Topic 2: Ecology

2.1 Individuals, populations, communities, and ecosystems

Guiding question
How can natural systems be modelled, and can these models be used to predict the effects of human disturbance?
2.1.1 The biosphere is an ecological system composed
A biosphere represents the parts of the Earth where life exists.
of individuals, populations, communities, ecosystems.
According to the biological species concept, a species is a group of organisms that can
2.1.2 An individual organism is a member of a species.
interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
Classification is needed because of the immense diversity of species. The first name is the
2.1.3 Classification of organisms allows for efficient genus, the second name is the species; species in the same genus have similar traits. The
identification and prediction of characteristics. genus name is given an initial capital letter. The species name is lower case; both genus
and species should be either italicized or underlined.
Identification in this context means determining the species of an individual organism.
2.1.4 Taxonomists use a variety of tools to identify an
Tools include dichotomous keys, comparison of specimens with reference to collections by
organism.
taxonomists, and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) surveys.
Application of skills: Know how to use dichotomous keys, applications and databases for the identification of species.
2.1.5 A population is a group of organisms of the same
A population is an interbreeding unit. One species may consist of any number of
species living in the same area at the same time, and
populations, from one to many. The term “metapopulation” is not required.
which are capable of interbreeding.
Application of skills: Investigate a local ecosystem.
2.1.6 Factors that determine the distribution of a Biotic refers to the living components of an ecosystem; abiotic refers to non-living physical
population can be abiotic or biotic. factors that may influence organisms.
2.1.7 Temperature, sunlight, pH, salinity, dissolved
oxygen and soil texture are examples of many abiotic Abiotic factors can be quantified in order to clarify the distribution of species.
factors that affect species distributions in ecosystems.
Application of skills: Use methods for measuring at least three abiotic factors in an aquatic or terrestrial ecosystem, including the use of data logging.
An ecological niche is the role of a species in an ecosystem. The niche comprises all biotic
2.1.8 A niche describes the particular set of abiotic
and abiotic interactions that influence the growth, survival and reproduction of a
and biotic conditions and resources upon which an
population, including how food is obtained. Include some of the parameters of a niche for
organism or a population depends.
a named species.
2.1.9 Populations interact in ecosystems by herbivory,
Consider one example of each relationship and consider how the relationships influence
predation, parasitism, mutualism, disease and
the population dynamics of the interacting populations and the selective pressures
competition, with ecological, behavioural and
involved.
evolutionary consequences.
Application of skills: Use models that demonstrate feeding relationships, such as predator–prey.
2.1.10 Carrying capacity is the maximum size of a
Include examples of resources that may affect carrying capacity, including biotic and
population determined by competition for limited
abiotic factors.
resources.
Density-independent factors may have significant influence on population size, but it is the
2.1.11 Population size is regulated by density- density-dependent factors that tend to regulate the population around the carrying
dependent factors and negative feedback capacity. In addition to competition for limited resources, include the increased risk of
mechanisms. predation and the transfer of pathogens in dense populations. These are examples of
negative feedback returning a population to equilibrium.
If there are no limiting factors, population growth follows a J-curve (exponential growth).
When density-dependent limiting factors start to operate, the curve becomes S-shaped.
2.1.12 Population growth can either be exponential or
Consider population growth curves in terms of numbers of individuals and rates of change,
limited by carrying capacity.
and populations showing an S-curve and a “boom and bust” pattern, for example, reindeer
on St Matthew Island.
2.1.13 Limiting factors on the growth of human
populations have increasingly been eliminated, Include the effects of elimination of natural predators, technological advances, and
resulting in consequences for sustainability of degradation of the environment.
ecosystems.
This is because of the broad and changing ecological niche of humans. Include the idea of
populations achieving equilibrium within ecosystems, but human populations being less
2.1.14 Carrying capacity cannot be easily assessed for limited due to mobility of resources. The expansion of the human niche also takes place
human populations. through technological advances and changes in consumption. The rapidly changing human
habitat leads to estimates of carrying capacity that are disputed and that can only be
estimated for “now”.
2.1.15 Population abundance can be estimated using
random sampling, systematic sampling or transect Consider reasons for selecting which of these procedures would be most appropriate.
sampling.
 Percentage cover is an estimate of the area in a given frame size (quadrat) covered by the
2.1.16 Random quadrat sampling can be used to plant or animal in question. Percentage frequency is the number of occurrences divided by
estimate population size for non-mobile organisms. the number of possible occurrences. Percentage cover and frequency give an estimate of
abundance but not actual population size.
Application of skills: Use quadrat sampling estimates for abundance, population density, percentage cover and percentage frequency for non-mobile
organisms and measures change along a transect.
2.1.17 Capture–mark–release–recapture and the
Lincoln index can be used to estimate population size Consider use of the Lincoln index in estimating population size.
for mobile organisms.

