be in conflict with
team goals if the player becomes more concerned with scoring goals
than helping the team win. In basketball, even a point guard’s goal of
increasing her assists per game could backfire if she turns down good
opportunities for her own shots in favor of passing the ball. However, in
many instances, athletes’ meeting their individual goals can help ensure
the success of the team. In fact, researchers have found that team goals
enhance performance as effectively as individual goals if they foster
individual goal setting (Locke & Latham, 1990). Thus, sport psychology
consultants should be cautious when athletes set individual goals and
ensure that they contribute to overall team goals.
Team goals without individual goals can result in reduced effort
by individuals. This phenomenon is known as social loafing (Hardy &
Latané, 1988). This performance problem plagues teams because athletes
working together on a task tend to exert less individual effort and perform
at a lower level than when they try to do the task themselves. They
often feel that they can loaf because other teammates will take up the
slack. Holding players accountable is important even in a team sport in
which it is often difficult to determine individual contributions during
the game. Although contributions cannot always be identified in real
time, half-time talks or review of game film can help individual athletes
evaluate their progress toward both team and individual goals.
Research by Brawley, Carron, and Widmeyer (1992) and Widmeyer
and DuCharme (1997) revealed the widespread use of group or team
goals both in practice and in competition. Dawson, Bray, and Widmeyer
(2002) found four types of goals evident in sports teams: team members’
goals for themselves, individual members’ goals for the team, team or
group goals, and the group goals for individual team members. They
identified six principles of effective team goal setting:
1. Establish long-term goals first.
2. Establish clear paths of short-term goals en route to long-term
goals.
 46 R obert S . W ei n ber g

3. Involve all members of the team in establishing team goals.

4. Monitor progress toward team goals.
5. Reward progress made toward team goals.
6. Foster collective team confidence or efficacy concerning team
goals.

Provide Support for Goals

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The psychological literature has provided strong evidence for the notion
that social support is an important factor in keeping people motivated
and persistent, especially when there are obstacles preventing goal
attainment (Cohen, 1988; Weinberg & Gould, 2011). Similarly, research
(Hardy, Richman, & Rosenfeld, 1991) has reinforced the critical role that
significant others can play in helping individuals achieve their goals. For
example, in fitness settings, Raglin (2001) showed that spouse support
is an important factor affecting exercise adherence. As a result, exercise
programs aimed at increasing fitness and losing weight often involve
spouses in the program by informing them of the participant’s goals and
ways in which the spouse can support the participant’s achievement of
these goals. Similarly, volleyball coaches who are trying to emphasize
performance goals with their athletes may encourage their athletes to
enlist the help of teammates, parents, teachers, and friends in providing
support for these performance goals.

Get Feedback on Goal Progress

Locke and Latham (1990) found that in 17 of 18 studies, goals plus feed-
back produced significantly higher performance than goals alone and
that 21 of 22 studies found that a combination of goals and feedback was
significantly better than feedback alone. Furthermore, adding feedback
to goals raised performance by approximately 17% (Mento et al., 1987).
An outside person such as a coach or exercise leader can provide feed-
back, or feedback can be provided by the athlete or exerciser. For example,
a gymnast may need specific feedback from the coach because it is often
hard to assess progress on the basis of subjective judging in competitions.
Gymnasts might also monitor thoughts, feelings, and performance
by keeping performance logs. Self-monitoring can be done after every
practice, and progress toward goals can be achieved by comparing the
logs with the goals. In addition, reasons for not achieving goals may be
found in the log, and thus appropriate changes can be made.

