1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 THERMAL PROTECTION SYSTEM (TPS) OVERVIEW

Aerospace vehicles operating in extreme environments, particularly

during atmospheric re-entry or hypersonic flight, are subjected to intense
aerodynamic heating due to the interaction between the vehicle’s surface
and atmospheric gases at extremely high velocities. This aerodynamic
heating arises primarily from two mechanisms: convective heating,
resulting from direct contact between the vehicle's surface and the high-
temperature gases in the boundary layer, and radiative heating, caused by
the emission of energy from ionized gases present in the shock layer at very
high velocities, often beyond Mach 20. These thermal phenomena can
elevate surface temperatures to ranges from approximately 1200°C to over
2000°C, depending on several factors such as re-entry speed, angle of
descent, atmospheric density, and vehicle geometry. In such extreme
conditions, the preservation of vehicle integrity, including its structural
framework, onboard systems, and sensitive payloads, becomes a paramount
engineering challenge. To mitigate these hazardous thermal effects, the
integration of a robust Thermal Protection System (TPS) becomes
indispensable. TPS functions as a barrier or buffer that either absorbs,
deflects, or dissipates the incoming heat to maintain internal temperatures
within permissible safety margins, thus preventing catastrophic failure.

Beyond spacecraft such as capsules, space shuttles, and spaceplanes,

TPS technologies are also vital in high-speed atmospheric vehicles like
hypersonic aircraft, interplanetary probes, and reusable launch systems,
 2

where even brief exposure to extreme thermal environments can

compromise vehicle performance and safety. The design and
implementation of an effective TPS involve the meticulous selection of
suitable materials and structural configurations that can withstand high
thermal and mechanical loads while minimizing added mass, as weight is a
critical constraint in aerospace vehicle performance and mission
economics. Depending on the mission profile, duration of thermal
exposure, and reusability requirements, TPS can be classified into different
categories, namely ablative, reusable, active, and passive systems.

Ablative TPS materials, such as phenolic impregnated carbon ablator

(PICA) and carbon phenolic, operate by sacrificing surface layers through
pyrolysis and sublimation, carrying away heat and creating an insulating
char layer. These systems have been historically used in missions like
Apollo, Stardust, and Mars Science Laboratory due to their high reliability
and efficiency in single-use applications. Conversely, reusable TPS, such as
the ceramic tiles used on the Space Shuttle or advanced ceramic matrix
composites (CMCs), offer the advantage of withstanding multiple re-entries
with minimal degradation, thus supporting the growing demand for cost-
effective, sustainable access to space through reusable launch vehicles.
Reusable systems must endure not only extreme thermal cycles but also
mechanical stresses, acoustic loads, and environmental degradation over
multiple missions, making material selection and manufacturing processes
particularly challenging.

Active TPS systems involve mechanisms like heat pipes or

transpiration cooling, where a coolant is circulated to absorb and carry
away heat, often considered for hypersonic vehicles operating in sustained
high-temperature regimes. Passive TPS, by contrast, relies solely on high-
 3

temperature-resistant materials arranged in specific structural

configurations without any moving parts or active cooling elements,
offering simplicity and reliability in design. The evolution of TPS
technologies has been driven by the necessity to enhance performance
while reducing operational costs and turnaround times, especially in the
context of next-generation reusable space systems like SpaceX’sStarship or
NASA’s Orion.

Emerging materials such as Silicon Carbide/Silicon Carbide

(SiC/SiC) ceramic matrix composites are garnering significant interest due
to their exceptional high-temperature capabilities, lightweight nature,
oxidation resistance, and superior mechanical properties, making them
strong candidates for advanced reusable TPS architectures. These materials
exhibit self-healing capabilities in oxidizing environments and can
maintain structural integrity even at temperatures exceeding 1600°C,
offering potential solutions to some of the limitations observed in earlier
TPS systems, such as the fragility of ceramic tiles or the single-use nature
of ablatives. However, integrating such advanced materials into flight-
ready systems requires extensive multidisciplinary research in areas such as
high-temperature aerothermodynamics, materials science, structural
mechanics, and manufacturing technologies.

Furthermore, comprehensive ground testing and flight validation

campaigns are essential to ensure these materials can withstand the
complex interplay of thermal, mechanical, and environmental factors
encountered during real-world missions. The growing interest in
hypersonic cruise vehicles, planetary entry probes for challenging
environments like Venus or Jupiter, and next-generation spaceplanes
underscores the critical role TPS will continue to play in enabling future
 4

aerospace missions. Additionally, with the increasing emphasis on

sustainable space operations and the commercialization of space access, the
development of TPS technologies that balance reusability, maintainability,
and cost-efficiency will be crucial in shaping the future landscape of space
transportation systems.

