Class A Power Amplifier

By : Abdalla Mohamed
By: Aly Saeed
To : Dr Ahmed Hebala

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Table of contents

1.0 Introduction…………………………………………………3

1.1 Signal and power amplifiers……………………………3,4

1.2 Power amplifier classes……………………………5,6

2.0 Body …………………………………………………7

2.1 Class A Amplifier…………………………………7,8,9

2.2 Efficiency………………………………………….10

2.3 Distortion ………………………………………….11

2.4 Frequency response ……………………………….12,13
2.5 Impact of transistor characteristics……………13,14,15,16

3.0 Class A Amplifier Design…………..17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24

4.0 Simulation on Matlab Simulink……………………..25,26

5.0 Impact of Components Variations…………27,28,29,30,31

6.0 Prototype…………………………………………………..32

7.0 References…………………………………………………33

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1.0 Introduction

1.1 Signal and power amplifiers

 Signal Amplifiers

Purpose: Signal amplifiers are designed to increase the strength

(amplitude) of a signal without significantly altering its quality or
waveform. These amplifiers are often used in low-power
applications where the goal is to boost weak signals, such as in
audio systems, instrumentation, and communication systems.

Function: They take weak input signals and amplify them to a level
that is sufficient for further processing, driving a load, or being fed
into a power amplifier or other circuits.

Applications: Pre-amplifiers in audio systems, RF amplifiers, and

instrumentation amplifiers.

 Power Amplifiers:

Purpose: Power amplifiers are designed to increase the power of a

signal, meaning they are optimized to drive a load (e.g., speakers,
antennas) that requires significant current or voltage.

Function: Power amplifiers take the signal that has already been amplified
by a signal amplifier (or comes directly from a source) and amplify it to a
level suitable to drive high-power loads (like speakers or transmitters).
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Applications: Audio power amplifiers (to drive speakers), RF power
amplifiers (in radio transmission), and industrial amplifiers (for driving
motors or actuators).

Power amplifiers are typically not designed to handle weak signals

effectively, and without the use of a signal amplifier (such as a preamp), you
risk distortion, noise amplification, and improper signal handling.

In most systems, especially those involving microphones, musical

instruments, or sensitive sensors, signal amplifiers are essential to boost the
weak signal to an appropriate level for the power amplifier to work
efficiently and deliver high-quality output.

Using both signal amplifiers and power amplifiers together allows for
efficient signal processing and high-quality amplification.

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1.2 Power amplifier classes

Not all amplifier designs are the same. There is a clear distinction made
between the various Amplifier Classes regarding the way in which their
power output stages are configured and operate. The main operating
characteristics of an ideal amplifier are linearity, signal gain, efficiency and
power output. But in real world amplifiers, there is always a trade off
between these different but distinct characteristics.

Generally, large signal or power amplifiers are used in the output stages of
audio amplifier systems to drive some form of loudspeaker load. A typical
loudspeaker can have a terminal impedance of between 4Ω and 8Ω, thus a
power amplifier must be able to supply the high peak currents required to
drive these low impedance speakers.

One method used to distinguish the electrical characteristics of different

types of amplifiers is by what is known as “class”, and as such amplifiers are
classified according to their circuit configuration and method of operation.
Then amplifier classes is the term used to differentiate between the different
amplifier types.

Amplifier classes represent the amount of the output signal which varies
within the amplifier circuit over one cycle of operation when excited by a
sinusoidal input signal. The classification of amplifiers range from entirely
linear operation (for use in high-fidelity signal amplification) with very low
efficiency, to entirely non-linear (where a faithful signal reproduction is not

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so important) operation but with a much higher efficiency, while others are a
compromise between the two.

Amplifier classes are mainly lumped into two basic groups. The first are the
classically controlled conduction angle amplifiers forming the more
common amplifier configurations of A, B, AB and C class. These are
defined by the length of their power transistors conduction state over some
portion of the output waveform inwhich the output stage transistor operation
lies somewhere between them being “fully-ON” and “fully-OFF”.

The second set of amplifiers are the newer so-called “switching” or digital
amplifier classes. These consist of D, E, F, G, S, T classes etc. These
amplifier classes use digital circuits and pulse width modulation (PWM) to
constantly switch the output devices between their “fully-ON” and “fully-
OFF” states driving the output hard into the transistors saturation and cut-off
regions.

The most commonly constructed amplifier classes are those that are used as
audio amplifiers, mainly class A, B, AB and C and to keep things simple, it
is these types of amplifier classes we will look at here in more detail.