Application of skills: Students should use the Lincoln index to estimate population size. Students should understand the assumptions made when using
this method.

2.1.18 A community is a collection of interacting Communities comprise several populations that interact in the ecosystem. Consider the
populations within the ecosystem. concept of community in a local ecosystem.
A description of the habitat of a species can include both geographical and physical
2.1.19 Habitat is the location in which a community,
locations, as well as the type of ecosystem required to meet all environmental conditions
species, population or organism lives.
needed for survival.
2.1.20 Ecosystems are open systems in which both An ecosystem is a community and the physical environment with which it interacts.
energy and matter can enter and exit. Consider the concept of ecosystem in a local ecosystem.
Inputs are balanced by outputs in a steady state ecosystem. Consider this balance in ow
2.1.21 Sustainability is a natural property of
diagrams of specific ecosystems. There is evidence for some ecosystems persisting for
ecosystems.
millions of years, for example, tropical rainforests.
Tipping points lead to the collapse of the original ecosystem and development of a new
2.1.22 Human activity can lead to tipping points in equilibrium. For example, deforestation of the Amazon rainforest reduces generation of
ecosystem stability. water vapour through transpiration, and consequently reduces cooling and precipitation
necessary for the maintenance of the remaining forest.
There is a disproportionate impact on community structure of keystone species and the
risk of ecosystem collapse if they are removed. Consider two examples. For example,
2.1.23 Keystone species have a role in the
purple sea stars controlling mussel populations on the North Pacific coast that would
sustainability of ecosystems.
otherwise overwhelm the ecosystem; elephants feeding on shrubs and trees, and thus
maintaining savannah grasslands.
2.1.24 The planetary boundaries model indicates that There is an interrelationship between ecosystems and species diversity. Disturbance of
changes to biosphere integrity have passed a critical ecosystems due to human activity has led to loss of biosphere integrity. Extinction rates
threshold. provide evidence that the planetary boundary for biosphere integrity has been crossed.
Ecosystem damage and loss of species can be slowed by protecting the integrity of
2.1.25 To avoid critical tipping points, loss of
ecosystems. Protecting ecosystems ensures the preservation of the niche requirements
biosphere integrity needs to be reversed.
essential for the ongoing survival of a species.