In conclusion, the Thermal Protection System remains a cornerstone

of aerospace vehicle design, representing a convergence of cutting-edge
materials science, thermal management, and structural engineering aimed
at ensuring the safety, reliability, and success of missions operating in some
of the most extreme environments known to humankind. As the demands of
aerospace applications evolve, TPS will continue to be at the forefront of
enabling technologies that protect not only the hardware but also the
strategic interests and scientific ambitions associated with space
exploration and high-speed atmospheric flight.

1.2 REUSABLE ROCKETS-A BRIEF OVERVIEW

The space industry has undergone a significant transformation with

the advent of reusable rockets, which aim to revolutionize space
exploration by reducing costs, improving launch frequency, and enabling
sustainable space missions. Traditionally, space missions relied on
expendable launch systems, where rockets and their components were used
once and discarded, either burning up during re-entry or crashing into
oceans. This approach, although effective, involved high costs, long
turnaround times, and significant waste of sophisticated hardware. In
response to these challenges, the concept of reusable rockets has emerged
as a transformative development within the aerospace industry. By enabling
 5

rockets or significant parts of them to be recovered, refurbished, and

reused, this technology promises to reduce the cost per launch, enhance
launch cadence, and foster sustainable space operations. Companies like
SpaceX, Blue Origin, and Rocket Lab are at the forefront of this shift,
turning reusable launch systems from theoretical possibilities into
operational realities.

Reusable rockets are designed to withstand the stresses of launch,

spaceflight, re-entry, and landing without compromising structural integrity
or requiring extensive refurbishment. This involves integrating advanced
materials, propulsion technologies, thermal protection systems, and
precision landing capabilities. These systems are typically engineered to
recover the first stage of the rocket, which is the most massive and
expensive part, containing the main engines and fuel tanks. In some
designs, upper stages and payload fairings are also targeted for recovery.
The recovery and landing methods vary across companies, with some
employing vertical takeoff and vertical landing techniques where the rocket
descends back to Earth using retro-propulsion and lands vertically on a
designated pad or drone ship. Others use parachute-assisted recovery or
winged glide-back concepts. These techniques require advanced
autonomous navigation, guidance, and control systems to ensure precise
and safe landings, even on floating platforms at sea.

The implementation of reusable rockets brings numerous advantages over

traditional expendable systems. One of the most significant benefits is the
reduction of launch costs. Although refurbishment and recovery operations
incur costs, these are considerably lower than manufacturing new stages for
each mission. SpaceX has reported that reusing Falcon 9 boosters can cut
launch costs by up to 60%. This reduction in cost has a cascading effect
 6

across the entire space sector, making space more accessible to

commercial, scientific, and governmental entities. Additionally, the ability
to reuse rockets allows for an increased launch cadence, as the need to
build new hardware for every launch is diminished, enabling a faster
turnaround between missions. This benefits not only commercial customers
but also scientific missions requiring rapid deployment of satellites and
experiments.

Another critical advantage is the contribution of reusable rockets to

sustainable spaceflight. By minimizing space debris and reducing the
environmental impact of launch operations, reusable systems offer a more
responsible approach to space exploration. Instead of expending hardware
into the ocean or leaving it as space debris, valuable components are
returned and reused. Moreover, the economics of reusable rockets enable
the emergence of new business models such as space tourism, point-to-
point suborbital flights, and in-space manufacturing. Lower costs and
higher availability of launches open doors for commercial ventures and
innovation in space services.

Several key players have made significant achievements in advancing

reusable rocket technology. SpaceX has been the most prominent player in
this field, with its Falcon 9 being the first orbital-class rocket to achieve
vertical landing and multiple re-flights. The company has successfully
reused boosters more than 20 times and is pushing boundaries with the
fully reusable Starship system, designed for interplanetary missions. Blue
Origin's New Shepard, a suborbital vehicle, has demonstrated multiple
successful reuses for space tourism and research missions. The company is
also developing the New Glenn rocket, intended to be partially reusable
with a reusable first stage. While initially using expendable rockets, Rocket
 7

Lab is developing recovery and reuse capabilities for its Electron rocket,
using parachutes and helicopter mid-air capture techniques. The European
Space Agency, ISRO, and China are also investing in developing reusable
systems like RLV-TD, Space Rider, and Long March derivatives, indicating
a global shift toward reusability.

Despite the progress made, several challenges remain in achieving full

reusability of rockets. Repeated exposure to extreme thermal and
mechanical loads can degrade components, necessitating careful inspection,
repair, or replacement after each flight. While refurbishment is cheaper
than building new rockets, it still involves costs and complex logistics,
especially if the system was not originally designed with easy maintenance
in mind. Moreover, the addition of landing gear and extra fuel for return
maneuvers can slightly reduce the payload capacity of reusable rockets
compared to expendable systems. There are also concerns regarding
reliability, as customers may be hesitant to trust reused hardware until it
demonstrates high reliability over numerous flights.