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2.0 Body

2.1 Class A Amplifier

Class A Amplifiers are the most common type of amplifier topology as they
use just one output switching transistor (Bipolar, FET, IGBT, etc) within
their amplifier design. This single output transistor is biased around the Q-
point within the middle of its load line and so is never driven into its cut-off
or saturation regions thus allowing it to conduct current over the full 360
degrees of the input cycle. Then the output transistor of a class-A topology
never turns “OFF” which is one of its main disadvantages.

Class “A” amplifiers are considered the best class of amplifier design due
mainly to their excellent linearity, high gain and low signal distortion levels
when designed correctly. Although seldom used in high power amplifier
applications due to thermal power supply considerations, class-A amplifiers
are probably the best sounding of all the amplifier classes mentioned here
and as such are used in high-fidelity audio amplifier designs.

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To achieve high linearity and gain, the output stage of a class A amplifier is
biased “ON” (conducting) all the time. Then for an amplifier to be classified
as “Class A” the zero signal idle current in the output stage must be equal to
or greater than the maximum load current (usually a loudspeaker) required to
produce the largest output signal.

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As a class A amplifier operates in the linear portion of its characteristic
curves, the single output device conducts through a full 360 degrees of the
output waveform. Then the class A amplifier is equivalent to a current
source.

Since a class A amplifier operates in the linear region, the transistors base
(or gate) DC biasing voltage should by chosen properly to ensure correct
operation and low distortion. However, as the output device is “ON” at all
times, it is constantly carrying current, which represents a continuous loss of
power in the amplifier.

Due to this continuous loss of power class A amplifiers create tremendous

amounts of heat adding to their very low efficiency at around 30%, making
them impractical for high-power amplifications. Also due to the high idling
current of the amplifier, the power supply must be sized accordingly and be
well filtered to avoid any amplifier hum and noise. Therefore, due to the low
efficiency and over heating problems of Class A amplifiers, more efficient
amplifier classes have been developed.

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2.2 Efficiency

The efficiency of a Class A amplifier is relatively low compared to other

amplifier classes. This is because Class A amplifiers conduct current for the
entire input signal cycle, which leads to significant power dissipation in the
form of heat.

Efficiency of Class A Amplifier:

 Maximum Efficiency: The theoretical maximum efficiency of a Class

A amplifier is 50% when driving a purely resistive load.
 Practical Efficiency: In practical applications, the efficiency is often
lower, around 25-30% for typical Class A amplifiers. This lower
efficiency is due to losses in the circuit, including heat generated by
the active components (transistors or tubes) when they are conducting
during the entire cycle.

Why the Efficiency is Low:

 Continuous Conduction: In Class A operation, the transistor (or tube)

conducts for the full 360° of the input signal cycle, which means it is
always dissipating power as heat, even when no signal is being
amplified.
 Thermal Losses: The continuous power dissipation results in heat
generation, which wastes energy and reduces the overall efficiency.

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2.3 Distortion

Distortion: This is a particular problem in Class B and Class AB amplifiers,

where the amplifier switches between two devices (such as transistors)
during the signal cycle. In Class A amplifiers, there is no switching between
devices (since the transistor or tube is always conducting), so crossover
distortion is essentially non-existent in Class A operation.

Distortion Characteristics of Class A:

Linear Amplification: Since the active device in a Class A amplifier remains

in the active region for the entire signal cycle, it behaves linearly, meaning
that the relationship between the input and output signals is nearly one-to-
one.

Minimal Signal Clipping: Clipping is a form of distortion that occurs when

the amplifier is overdriven and cannot provide enough current or voltage to
replicate the input signal. Because Class A amplifiers are biased to always
conduct, they are less likely to clip, except at extreme signal levels (when
the device is driven beyond its maximum output capability).

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2.4 Frequency response
The range of frequencies over which an electronic circuit operates is
determined by its frequency response. The frequency response of a device
or a circuit describes its operation over a specified range of signal
frequencies by showing how its gain, or the amount of signal it lets through
changes with frequency.

Bode plots are graphical representations of the circuits frequency response

characteristics and as such can be used in solving design problems.
Generally, the circuits gain magnitude and phase functions are shown on
separate graphs using logarithmic frequency scale along the x-axis.

Bandwidth is the range of frequencies that a circuit operates at in between its

upper and lower cut-off frequency points. These cut-off or corner frequency
points indicate the frequencies at which the power associated with the output
falls to half its maximum value. These half power points corresponds to a
fall in gain of 3dB (0.7071) relative to its maximum dB value.