2.2 Energy and biomass in ecosystems

Guiding questions
• How can flows of energy and matter through ecosystems be modelled?
• How do human actions affect the ow energy and matter, and what is the impact on ecosystems?
2.2.1 Ecosystems are sustained by supplies of energy
Ecosystems are open systems in which energy and matter are exchanged.
and matter.
2.2.2 The first law of thermodynamics states that as
energy flows through ecosystems, it can be
Energy transformations occur, such as light to chemical and from chemical to heat.
transformed from one form to another but cannot be
created or destroyed.
Transformation of energy is a change from one form to another, such as light to heat.
2.2.3 Photosynthesis and cellular respiration
Transformation of matter happens in chemical reactions and can be summarized using
transform energy and matter in ecosystems.
word equations.
Application of skills: Create system diagrams from a set of data of ecosystems showing transfers and transformations of energy and matter.
2.2.4 Photosynthesis is the conversion of light energy
Glucose can be converted into other carbon compounds contained within biomass.
to chemical energy in the form of glucose, some of
Students are not required to know the biochemical details of photosynthesis.
which can be stored as biomass by autotrophs.
2.2.5 Producers form the first trophic level in a food Producers are typically plants, algae and photosynthetic bacteria that produce their own
chain. food using photosynthesis.
2.2.6 Cellular respiration releases energy from glucose
by converting it into a chemical form that can easily be Students are not required to know that adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the readily usable
used in carrying out active processes within living energy currency of cells.
cells.
 Heat is generated by cellular respiration because it is not 100% efficient at transferring
2.2.7 Some of the chemical energy released during energy from substrates, such as carbohydrates, into the chemical form of energy used in
cellular respiration is transformed into heat. cells. Heat generated within an individual organism cannot be transformed back into
chemical energy and is ultimately lost from the body.
The second law of thermodynamics relates to the quality of energy, and that when energy
2.2.8 The second law of thermodynamics states that is transformed, some must be degraded into a less useful form, such as heat. In
energy transformations in ecosystems are inefficient. ecosystems, the biggest losses occur during cellular respiration. The second law of
thermodynamics explains why energy transfers are never 100% efficient.
2.2.9 Consumers gain chemical energy from carbon
(organic) compounds obtained from other organisms. Include, with examples, herbivores, detritivores, predators, parasites, saprotrophs,
Consumers have diverse strategies for obtaining scavengers and decomposers.
energy-containing carbon compounds.
2.2.10 Because producers in ecosystems make their
own carbon compounds by photosynthesis, they are
In a food chain, organic matter flows from primary producers to primary consumers to
at the start of food chains. Consumers obtain carbon
secondary consumers, and so on.
compounds from producers or other consumers, so
form the subsequent trophic levels.
Application of skills: Create a food chain from given data.
2.2.11 Carbon compounds and the energy they
Traditionally, decomposers are not included in food chains as they typically gain carbon
contain are passed from one organism to the next in a
compounds from a variety of sources. However, consider the role of decomposers in
food chain. The stages in a food chain are called
energy transformations in food webs.
trophic levels.
Not all the food available to a given trophic level is harvested: of what is harvested, not all
2.2.12 There are losses of energy and organic matter is consumed; of what is consumed, not all is absorbed; of what is absorbed, not all is
as food is transferred along a food chain. stored—some is lost as heat through cellular respiration. There is, therefore, never 100%
transference of organic matter from one trophic level to the next.
2.2.13 Gross productivity (GP) is the total gain in Consider values of both GP and NP from given data. Losses due to cellular respiration are
biomass by an organism. Net productivity (NP) is the typically greater in consumers than in producers due to more energy-requiring activity. The
amount remaining after losses due to cellular NP of any organism or trophic level is the maximum sustainable yield that can be harvested
respiration. without diminishing the availability for the future.
 Energy released by cellular respiration and lost as heat by organisms is unavailable to
organisms in higher trophic levels. Because of this and other energy losses, typically 10% or
2.2.14 The number of trophic levels in ecosystems is
less of the energy owing to a trophic level is available to the next level, limiting the length
limited due to energy losses.
of food chains. Avoid the common misconception that organisms at higher trophic levels
must eat more food to get enough energy.

Application of skills: Work out the efficiency of transfer between trophic levels.

2.2.15 Food webs show the complexity of trophic Arrows in food chains and food webs indicate the direction of energy ow and transfer of
relationships in communities. biomass. In a food web, species may feed at more than one trophic level.
Application of skills: Create a food web from given data.
Dry mass of samples is approximately equal to mass of organic matter (biomass) since
2.2.16 Biomass of a trophic level can be measured by
water represents the majority of inorganic matter in most organisms. Energy in biomass
collecting and drying samples.
can be measured by combustion of samples and extrapolation.
Pyramids of number and biomass show the standing crop per unit area at a particular time.
2.2.17 Ecological pyramids are used to represent
Pyramids of energy (“pyramids of productivity” in some texts) show the amount of energy
relative numbers, biomass or energy of trophic levels
owing to each trophic level per unit area and per unit time (usually kJ m-2 year-1). Consider
in an ecosystem.
pyramid diagrams and reasons for variations in their shape.

Application of skills: Create pyramids of numbers, biomass and energy from given data. Follow experimental procedures on how to find biomass and
energy from biological samples (plant material only).

2.2.18 Pollutants that are non-biodegradable, such as

Bioaccumulation refers to the increasing concentration of non-biodegradable pollutants in
polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB),
organisms or trophic levels over time (as more are absorbed). Biomagnification refers to
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and mercury,
the increasing concentration of non-biodegradable pollutants along a food chain (due to
cause changes to ecosystems through the processes of
the loss of biodegradable biomass through, for example, cellular respiration).
bioaccumulation and biomagnification.
2.2.19 non-biodegradable pollutants are absorbed
within microplastics, which increases their Include an example of pollution by microplastics and its effect on the food chain.
transmission in the food chain.