Looking ahead, the future of reusable rockets is highly promising.

SpaceX’s Starship, currently in testing, aims to be a fully reusable super-
heavy lift vehicle capable of multiple flights per day, carrying both crew
and cargo to the Moon, Mars, and beyond. This system intends to usher in
an era of space logistics hubs, fuel depots, and interplanetary travel.
Similarly, companies and agencies are exploring next-generation materials,
rapid refurbishment techniques, and automation to make reusability even
more efficient and cost-effective. In the long term, reusable rockets are
expected to underpin humanity’s ambitions for space colonization, on-orbit
manufacturing, and space-based energy systems. The shift toward reusable
 8

systems represents not merely an economic or technological evolution but a

paradigm shift in how humanity accesses and operates in space.

Reusable rocket technology represents a cornerstone of the new space age,

offering a practical pathway to lower launch costs, higher mission
frequency, and sustainable space operations. While challenges remain, the
successes achieved so far underscore the viability of reusability as the
future standard for spaceflight. As technology advances and operational
experience grows, reusable rockets will play a pivotal role in enabling
ambitious ventures, from commercial satellite constellations to
interplanetary exploration, shaping the next chapter of humanity’s journey
into space.

1.2.1 Why Reusability Matters

Historically, rocket stages were considered disposable components.

Each launch meant building a new rocket, which drove up costs to
hundreds of millions of dollars per mission. This model hindered regular
space access and limited the feasibility of large-scale projects, such as
space colonization or frequent satellite deployments.

Reusable rockets address this issue by significantly lowering the cost per
launch. Instead of building new hardware for every mission, the same
rocket can be used repeatedly, similar to how commercial aircraft operate.
This model has already proven effective, especially with the rise of private
companies like SpaceX, Blue Origin, and Rocket Lab pursuing
reusability aggressively.

1.2.2 Key Components of Reusable Rockets

 9

A reusable rocket typically includes several recoverable components:

 First Stage Booster: The main propulsive unit that lifts the rocket
off the ground. In reusable systems like SpaceX’s Falcon 9, the
booster returns to Earth via controlled descent and landing.

 Landing Systems: These can include grid fins, retractable legs,

and retro-propulsion systems for soft landings on droneships or
landing pads.

 Thermal Protection Systems (TPS): During reentry, the rocket

faces extreme heat. TPS materials prevent structural damage and
ensure components can be reused.

 Navigation and Control Systems: Advanced software and sensors

allow the rocket to autonomously navigate and land.

1.2.3 Notable Reusable Rockets

 SpaceX Falcon 9 & Falcon Heavy

The most successful example of reusable rockets, the Falcon 9, has

completed over 100 booster landings as of 2024. Its first stage is
capable of landing either on a droneship at sea or a ground-based
pad. The Falcon Heavy, a more powerful variant, also reuses its side
boosters.
 10

Figure:1.1 SpaceX Falcon 9 & Falcon Heavy

 SpaceX Starship

Still in the testing phase, Starship is designed to be fully reusable —

both stages. This system aims to carry humans to Mars and support
large-scale payload transport. The vehicle uses stainless steel and
hexagonal heat shield tiles to endure multiple reentries.

Figure:1.2SpaceX Starship

 Blue Origin New Shepard & New Glenn

New Shepard is a suborbital reusable rocket designed for space

tourism, capable of vertical takeoff and landing. New Glenn, its
orbital counterpart, will also feature a reusable first stage.
 11

Figure:1.3Blue Origin New Shepard & New Glenn

 Rocket Lab Neutron

Rocket Lab is transitioning from its expendable Electron rocket to

the Neutron, a reusable medium-lift rocket with a focus on cost
efficiency and fast turnaround.

1.2.4 Challenges of Reusability

Despite its benefits, building reusable rockets presents several

technical challenges:

 Heat Resistance: Reentering Earth’s atmosphere generates

temperatures exceeding 1600°C. TPS materials must endure multiple
cycles without failure.

 Precision Landing: Rockets must land accurately to be recovered

and reused. This requires complex control algorithms and reliable
hardware.

 Material Fatigue: Repeated launches cause wear on structural and

thermal components, requiring rigorous inspection and
refurbishment protocols.
 12

 Economic Trade-offs: While reusability reduces hardware costs, it

introduces refurbishment and logistical expenses that must be
balanced.

1.2.5 Impact on Space Missions

Reusable rockets are enabling:

 Lower Launch Costs: Launching satellites, cargo, and people into

orbit is becoming more affordable, fueling private and academic
space ventures.

 High Launch Cadence: Companies can schedule more missions in

shorter timeframes, ideal for satellite constellations like Starlink or
Earth observation systems.