Most amplifiers and filters have a flat frequency response characteristic in

which the bandwidth or passband section of the circuit is flat and constant
over a wide range of frequencies. Resonant circuits are designed to pass a
range of frequencies and block others. They are constructed using resistors,
inductors, and capacitors whose reactances vary with the frequency, their
frequency response curves can look like a sharp rise or point as their
bandwidth is affected by resonance which depends on the Q of the circuit, as
a higher Q provides a narrower bandwidth.

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2.5 Impact of transistor characteristics

The characteristics of the transistor used in a Class A amplifier play a crucial

role in determining the amplifier's overall performance, including linearity,
efficiency, frequency response, and distortion levels. Since the transistor is
the active component responsible for amplifying the signal, its behavior and
performance directly affect the quality of the output.

1. Linear Region of Operation:

 Impact on Linearity: Class A amplifiers are designed to keep the

transistor operating within its linear region for the entire 360° of the
input signal cycle. This allows the amplifier to reproduce the input
signal with minimal distortion. The linearity of the transistor is critical

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 for achieving low harmonic distortion (THD) and maintaining high
fidelity.
 Amplifier Design: The transistor’s biasing must ensure that the device
remains in its linear region throughout the entire signal cycle. If the
transistor is not properly biased, it may enter the non-linear region,
causing significant distortion.

2. Transistor Gain (hFE or β):

 Impact on Gain Stability: The current gain (denoted as hFE or β) of a

transistor determines how effectively the transistor amplifies the input
signal. Variations in the gain can affect the voltage gain of the
amplifier. A stable and high gain is desirable for consistent
performance.
 Effect of Gain Variation: Some transistors have a non-linear gain
characteristic that can change with temperature, signal level, and
frequency. If the gain is not stable across the expected range of
operation, the amplifier's gain can fluctuate, potentially introducing
distortion or reducing the overall performance, especially at higher
frequencies.

3. Base-Emitter Voltage (V_BE) and Thermal Stability:

 Impact on Biasing: The base-emitter voltage (V_BE) of a transistor is

crucial for setting the operating point or bias of the transistor. For
bipolar junction transistors (BJTs), this voltage typically varies with
temperature (approximately -2 mV/°C). The thermal stability of the

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 transistor is important to avoid drift in the operating point, which
could lead to distortion or clipping.
 Thermal Runaway: If the transistor heats up, the base-emitter voltage
decreases, causing an increase in current, which results in more heat.
This phenomenon, known as thermal runaway, can be mitigated by
using bias compensation circuits (like thermistors or diodes) to
stabilize the operating point.

4. Power Dissipation:

 Impact on Efficiency: Class A amplifiers are inherently inefficient, as

the transistor is always conducting current, even when there is no
input signal. Power dissipation in the transistor is a result of the
current flowing through the transistor, which leads to heat generation.
 Thermal Management: The power rating of the transistor (e.g.,
maximum collector current and voltage) must be chosen to handle the
thermal load generated during operation. If the transistor is not
adequately heat-sinked, it may overheat, affecting its performance and
potentially causing failure.

 .

5. Transistor Type: BJT vs. MOSFET:

 BJT :
o BJTs are current-controlled devices, and they typically offer
low distortion and high linearity when operated in Class A
mode. However, they are less efficient than MOSFETs due to

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 higher power dissipation and require more careful thermal
management.
 MOSFET :
o MOSFETs are voltage-controlled devices and are often
preferred for high-efficiency and high-frequency applications.
They typically have lower thermal sensitivity and can provide
better thermal stability, which is advantageous in high-power
Class A designs. However, MOSFETs may introduce different
forms of distortion (e.g., transconductance non-linearity) that
can affect the overall linearity of the amplifier.

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3.0 Class A Amplifier Design

1. Decide on the DC supply voltage VCC This should be less than the
maximum VCEO voltage for the transistor you intend to use and will also
depend on the available supply; this may be a bench power supply or a
battery. Values of 6 to 12 volts are common for a common emitter voltage
amplifier.

2. Choose a transistor The prototype amplifier for this exercise used a NPN
small signal transistor such as the 2N3904, but other similar transistors
should work equally well.