2.2.20 Human activities, such as burning fossil fuels, Although burning fossil fuels may lead to increased CO2 available for photosynthesis, the
deforestation, urbanization and agriculture, have other pollutants and impacts of global warming will reduce primary productivity.
impacts on flows of energy and transfers of matter in Deforestation, urbanization and agriculture all lead to loss of ecosystem biomass,
ecosystems. disruption of food webs, and the capacity for photosynthesis.

2.2.21 Autotrophs synthesize carbon compounds from

inorganic sources of carbon and other elements.
Heterotrophs obtain carbon compounds from other
organisms.

2.3 Biogeochemical cycles

Guiding question

How do human activities affect nutrient cycling, and what impact does this have on the sustainability of environmental systems?

2.3.1 Biogeochemical cycles ensure chemical elements

Human impact on these cycles can affect the sustainability of ecosystems.
continue to be available to living organisms.
2.3.2 Biogeochemical cycles have stores, sinks and Stores (storages) remain in equilibrium with the environment; sinks indicate net
sources. accumulation of the element; sources indicate net release of the element.
A store is in equilibrium when absorption is balanced by release. Residence time is the
2.3.3 Organisms, crude oil and natural gas contain
average period that a carbon atom remains in a store. Without human interference (that is,
organic stores of carbon. Inorganic stores can be
mining) the residence time in fossil fuels would be measured in hundreds of millions of
found in the atmosphere, soils and oceans.
years.
2.3.4 Carbon flows between stores in ecosystems by
Consider systems diagrams of the carbon cycle and the difference between transfers and
photosynthesis, feeding, defecation, cellular
transformations in these flows.
respiration, death and decomposition.
Application of skills: Create a systems diagram of the carbon cycle.
2.3.5 Carbon sequestration is the process of capturing
Trees sequester carbon naturally by absorbing carbon dioxide and converting it into
gaseous and atmospheric carbon dioxide and storing it
biomass. Organic matter is fossilized into coal, oil and natural gas.
in a solid or liquid form.
In an ecosystem, the difference between total inputs and outputs is the net accumulation
2.3.6 Ecosystems can act as stores, sinks or sources of or release of carbon. If photosynthesis exceeds cellular respiration in an ecosystem there is
carbon. a net uptake of carbon dioxide, and if cellular respiration exceeds photosynthesis there is a
net release of carbon dioxide. Use the example of a young forest acting as a sink, a mature
 forest acting as a store and a forest that is destroyed by re or deforestation acting as a
source.

2.3.7 Fossil fuels are stores of carbon with unlimited

residence times. They were formed when ecosystems Consider the concept of fossil fuels but not the detail of how and when coal, oil and natural
acted as carbon sinks in past eras and become carbon gas were formed.
sources when burned.
Some agricultural methods, such as crop rotation, cover crops and no till, will promote the
role of soil as a carbon sink whereas drainage of wetland, monoculture and heavy tillage
2.3.8 Agricultural systems can act as carbon stores,
will promote the role of soil as a carbon source. Cropping over a longer timescale (for
sources and sinks, depending on the techniques used.
example, timber production) and the subsequent use of harvested products will also affect
these roles.
2.3.9 Carbon dioxide is absorbed into the oceans by
While oceans act as a carbon sink, the human use of fossil fuels releases inorganic carbon
dissolving and is released as a gas when it comes out
at a faster rate than oceans can absorb it.
of a solution.
2.3.10 Increases in concentrations of dissolved carbon
Small decreases in pH can interfere with calcium carbonate deposition in mollusc shells and
dioxide cause ocean acidification, harming marine
coral skeletons.
animals.
Consider at last three of the measures that are required. These include low-carbon
2.3.11 Measures are required to alleviate the effects
technologies, reduction in fossil-fuel burning/ soil disruption/deforestation, carbon capture
of human activities on the carbon cycle.
through reforestation and artificial sequestration.

2.4 Climate and biomes

Guiding questions
• How does climate determine the distribution of natural systems?

• How are changes in Earth systems affecting the distribution of biomes?