 Mars and Moon Missions: Long-term projects such as lunar bases

or Mars colonization rely on reusability for cargo and crew delivery.

 Commercial Spaceflight: Space tourism is being developed with

reusable systems, making short suborbital trips more feasible.

1.3THE NEED FOR THERMAL PROTECTION SYSTEMS IN

REUSABLE SPACECRAFT

Thermal Protection Systems (TPS) are critical components in the

design and operation of modern reusable spacecraft. Their primary function
is to protect the vehicle and its internal components from the extreme
aerodynamic heating experienced during atmospheric reentry. As a
spacecraft descends from orbit and reenters the Earth’s atmosphere, it
encounters air molecules at hypersonic speeds, creating friction that raises
surface temperatures to levels that can exceed 1600°C. Without a dedicated
system to mitigate this heat, the structural integrity of the vehicle would be
 13

compromised, potentially resulting in catastrophic failure. This need is

even more pronounced in reusable spacecraft, which are designed to
survive multiple missions with minimal refurbishment between launches.

Historically, early spacecraft such as NASA’s Apollo capsules and

the Soviet Soyuz used ablative heat shields—materials that gradually burn
away, absorbing and carrying away heat in the process. While effective,
these shields are single-use, which contradicts the goals of reusability and
cost reduction. With the advent of the Space Shuttle in the 1980s, NASA
introduced reusable TPS technologies, such as silica-based thermal tiles.
These tiles could withstand reentry heat and be reused, but they were
fragile and required extensive maintenance, proving to be a bottleneck in
terms of turnaround time and operational cost. Today’s advancements in
material science aim to overcome these limitations by developing robust,
lightweight, and reusable TPS materials that offer high thermal resistance
and mechanical durability.

Figure:1.4NASA’s Apollo capsules

In reusable rockets like SpaceX’sStarship or NASA’s next-generation

vehicles, the TPS must endure repeated thermal cycles, resist physical
 14

damage, and minimize weight—all while maintaining performance. This is

where advanced materials like Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs),
particularly SiC/SiC (Silicon Carbide reinforced Silicon Carbide), come
into play. These materials exhibit exceptional high-temperature stability,
low thermal expansion, and high strength-to-weight ratios, making them
ideal candidates for reusable TPS applications. Their ceramic nature allows
them to resist oxidation and thermal fatigue, even after multiple reentry
events, significantly improving the longevity and reliability of spacecraft.

Figure:1.5SpaceX repairing heat shield

Furthermore, the design and configuration of TPS tiles influence not only
the thermal shielding performance but also the aerodynamics and
maintainability of the vehicle. Hexagonal tile arrangements, for example,
offer efficient surface coverage with minimal gaps and reduce the
likelihood of hot spots. Combining such geometries with high-performance
materials enhances both thermal protection and structural resilience,
ensuring the vehicle can be quickly turned around for its next mission.
 15

In conclusion, the integration of high-efficiency TPS in reusable

spacecraft is essential to ensuring mission success, crew safety, and
economic viability. As space agencies and private companies push toward
sustainable spaceflight, TPS technologies must evolve to meet the rigorous
demands of reusability. This project focuses on evaluating the potential of
SiC/SiC CMCs in hexagonal tile form, using simulation tools to analyze
their behavior under reentry conditions. By addressing the limitations of
legacy systems and leveraging advanced materials, this research contributes
to the broader goal of making space exploration more affordable, frequent,
and dependable.

1.4HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE AND EVOLUTION OF TPS

Thermal Protection Systems (TPS) have been indispensable for

ensuring the safety and functionality of aerospace vehicles as they endure
extreme thermal environments, particularly during high-speed flight,
atmospheric re-entry, and space missions. Since the dawn of space
exploration, the need to manage and mitigate intense thermal loads has
driven the development of various TPS technologies. These systems play a
critical role in preventing damage to the spacecraft's structural components
and ensuring the survival of onboard equipment and crew. The progression
of TPS technology has closely paralleled advancements in aerospace
engineering and space exploration, evolving from rudimentary ablative
systems to sophisticated, reusable thermal protection materials and systems
capable of withstanding multiple re-entry cycles.

In the early years of space exploration, the primary concern was to protect
capsules and vehicles during atmospheric re-entry, where kinetic energy
generated by high velocities transformed into intense thermal energy due to
 16

compression of the atmospheric gases and friction. The earliest TPS

solutions were based on ablative materials, which function by absorbing
heat and gradually charring, melting, and eroding away, carrying the heat
with them. This sacrificial method provided an effective and relatively
simple way to manage re-entry heat during the Mercury, Gemini, and
Apollo programs. These missions primarily utilized ablative heat shields
composed of phenolic resin composites and other materials capable of
withstanding high heat fluxes while maintaining structural integrity for the
duration of the mission. The ablative shields were highly effective but were
designed for single-use applications, as they were irreversibly damaged and
could not be reused.

