ACTIVITY 1 CELL DIVISION

GENETICS LABORATORY
Prepared by: Anjie Lyn R. Engaño, MSc
STAGES OF
MITOSIS
Interphase (Not technically part of
mitosis, but precedes it)
• Description: The cell prepares for
division by growing, replicating its
DNA, and synthesizing proteins.
• Key Events:
• DNA is replicated during the S
phase.
• Chromosomes are in a relaxed,
uncondensed state (chromatin).
• Centrosomes (which organize
microtubules) are duplicated.
 Prophase
Key Events:
STAGES OF • Chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes (each
MITOSIS consists of two sister chromatids).
• Nucleolus disappears, and the nuclear envelope starts to
break down.
• Centrosomes move to opposite poles of the cell, and
spindle fibers (microtubules) begin to form.
 Metaphase
Key Events:
STAGES OF • Chromosomes are fully condensed and aligned at the
MITOSIS metaphase plate.
• Spindle fibers from opposite poles are attached to each
sister chromatid.
• This alignment ensures that each daughter cell will receive
an identical set of chromosomes.
 Anaphase
Key Events:
STAGES OF • Cohesin proteins holding sister chromatids together are
MITOSIS cleaved.
• Spindle fibers shorten, pulling chromatids toward opposite
poles.
• The cell elongates as non-kinetochore microtubules push
the poles apart.
 Telophase
Key Events:
STAGES OF • Chromosomes arrive at opposite poles, and the cell begins
to divide.
MITOSIS • Chromosomes de-condense into chromatin.
• Nuclear envelopes re-form around the separated
chromosomes.
• Nucleoli reappear.
• Spindle fibers disassemble.
Trend in Duration:
•Interphase duration is longer than mitosis because the cell undergoes
growth, DNA replication, and preparation for division.
•Among mitotic phases:
• Prophase is the longest because chromatin condenses, spindle fibers
form, and the nuclear envelope breaks down.
• Metaphase is shorter, as chromosomes align at the equator.
• Anaphase is even shorter, since sister chromatids rapidly separate.
• Telophase is brief, as the nuclear envelope reforms and the cell prepares
for division.
• Cytokinesis (if considered separately) may vary, depending on cell type.
Expected Mitotic Index Ranges for an Onion Root Tip Prepared Slide
Key Observations in a Prepared Slide
•The meristematic zone should show the highest mitotic index (20-40%) under normal conditions.
•The elongation and maturation zones will have a much lower MI (often <10%) since these cells no longer divide actively.
•If the mitotic index is above 50%, check for possible errors in counting, misidentification of interphase cells, or external chemical influences.

Mitotic Index (%) Classification Interpretation Possible Causes

Chemical/hormonal
exposure, colchicine
> 50% (Extremely High MI) Unusually excessive mitosis Abnormal cell cycle regulation
treatment, stress-induced
mitosis, or counting errors

Young root tip, hormonal

Rapid division, but slightly
40 - 50% (Very High MI) Strongly active mitosis stimulation, or environmental
above typical levels
factors

Expected for meristematic Actively dividing cells in a Normal for a well-prepared

20 - 40% (High MI)
zone healthy growing root tip meristematic region

Typical for a root tip, including Cells transitioning from

10 - 20% (Normal MI) Moderate mitotic activity
transition zones division to elongation

Older root region,

< 10% (Low MI) Reduced mitosis Slower division than expected stressed/damaged cells, poor
sample fixation
MEIOSIS
• Meiosis occurs during the formation of gametes (sperm and egg cells)
in sexually reproducing organisms.
In Animals:
• Meiosis occurs in the gonads (testes in males and ovaries in females)
during gametogenesis (the process of forming gametes).
• In males: Meiosis produces sperm cells through a process
called spermatogenesis. This occurs continuously after puberty.
• In females: Meiosis produces egg cells (ova) through a process
called oogenesis. In humans, oogenesis begins before birth, pauses during
prophase I, and resumes during each menstrual cycle after puberty.
Analyze DNA content
o Assume that a diploid cell contains 6 picograms of DNA in its nucleus, distributed among 8 chromosomes of
approximately equal size. Based on this assumption, analyze how the number of chromosomes, homologous pairs, DNA
content, and chromosome sets change during each stage of meiosis.