3. Decide on a suitable quiescent collector current Iq Iq is the Collector

current when no signal is applied. The maximum value must be less than the
maximum VCEO figure for the transistor. However using a high value of
current will waste power as the circuit is supposed to be a VOLTAGE
amplifier so current should be kept quite low, but the lower the current you
choose, the higher the value of RL will be. This increases the output
impedance of the amplifier (which will be approximately the value of the
load resistor) and ideally this should be low. A compromise figure of around
10 to 20% of the transistor’s IcMAX figure shown on the data sheet should
be adequate for Iq and a commonly selected current of around 1mA

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4. Calculating a value for the load resistor RL Once the supply voltage and
collector current are decided, the value of the collector resistor can be
calculated. The transistor quiescent collector voltage needs to be about half
of VCC so that the output signal can swing by equal amounts above and
below this value without driving the transistor into saturation (0V and
maximum collector current) or cut off (zero current and VC equal to the
supply voltage). RL will therefore be half of VCC divided by Iq. Note that
whenever a component value has been calculated, it is unlikely that the
result of the calculation will match any of the available preferred values of
real resistors. Therefore you will need to choose the nearest preferred value.

5. Calculating the value of RE To provide efficient bias stabilisation, the

emitter voltage VE should be about 10% to 15% of VCC. So choosing a
value of 12% of VCC for VE and assuming that IE is the same as IC (It is
only different by the small amount of the base current), a value for the
resistor RE can be calculated by dividing the emitter voltage VE by the
emitter current IE then choosing the nearest preferred value.

6. Estimate a value for base current IB This can be found by dividing the
collector current IC by the transistor’s current gain hfe obtained from the
data sheet. Because the hfe varies from one transistor to another, even of the
same type, it may be quoted as a typical value or as a range between
minimum and maximum values, hfe also varies with collector current so
whatever figure you choose for hfe, the result of calculating IB will be an
approximation so the base voltage will probably not be accurate. However
this can be ‘fine tuned’ when the amplifier is being constructed. 7.
Calculating VB The base voltage should be about 0.7V (700mV) higher than
VE to ensure that the input signal is biased on the linear part of the transistor

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input characteristic. 8. Calculating the DC bias network current. To ensure
adequate bias stability, the current flowing through R1 and R2 should be
about 10 times greater than the base current IB so the current flowing
through R1 and R2 will be simply IB x 10.

9. Calculating the resistance for R1 The value of this resistor will be the
difference between VCC and VB divided by the bias network current
through R1 and R2.

10. Calculating the resistance for R2 The value of R2 will be the base
voltage VB divided by the bias network current through R1 and R2.

Choosing a value for C1 and C2 The primary function of C1 and C2 is to act

as coupling capacitors, allowing AC signals to pass whilst blocking DC at
the input and output so that voltages present on preceding or later circuits
will not upset the bias condition for this amplifier. The main consideration in
choosing these capacitor values is to ensure that their capacitive reactance is
low enough, compared with the input impedance of the amplifier, or any
load connected to the output, to allow signals at all the required frequencies
to pass. The reactance of a capacitor is greatest at low frequencies, therefore
the choice of coupling capacitor values must allow for a low reactance at the
lowest frequencies the amplifier is designed to amplify. A generally

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accepted value for coupling capacitors in an audio amplifier would be
between 1µF and 10µF

Choosing a value for C3 The purpose of C3 is to prevent any AC signal

voltage appearing across the emitter resistor RE. Any AC appearing on the
emitter of the transistor would be in phase with the signal at the base,
therefore the base and emitter voltages would rise and fall together, and the
difference between base and emitter voltages would be reduced. This would
effectively reduce the input signal and so reduce the amplifier’s gain. C3
must therefore remove as much of the AC from across RE as possible, and
so must have a low reactance at all audio frequencies. As the lowest
frequency is going to be around 20Hz, C3 must have a reactance (XC) that is
small compared to the value of RE at all frequencies above 20Hz.

The value of C4 The purpose of C4 is to give an appropriate reduction in

amplification at the high frequency end of the amplifier’s bandwidth. The
choice of its value will be covered after initial testing of the amplifier. At
this stage it is not necessary to fit C4.

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21
Data sheet for NPN 2N3904 BJT transistor

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4.0 Simulation on Matlab Simulink
By using class a amplifier design, parameters of the amplifier is calculated

Results of design

R1= 2.2 Kohm

R2= 470 ohm

RL= 150 ohm

RE= 39 ohm

C1 and C2 = 10 micro farad

C3= 100 microfarad

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Simulation results

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5.0 Impact of Components Variations

Coupling Capacitors (between stages or input/output)

 Smaller Capacitor Value:

o Reduced Low-Frequency Response: If the coupling capacitor
value is reduced, it can restrict the low-frequency response of
the amplifier. This is because a smaller capacitor has a higher
reactance at low frequencies, meaning it won't pass lower
frequencies effectively.