2.4.1 Climate describes atmospheric conditions over
Weather refers to the specific conditions being experienced at a particular time or over a
relatively long periods of time, whereas weather
short period, including temperature, humidity, air pressure and wind speed. Climate is the
describes the conditions in the atmosphere over a
average of these conditions over approximately 30 years.
short period of time.
2.4.2 A biome is a group of comparable ecosystems Ecosystems developed in similar conditions in different parts of the world can have many
that have developed in similar climatic conditions, parallel features. Precipitation, temperature and insolation are major influences on the
wherever they occur. distribution of terrestrial biomes.
For any given temperature and rainfall pattern, one natural ecosystem type is likely to
2.4.3 Abiotic factors are the determinants of
develop. Consider a graph showing the distribution of biomes with temperature and
terrestrial biome distribution.
rainfall pattern on the horizontal and vertical axes.

Application of skills: Create climate graphs showing annual precipitation/average temperature for different biomes.

2.4.4 Biomes can be categorized into groups that

include freshwater, marine, forest, grassland, desert
and tundra. Each of these groups has characteristic
Include the characteristic limiting factors, productivity and resulting biodiversity of tropical
abiotic limiting factors, productivity and diversity.
rainforests, hot deserts, tundra and at least two other biomes.
They may be further classed into many subcategories
(for example, temperate forests, tropical rainforests
and boreal forests).
2.4.5 The tricellular model of atmospheric circulation
explains the behaviour of atmospheric systems and Latitude is the angular distance from the equator (north or south of it) as measured from
the distribution of precipitation and temperature at the centre of the Earth (usually in degrees). Give details of the tricellular model with the
different latitudes. It also explains how these factors three distinct cells: the Hadley cell, the Ferrel cell and the polar cell. Include reasons for the
influence the structure and relative productivity of distribution of biomes using the tricellular model.
different terrestrial biomes.

Application of skills: Use the tricellular model of atmospheric circulation and link it to the planetary distribution of heat and biomes.

2.4.6 The oceans absorb solar radiation and ocean

currents distribute the resulting heat around the Details of the great ocean conveyor belt and thermohaline circulation are HL only.
world.
2.4.7 Global warming is leading to changing climates
The general trend is of biomes moving poleward and to higher altitude.
and shifts in biomes.
 2.5 Zonation, succession and change in ecosystems
Guiding question
• How do ecological systems change over time and over space?
2.5.1 Zonation refers to changes in community along Zonation occurs due to a range of factors, such as changes in elevation, latitude, tidal level,
an environmental gradient. soil horizons or distance from a water source.
2.5.2 Transects can be used to measure biotic and
abiotic factors along an environmental gradient in
Consider data in tables or figures related to zonation, including kite graphs.
order to determine the variables that affect the
distribution of species.

Application of skills: Investigate zonation along an environmental gradient using a transect sampling technique and a range of relevant abiotic
measurements. Create kite diagrams to show distribution.

Changes occur as one community changes the environmental conditions so another

2.5.3 Succession is the replacement of one community
community can colonize the area and replace the first through competition. This process
by another in an area over time due to changes in
may continue for hundreds of years; pollen records in peat provide evidence of such
biotic and abiotic variables.
changes. Zonation is a spatial phenomenon; succession is a temporal phenomenon.

Application of skills: Use secondary data and a mapping database to recreate or map the changes through succession in a given area.

2.5.4 Each seral community (sere) in a succession

causes changes in environmental conditions that allow
For example, mosses start soil formation on bare rock, allowing larger plants to colonize.
the next community to replace it through competition
until a stable climax community is reached.
2.5.5 Primary successions happen on newly formed
substratum where there is no soil or pre-existing Consider an example of primary succession, which could be a well-documented example,
community, such as rock newly formed by volcanism, such as Surtsey, or a local example. Use the following terms: seral communities or stages;
moraines revealed by retreating glaciers, wind-blown pioneer and climax communities.
sand or waterborne silt.
2.5.6 Secondary successions happen on bare soil
where there has been a pre-existing community, such Consider an example of secondary succession, which could be a well-documented example,
as a eld where agriculture has ceased or a forest such as the Broadbalk Wilderness at Rothamsted, or a local example.
after an intense firestorm.
2.5.7 Energy ow, productivity, species diversity, soil
Consider data in tables or figures related to succession and the reasons for changes in
depth and nutrient cycling change over time during
these factors.
succession.
2.5.8 An ecosystem’s capacity to tolerate disturbances Consider the links between ecosystem resilience, stability, succession, diversity and human
and maintain equilibrium depends on its diversity and activity. For example, succession increases diversity which adds to resilience and stability,
resilience. though human interference can cause a reduction in these qualities.