Information per Cell Interphase Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II

Number of
8 8 8 8 4 4 4 4 4
chromosomes
Number of
4 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0
homologous pairs
Amount of DNA (pg) 6 → 12 12 12 12 6 6 6 6 3
Number of
2 (diploid) 2 (diploid) 2 (diploid) 2 (diploid) 1 (haploid) 1 (haploid) 1 (haploid) 1 (haploid) 1 (haploid)
chromosome sets

If chromosomes are replicated during the S phase of interphase, why does the
chromosome number remain 8 during interphase and not 16?
If chromosomes are replicated • The number of chromosomes does not change during
during the S phase of DNA replication in the S phase of interphase, even though
interphase, why does the the amount of DNA doubles. This is because the definition
chromosome number remain 8 of a chromosome is based on the number of centromeres,
not the number of DNA molecules or chromatids.
during interphase?

Information Prophase Anaphase Telophase

Interphase Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I Metaphase II
per Cell II II II

Number of
chromoso 8 8 8 8 4 4 4 4 (8) 4
mes
Number of
homologo 4 (0) 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0
us pairs

Amount of
6 → 12 12 12 12 6 6 6 6 3
DNA (pg)

Number of
1 1 1 1
chromoso 2 (diploid) 2 (diploid) 2 (diploid) 2 (diploid) 1 (haploid)
(haploid) (haploid) (haploid) (haploid)
me sets
Analyze DNA content
o Assume that a diploid cell contains 6 picograms of DNA in its nucleus, distributed among 8 chromosomes of
approximately equal size. Based on this assumption, analyze how the number of chromosomes, homologous pairs, DNA
content, and chromosome sets change during each stage of meiosis.

Information per Cell Interphase Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II

Number of
8 8 8 8 4 4 4 4 4
chromosomes
Number of
4 (0) 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0
homologous pairs
Amount of DNA (pg) 6 → 12 12 12 12 6 6 6 6 3
Number of
2 (diploid) 2 (diploid) 2 (diploid) 2 (diploid) 1 (haploid) 1 (haploid) 1 (haploid) 1 (haploid) 1 (haploid)
chromosome sets

Why does the amount of DNA decrease to 3 in telophase II?

 Information per Cell Interphase Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II
Number of
8 8 8 8 4 4 4 4 4
chromosomes
Number of
4 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0
homologous pairs
Amount of DNA (pg) 6 → 12 12 12 12 6 6 6 6 3
Number of
2 (diploid) 2 (diploid) 2 (diploid) 2 (diploid) 1 (haploid) 1 (haploid) 1 (haploid) 1 (haploid) 1 (haploid)
chromosome sets

The amount of DNA decreases to 3 picograms (pg) in Telophase II because, at this stage, the cell has completed meiosis II,
resulting in the formation of haploid gametes with unreplicated chromosomes.

Key Points:
1.DNA Replication in Interphase:
•During the S phase of interphase, the DNA content doubles from 6 pg to 12
pg because each chromosome is replicated. This means each chromosome now
consists of two sister chromatids.
2.Meiosis I: Reduction Division:
•In Meiosis I, the homologous chromosomes separate, but the sister chromatids
remain attached. At the end of Meiosis I, the cell divides into two haploid cells, each
containing 6 pg of DNA (still replicated chromosomes).
3.Meiosis II: Separation of Sister Chromatids:
•In Meiosis II, the sister chromatids separate. This is similar to mitosis, where the
replicated chromosomes are divided equally between the daughter cells.
•At the end of Meiosis II, each of the four resulting gametes contains half the DNA
content of the original cell after replication. Since the original diploid cell had 6 pg of
DNA, each haploid gamete will have 3 pg of DNA.
Information per Cell Interphase Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II
Number of
8 8 8 8 4 4 4 4 4
chromosomes
Number of
4 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0
homologous pairs
Amount of DNA (pg) 6 → 12 12 12 12 6 6 6 6 3
Number of
2 (diploid) 2 (diploid) 2 (diploid) 2 (diploid) 1 (haploid) 1 (haploid) 1 (haploid) 1 (haploid) 1 (haploid)
chromosome sets

Summary of DNA Content Changes:

1.Interphase (before replication): 6 pg (unreplicated chromosomes).
2.Interphase (after replication): 12 pg (replicated chromosomes).
3.After Meiosis I: 6 pg (haploid cells with replicated chromosomes).
4.After Meiosis II: 3 pg (haploid cells with unreplicated chromosomes).