 Larger Capacitor Value:

o Extended Low-Frequency Response: A larger coupling
capacitor can improve the low-frequency response, allowing
lower frequencies to pass through the amplifier more
effectively.
o Possible Overshoot or Power Loss: However, excessively large
capacitors can result in slower charging and discharging times,
which might affect the transient response and increase power
losses.

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Bypass Capacitors (across emitter resistor)

 Smaller Capacitor Value:

o Reduced High-Frequency Gain: Bypass capacitors are used to
stabilize the amplifier and provide a low-impedance path for
AC signals to ground, bypassing certain resistors (e.g., emitter
resistors) for high frequencies. A smaller capacitor would
reduce the bypassing at high frequencies, which could result in
a decrease in high-frequency gain.
 Larger Capacitor Value:
o Potential Excessive Gain at High Frequencies: A larger bypass
capacitor can improve high-frequency gain, but if it’s too large,
it might reduce the stability of the amplifier or cause excessive
gain for certain frequencies, leading to unwanted distortion or
oscillations.

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DC Supply Voltage variations

Increase in DC Supply

 Higher Output Power: Increasing the DC supply voltage will increase

the maximum output power that the amplifier can deliver. .
 Shift in Biasing: A higher supply voltage may require re-biasing of
the transistor) to maintain the correct operating point. Otherwise, the
amplifier may enter a region where it distorts or operates inefficiently.
 Potential for Thermal Runaway: If the transistor or other active
components are not properly biased, increasing the supply voltage
could lead to thermal runaway and damaging the device.

Decrease in DC Supply Voltage

 Lower Output Power: A decrease in supply voltage will reduce the

maximum output power the amplifier can produce, and the signal may
be clipped more easily at lower levels.
 Risk of Insufficient Bias: If the supply voltage is too low, it could
cause insufficient biasing of the transistor or active device, leading to
distortion or improper operation. The amplifier may not be able to
maintain its quiescent operating point and may even fail to function
correctly at lower input levels.
 Increased Distortion: With a reduced supply voltage, the amplifier
may experience increased distortion
 3. Changing the Value of Resistors

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Biasing Resistors
Change in Bias Current: Altering bias resistors can change the quiescent
current through the transistor, which directly impacts the amplifier's
operating point. This may cause the transistor to operate in a region that is
either too linear or too nonlinear.

o Increased Bias Current: If the biasing resistors are adjusted to

increase the current, the amplifier may have more gain but run
the risk of higher power dissipation and thermal instability.
o Decreased Bias Current: Lowering the bias current can reduce
power consumption, but it may also result in a loss of linearity
and a higher distortion level, particularly at lower output levels.

Changing the AC Input Signal

Increase in Input Signal Amplitude

 Higher Output Swing: Increasing the input amplitude will result in a

larger output signal, provided the amplifier has sufficient headroom.
However, if the input signal is too large, the amplifier may reach its
maximum output voltage or current, causing clipping and distortion.
 Potential for Clipping: If the input signal is too large for the
amplifier’s design, it may push the output signal beyond the supply
voltage, resulting in clipping and distortion of the output waveform.

Decrease in Input Signal Amplitude

 Reduced Output Power: If the input signal is too weak, the output
power will be lower, and the amplifier may not operate optimally.
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  Increased Noise Impact: At lower input levels, the amplifier may
introduce more relative noise and distortion, especially if the signal is
near the amplifier's noise floor.

Change in Input Signal Frequency

 Effect on Frequency Response: A change in the input signal’s

frequency can expose the bandwidth limitations of the amplifier. If the
input signal is too high or too low in frequency, the amplifier may not
respond effectively.
o Higher Frequencies: If the input signal frequency exceeds the
amplifier’s bandwidth, the high-frequency components of the
signal may be attenuated, resulting in a loss of fidelity.
o Lower Frequencies: If the input signal is too low, the coupling
capacitors might limit the signal’s ability to pass through,
resulting in attenuation of low-frequency content.

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6.0 Prototype of class A amplifier

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7.0 References

https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/amplifier/amplifier-classes.html

Sirohi, M. (2023, October 28). Classes of power amplifiers & their

maximum distortion - explained. Ooberpad.
https://www.ooberpad.com/blogs/audio-video-tips/classes-of-power-
amplifier-minimum-distortion?srsltid=AfmBOorEV

https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/amplifier/frequency-response.html

https://makerselectronics.com/product/2n3904-40v-625mw-10010ma1v-0-
2a-npn-to-92-bipolar-transistor

chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://learnabout-
electronics.org/Downloads/amplifiers-module-02.pdf

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