As human spaceflight progressed, especially with the advent of the Space

Shuttle program in the 1970s and 1980s, the need for reusable thermal
protection systems became apparent. The Space Shuttle Orbiter required a
thermal protection system that could endure multiple entries into Earth's
atmosphere, leading to the development of the most complex TPS ever
designed at the time. The Shuttle employed a combination of reusable
surface insulation tiles, reinforced carbon-carbon (RCC) panels, and
flexible reusable insulation blankets. The black silica-based tiles, known as
LI-900, were capable of withstanding temperatures up to 1,260°C and had
excellent insulating properties despite being extremely lightweight and
fragile. RCC was used on areas subjected to the highest thermal loads, such
as the leading edges of wings and nose cap, where temperatures could
exceed 1,500°C. This marked a significant leap in TPS technology,
introducing the possibility of partial reusability in orbital vehicles and
setting a new standard for space transportation systems.
 17

However, the reusable TPS of the Space Shuttle came with its own set of
challenges. The silica tiles, while effective in thermal insulation, were
highly brittle and vulnerable to mechanical damage from debris impacts or
handling errors. After every flight, the Shuttle required intensive inspection
and maintenance of its TPS, including replacing damaged or lost tiles,
making operations expensive and time-consuming. The catastrophic loss of
Space Shuttle Columbia in 2003, due to damage to its RCC panels caused
by foam insulation debris during launch, underscored the vulnerability of
TPS to even seemingly minor damage and the critical importance of
reliable, damage-tolerant thermal protection systems.

In parallel with developments in the United States, other countries and

organizations pursued their own TPS advancements. The Soviet Union’s
Buran space shuttle, though only flown once, also utilized a combination of
reusable tiles and ablative materials, reflecting similar technological
approaches but with different material formulations and design
philosophies. Subsequent entry vehicles, including space capsules like the
Soyuz and Shenzhou, continued to employ ablative TPS due to its
simplicity, reliability, and proven effectiveness for capsule-style re-entries,
particularly for missions that did not prioritize reusability.

The evolution of TPS has continued into the modern era of commercial
spaceflight and reusable launch vehicles. Companies such as SpaceX have
revisited the challenges of thermal protection for reusable rockets and
spacecraft. SpaceX’s Dragon capsule employs an advanced ablative heat
shield known as PICA-X, a proprietary derivative of NASA’s Phenolic
Impregnated Carbon Ablator (PICA). PICA-X has demonstrated excellent
performance during multiple re-entries and is designed for partial reuse
with minimal refurbishment. SpaceX’sStarship program is pushing TPS
 18

technology further by integrating stainless steel bodywork with heat-

resistant tiles inspired by Shuttle-era silica tiles but engineered with
modern manufacturing techniques and materials to enhance durability and
ease of maintenance.

Moreover, the shift toward high-cadence reusable launch systems has

stimulated interest in TPS materials that can survive multiple high-heat flux
exposures with little to no maintenance. This has led to the exploration of
advanced ceramic matrix composites (CMCs), such as Silicon
Carbide/Silicon Carbide (SiC/SiC) composites, known for their high-
temperature resistance, mechanical strength, and oxidation resistance.
These materials have been investigated for their potential to provide
durable, lightweight, and reusable TPS solutions for both winged and
capsule-type vehicles. CMCs also exhibit low thermal conductivity,
reducing the thermal loads transmitted to the vehicle’s structure, while
being more damage-tolerant compared to earlier ceramic tiles.

Additionally, next-generation TPS designs have been influenced by the

increasing demands of hypersonic flight vehicles, spaceplanes, and
interplanetary missions. Hypersonic vehicles, traveling within Earth’s
atmosphere at speeds exceeding Mach 5, generate extreme aerodynamic
heating over extended periods, requiring TPS capable of withstanding not
only high peak temperatures but also sustained thermal loads. For such
applications, ultra-high temperature ceramics (UHTCs) and actively cooled
systems are being researched to extend the performance envelope of TPS
into even more demanding environments.

The progression of TPS technology has also been shaped by lessons

learned from failures and near-misses, driving innovations in damage
 19

detection, health monitoring, and repairability. The integration of sensors

into TPS materials, development of more robust tile attachment methods,
and the use of modular TPS segments that can be easily replaced or
repaired on-site are examples of these ongoing improvements. Similarly,
advances in computational fluid dynamics (CFD), heat transfer modeling,
and material testing have enabled more accurate prediction of thermal
environments and better optimization of TPS configurations for different
mission profiles.

In the context of planetary entry missions, TPS has had to adapt to even
more extreme environments, such as the entry into Mars’ atmosphere or the
return of sample capsules from deep space missions at velocities exceeding
11 km/s. NASA’s Stardust mission, which returned samples from a comet,
utilized PICA heat shields to successfully manage the intense re-entry heat.
The upcoming Mars Sample Return missions will likely rely on further
refined TPS technologies, balancing performance, weight, and reliability to
ensure mission success.