Evaluate Goal Progress

Goal evaluation may be the most important step in the goal-setting
process (Locke & Latham, 1990). Although feedback provides athletes
 Goal Setting in Sport and Exercise 47

Table 3.1

Goal Evaluation Card

Stroke Specific goal Strategy Short-term goal Target date

Serve Improve first serve Hit an extra Improve first serve Achieve 60% first
percentage from 50 serves percentage to 55% over serve by end of
50% to 60% in practice the next three matches the season
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and exercisers information on how they are doing (e.g., keeping their
head still while hitting a tennis ball) or what to adjust (e.g., predicting
a certain play based on the defense in football), evaluation provides
specific information on how individuals are progressing toward their
goals (e.g., averaging 10 points a game in basketball when the goal was
12 points per game). See Table 3.1 for an example. Periodically evaluat-
ing goals can help individuals know when to reevaluate their goals. If a
runner, for example, was injured and her mile time increased from 5:00
to 5:10, then her goal of 4:45 could be readjusted to 5:00. Conversely, if
the runner had already reached her stated goal, then it might be read-
justed to 4:35. The main point is that goals are starting places and not
ending places, and athletes and exercisers should reevaluate their goals
regularly. That does not mean that goals should be changed daily just
because of fluctuations in performance. For example, Weinberg et al.
(2000) found that coaches varied widely in how often they reevaluated
their goals, ranging from daily to monthly to yearly. However, Burton
and Raedeke (2008) argued that goals should be maintained for at least
a week before adjusting them. The frequent evaluation will tend to
keep individuals’ motivation and confidence high.

Reinforce Goal Attainment

Reinforcing goal attainment (or significant progress toward achieving
a goal) will help individuals continue that behavior (Smith, 2010). In
addition, the reward should encourage the individual to start a new
goal-setting process as the individual builds toward higher and more
challenging goals. Oftentimes in the teaching of new skills, whether in
sport or exercise settings, skills are broken down into smaller units so that
individuals can more easily learn the movements. Rewards can be pro-
vided for individuals attaining each or some of these smaller goals as they
move toward their larger goal of learning the entire skill. For example,
the tennis serve is a complicated skill. Just getting a consistent ball toss is
difficult for most beginners (even pros occasionally have trouble with this).
Thus, achieving a consistent toss might very well deserve a reward.
 48 R obert S . W ei n ber g

Evaluate Goal Barriers

For most people, barriers crop up while they are trying to achieve goals.
This is especially the case if the goals are long term in nature, as both
internal and external barriers can get in the way. Research on Olympic
athletes indicates that internal barriers, including lack of confidence,
lack of physical ability (relative to the other Olympic athletes), goals
that were too difficult, and increased pressure, and external barriers such
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as lack of time to train properly, lack of social support, work commit-

ments, and family responsibilities all contributed to a lack of goal attain-
ment (Weinberg et al., 2000). Of course, the specific barriers that affect
individual athletes and exercisers may vary. For example, exercisers could
have a variety of internal and external barriers, including lack of child
care, no perceived time because of family or work responsibilities, lack
of motivation, lack of money (to join a fitness facility), low self-esteem,
and injury.
In all cases, barriers should be considered as well as strategies for
overcoming the barriers. For example, a basketball player who sets a goal
of improving rebounding might have a coach who emphasizes learning
different offensive plays and defensive alignments, spending most prac-
tice time on these aspects. To overcome this barrier to attainment of
the rebounding goal, an athlete might plan to stay after practice to work
specifically on rebounding, watch great rebounders on tape to learn the
fine points of rebounding, or talk to the coach about rebounding weak
points and how to address them. Anticipating and overcoming goal
barriers can greatly contribute to goal-setting success.

Special Cases of Goal Setting

Much of the chapter thus far has dealt with goal setting and athletes
and exercisers. However, the focus in recent years has been on apply-
ing goal setting to different sport populations or subpopulations.
Here, we examine goal setting in young athletes and in rehabilitation
settings.

Goals and Young Athletes

Research in the area of hope has led the way to goal-setting programs
using this concept with young athletes. Specifically, Snyder (1994)
examined why some people go after and achieve their goals, whereas
others seem to be much less effective in doing so. Snyder argued that
hope is not simply wishing for something to happen without working
 Goal Setting in Sport and Exercise 49