In conclusion, the historical perspective and evolution of TPS reflect the

dynamic interplay between mission requirements, materials science, and
engineering innovation. From the early ablative systems of the Apollo era
to the sophisticated reusable TPS of the Space Shuttle and today’s
commercial spacecraft, TPS technology has continually evolved to meet the
demands of increasingly ambitious space exploration goals. The future of
TPS development is likely to focus on materials and systems that offer
enhanced reusability, reduced maintenance, and greater resilience to
damage, thereby enabling the next generation of reusable spacecraft,
hypersonic vehicles, and interplanetary missions. As humanity pushes the
boundaries of space exploration and reusable flight, TPS will remain a
 20

critical enabler, safeguarding both human and robotic missions in some of

the harshest environments encountered by aerospace vehicles.

1.4.1 Early TPS Development: The Mercury and Gemini Programs

In the early years of space exploration during the 1960s, NASA’s

Mercury and Gemini programs faced the daunting challenge of managing
the extreme heat generated during atmospheric re-entry. The primary
material used in these early missions was ablative substances, such as
phenolic resins and cork, which dissipated heat by gradually burning away.
These materials were ideal for single-use reentry but lacked the durability
necessary for multiple missions, making them unsuitable for future
reusable space vehicles.

The Apollo program introduced a significant breakthrough in TPS

materials with silica-based ceramics. Silica tiles, known for their ability to
withstand temperatures over 1500°C, were employed on the Apollo
Command Module. Although these tiles provided excellent thermal
protection, their brittleness and tendency to crack under thermal shock
presented challenges for reuse.

Building on the Apollo program's successes, the Space Shuttle

introduced more advanced reusable materials, including carbon-carbon
composites and high-temperature-resistant silica tiles. Carbon-carbon
composites, used for the Shuttle's nose cone and leading edges, were
durable enough to withstand the highest temperatures. However, these
materials still faced limitations related to their fragility and maintenance
requirements due to their sensitivity to damage from external forces

This As the aerospace industry moved into the 21st century, the need
for more advanced and reusable space systems became increasingly
 21

critical. Traditional Thermal Protection Systems (TPS) materials, such as

silica tiles and carbon-based composites, were initially developed for
single-use missions and successfully protected spacecraft during reentry.
However, these materials presented challenges in the era of reusable
spacecraft, where multiple re-entries and extended service life were
becoming key requirements.
To address these limitations, research and development in the field of
TPS began to focus on Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). CMCs are
designed to endure the intense heat of reentry while maintaining their
integrity through repeated thermal cycles, making them ideal for reusable
aerospace vehicles. Unlike earlier materials that degraded with use, CMCs
provided improved thermal resistance, mechanical strength, and oxidation
resistance, offering a more reliable and cost-effective solution for space
missions requiring multiple uses.
The advent of reusable space systems in programs like
SpaceX’sStarship highlighted the necessity for advanced TPS technologies.
SpaceX’s goal to reduce the cost of space travel and enable frequent space
exploration required a solution that could withstand the harsh conditions of
multiple reentries. This demand drove the exploration and eventual
integration of advanced ceramic composites that would better withstand the
thermal extremes experienced during atmospheric reentry. The Starship
program pushed the boundaries of TPS technology, adopting new materials
that would allow for greater reliability and reuse potential in future space
missions.

1.5 TYPES OF THERMAL PROTECTION SYSTEMS

TPS can generally be categorized based on how they manage heat:

 22

Ablative TPS: An Ablative Thermal Protection System (TPS) is an

essential technology for spacecraft, enabling them to endure the extreme
heat and stresses of atmospheric re-entry or high-speed travel through
dense atmospheres. These systems work by utilizing materials that
gradually burn, erode, or vaporize upon exposure to intense heat,
effectively dissipating the heat away from the spacecraft’s structure. This
process of "ablation" protects the spacecraft by both absorbing and
removing heat, keeping the internal components safe from temperatures
that can exceed thousands of degrees Celsius. The outer layers of the
ablative material, as they burn away, form a cool, insulating layer of gases
that further shields the vehicle from thermal damage. Materials used in
ablative TPS include phenolic resin composites (like PICA), carbon-
phenolic blends, and ceramic composites. These materials are chosen for
their ability to withstand high temperatures, resist erosion, and maintain
their structural integrity as they erode. For instance, PICA (Phenolic
Impregnated Carbon Ablator) has been used in NASA's Mars missions,
offering excellent heat resistance and thermal protection. As the spacecraft
encounters atmospheric friction during re-entry, the ablative material is
designed to erode layer by layer, ensuring a continuous process of heat
removal.

Radiative or Passive TPS: Radiative or passive Thermal Protection Systems

(TPS) are designed to protect spacecraft from excessive heat by relying on
the principle of radiation rather than physical material erosion, as seen in
ablative TPS. These systems work by reflecting, absorbing, and radiating
away the heat generated during re-entry or high-speed atmospheric flight.
Radiative TPS typically use highly heat-resistant materials that can
withstand high temperatures without significant thermal degradation. These
 23

materials are designed to emit heat away from the spacecraft through
thermal radiation, effectively cooling the vehicle by radiating the absorbed
heat into space. Unlike ablative systems, radiative TPS do not lose material
during the process, making them reusable for multiple missions. Common
materials for radiative TPS include ceramic tiles, thermal blankets, or
special coatings that have high emissivity and can withstand the harsh
thermal environments encountered during atmospheric re-entry. While
radiative TPS are less effective in situations with extremely high heat flux
(such as those experienced during high-speed atmospheric entry), they are
often used in conjunction with other TPS methods, providing a lighter,
more durable solution for specific phases of space missions.

Active TPS: Active Thermal Protection Systems (TPS) go beyond

traditional passive methods by incorporating mechanisms that directly
manage the thermal environment of a spacecraft, making them highly
useful for missions that require sophisticated temperature regulation over
extended periods or in dynamic conditions. These systems typically rely on
advanced cooling technologies that use external or internal heat exchange
mechanisms to prevent overheating and ensure the spacecraft's critical
systems remain within operational temperature ranges.The core of an active
TPS usually includes heat pipes, pumps, and fluid-based cooling loops.
Heat pipes are used to transfer heat from high-temperature areas to
radiators or heat exchangers, where the heat is dissipated into space. In
some systems, a fluid such as water or another coolant is circulated through
pipes embedded in the spacecraft's structure. This fluid absorbs heat from
the spacecraft’s components and transports it to radiators, which then
release the heat into the vacuum of space through radiation. Heat
exchangers can also be used to regulate the temperature of sensitive
 24

equipment, ensuring that instruments and electronics stay cool and

functional during intense thermal loads.

Active TPS are especially beneficial in missions with high

variability in thermal conditions, such as those involving prolonged
exposure to the Sun, deep space environments, or spacecraft that encounter
multiple stages of temperature extremes. For example, during long-duration
missions to Mars or deep-space exploration, active systems can help
maintain the integrity of the spacecraft over extended periods where
passive protection methods like heat shields might not be enough or might
degrade too quickly. One of the most advanced uses of active TPS is in
crewed spacecraft where the temperature needs to be meticulously
controlled to ensure astronaut safety and comfort. Spacecraft are designed
with active thermal management systems to protect both the crew and
sensitive equipment in extreme environments, such as when transitioning
from the cold of deep space to the intense heat of atmospheric re-entry.

Reusable Insulative TPS: Reusable Insulative Thermal Protection Systems

(TPS) are designed to provide durable, long-term protection for spacecraft,
allowing them to withstand multiple re-entries or prolonged exposure to
high temperatures without requiring complete replacement of the heat
shield after each mission. Unlike single-use ablative TPS, which burn away
layer by layer, reusable insulative TPS rely on materials that can maintain
their integrity over several cycles of heating and cooling. These systems
typically use heat-resistant, insulating materials like reinforced ceramics,
silica-based tiles, or advanced composites, which can reflect or radiate
away the intense heat encountered during re-entry while remaining largely
unaffected by the high temperatures. The goal is to prevent thermal damage
 25

to the spacecraft’s structure and systems, while also reducing the cost and
time associated with replacing heat shields after each mission. A prominent
example of reusable insulative TPS is the thermal tiles used on NASA’s
Space Shuttle, which were made from materials like silica and ceramic,
capable of withstanding repeated thermal cycles without significant
degradation. Reusable insulative TPS are crucial for missions that involve
frequent launches and re-entries, such as with crewed spacecraft or reusable
launch vehicles, as they offer a more cost-effective and sustainable solution
for ensuring safe and efficient space travel.

1.5.1 Key Requirements of TPS Materials

To perform effectively under harsh thermal and mechanical conditions,

TPS materials must satisfy several critical criteria:

 High-Temperature Resistance: The material must withstand peak

thermal loads without degradation. This includes sustained
performance at temperatures often exceeding 1500°C.
 Low Thermal Conductivity: Materials should act as insulators to
minimize heat transfer to the underlying structure.
 Thermal Shock Resistance: The ability to endure rapid temperature
fluctuations without cracking or delamination is essential.
 Oxidation Resistance: TPS materials are often exposed to reactive
oxygen-rich environments; hence, resistance to oxidation is vital.
 Mechanical Durability: The material should be structurally sound to
survive high dynamic pressure, vibration, and impact during launch
and reentry.
 Lightweight: Weight reduction is a critical concern in aerospace
design. TPS materials should add minimal mass to the vehicle.
 26

 Reusability and Maintainability: For modern missions emphasizing

cost-efficiency and sustainability, the TPS must allow for multiple
reuses with minimal refurbishment.