for it. Rather, hope involves the thinking process, whereby individuals
have an overall perception that goals can be met, along with the skills
to achieve these goals.
Building on this research, Gould et al. (2000) developed the Power
4W goal-setting system for helping young athletes learn to set goals
and develop high levels of hope as part of a coaching life-skills program
for athletes. The program is based on the finding that successful people
in sports and life are positive, optimistic, and achievement oriented.
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Successful people on and off the field set goals, develop strategies for
achieving goals, work hard to accomplish goals, and view difficulties
and challenges as opportunities rather than as insurmountable obstacles
(Snyder, 1994). The Power 4W system developed by Gould et al. (2000)
for young athletes included the following aspects:
❚❚ Wish power: Identifying his or her dream goals (e.g., Charles wants
to get a college scholarship to play football)
❚❚ Want power: Setting realistic short- and long-term goals that will
help toward the accomplishment of the dream goal (e.g., Charles
will lift weights, do conditioning in the off-season, and watch film
to understand strategy)
❚❚ Way power: Developing multiple plans, paths, and strategies for
achieving one’s goals (e.g., Charles will lift weights three times per
week, run 30 minutes five times a week, and study film 5 hours
per week; he will do this with a friend/teammate to help him stay
on target with his goals)
❚❚ Will power: Finding the determination, commitment, and discipline
needed to work consistently toward one’s goals and overcome
obstacles that may arise (e.g., Charles will place a picture of the col-
lege football team where he wants to earn a scholarship on his
bathroom mirror to remind him of his dream as well as changing
his self-talk from negative to positive whenever he starts to doubt
himself).

Goals for Injury Rehabilitation

Goal setting can be especially useful for athletes rehabilitating from
injury (Brewer, 2007). For example, Theodorakis, Malliou, Papaioannou,
Beneca, and Filactakidou (1996) found that setting personal performance
goals with knee-injured participants facilitated performance, just as
it did with uninjured individuals. Penpraze and Mutrie (1999) found
that athletes who were assigned specific rehabilitation goals had greater
understanding of and adherence to their injury rehabilitation protocols
than did athletes who were given nonspecific rehabilitation goals.
Furthermore, Evans and Hardy (2002) found that athletes who received
a goal-setting intervention reported adhering better to their injury
 50 R obert S . W ei n ber g

rehabilitation program than did athletes who were given social support
or no treatment. It can be concluded that in combination with strategies
designed to enhance self-efficacy, personal performance goals can be
especially helpful in decreasing an athlete’s recovery time.
Goal-setting strategies to use with injured athletes include setting
a date to return to competition; determining the number of times per
week to come to the training room for therapy; and deciding the num-
ber of range-of-motion, strength, and endurance exercises to do during
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recovery sessions. Highly motivated athletes tend to do more than is

required during therapy, and they can reinjure themselves by over­
doing it. Emphasize the need to stick to goal plans and not do more
when they feel better on a given day.

Conclusion

This chapter focused on the effectiveness of setting goals in sport and

exercise environments. A goal was defined as attaining a specific level
of proficiency on a task, usually within a specified period of time, and
a distinction was made between subjective and objective goals. Locke’s
theory of goal setting, which indicated that specific, difficult, challenging
goals lead to higher levels of task performance than easy goals, no goals,
or “do your best” goals, was presented. More recent research investigating
the goal–performance relationship in sport and exercise settings has
also found support for the effectiveness of goals, although the findings
are not as robust as those in the industrial literature.
It has been hypothesized that goals directly influence behavior by
orienting performer attention to important elements of the task, increas-
ing effort and persistence, and facilitating the development of relevant
learning strategies. Goals also can influence behavior indirectly through
changes in cognitions (e.g., self-confidence) and anxiety and can be
mediated by goal orientation (i.e., task- vs. ego-orientation). Basic
goal-setting principles based on the literature were presented, including
setting specific goals, setting realistic and challenging goals, setting both
short- and long-term goals, setting performance goals, writing goals
down, providing support for goals, and providing for goal evaluation.
In addition, a seven-step process was discussed for setting goals most
effectively. The effectiveness of any goal-setting program relies in large
part on the interaction of the coach, exercise leader, or sport psychologist
and on the motivations of the specific participants. Individual differences
and environmental considerations should always be taken into account
when setting goals.
 Goal Setting in Sport and Exercise 51

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