Table 1.1 Classification of TPS Materials

Category Temperature Properties Reusability Material/

Range System
(°C)

Conventional Up to ~1200°C Lightweight, Low Silica Tiles

Ceramics low thermal
conductivity,
effective
insulator

Carbon- Up to ~1650°C High strength, Medium Carbon-

Based good thermal Carbon (C/C)
Composites resistance

Ceramic Up to 1700°C High High

Matrix toughness, SiC/SiC CMC
Composites thermal shock
resistance,
oxidation
resistant,
lightweight
 27

1.6NEED FOR ADVANCED MATERIAL

As space exploration has evolved and the demand for reusable space
systems grows, there has been an increasing need for advanced material
solutions that can withstand the extreme thermal environments of reentry
and prolonged space missions. Traditional Thermal Protection Systems
(TPS), including silica-based ceramics and carbon composites, have served
effectively in past missions but have significant limitations when it comes
to repeated use and long-term performance in reentry conditions

1.6.1 Challenges of Traditional TPS Materials

Traditional TPS materials, such as ceramics and carbon composites, have

been effective in early missions but exhibit several limitations in modern
space missions. These materials tend to degrade after multiple reentries,
leading to high maintenance costs and limited longevity. Furthermore,
traditional TPS materials struggle to maintain their structural integrity
under the extreme thermal and mechanical stresses experienced during
multiple reentries. The brittleness, poor resistance to thermal shock, and
high oxidation susceptibility of these materials make them impractical for
next-generation space systems requiring frequent reuse.

1.6.2 Emergence of Advanced TPS Materials

The growing need for efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and

sustainability in the aerospace industry necessitates that next-generation
TPS materials be developed to not only protect spacecraft during
atmospheric reentry but also to ensure that the material can maintain its
properties across multiple missions. Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs),
specifically Silicon Carbide (SiC)/SiC composites, are emerging as a
 28

promising solution. These materials offer superior thermal resistance,

enhanced durability, and low maintenance costs. CMCs can withstand the
high temperatures of reentry—up to 1700°C—while also offering the
mechanical strength and thermal shock resistance required for repeated use.

1.6.3 Aligning with the Future of Space Exploration

The need for advanced TPS materials is closely tied to the broader
trends of sustainable space exploration and increased mission cadence. As
the aerospace industry shifts toward more frequent and cost-effective space
missions, the role of Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs) becomes even
more critical. These materials align with the goals of creating spacecraft
that are not only reusable but also economically viable for long-term space
exploration, enabling missions that would otherwise be prohibitively
expensive or unsustainable.

1.7 RECENT RESEARCH TRENDS IN THERMAL PROTECTION

SYSTEMS

Thermal Protection Systems (TPS) are absolutely critical for

safeguarding spacecraft during reentry into Earth's atmosphere or when
entering the atmospheres of other celestial bodies. These systems are
designed to withstand the extreme heat generated by friction, compression,
and high velocities as a spacecraft re-enters or descends through an
atmosphere. During reentry, the spacecraft experiences temperatures that
can exceed thousands of degrees Celsius, and without an effective TPS, the
heat could easily destroy the vehicle’s structure, electronics, and any crew
or sensitive cargo onboard. This would also allow mission control teams to
make adjustments in response to unexpected conditions during re-entry,
improving the safety and success of complex missions.
 29

1.7.1 Development of Advanced TPS Materials

NASA's Ames Research Center has spearheaded the development of

several innovative TPS materials over the past decade. Notable among
these are:

C-PICA (Carbon Phenolic Impregnated Carbon Ablator): It is an advanced

thermal protection material that offers significantly improved thermal
performance, making it especially suitable for missions that experience
extremely high heat flux, such as high-speed atmospheric entry or planetary
descent. It is an evolution of the original PICA (Phenolic Impregnated
Carbon Ablator), incorporating a carbon-fiber preform with phenolic resin,
which enhances its structural strength, ablation resistance, and overall
thermal durability.

HEEET (Heatshield for Extreme Entry Environment Technology): It is a

state-of-the-art, 3D woven thermal protection system specifically
developed by NASA for missions targeting extreme entry environments,
such as those encountered during atmospheric entry into planets like Venus
and Saturn. These planetary atmospheres present some of the most
challenging thermal and mechanical conditions in the solar system,
including high entry velocities, intense aerodynamic heating, and severe
pressure loads

3DMAT (3D Multifunctional Ablative Thermal Protection System): It is an

innovative thermal protection technology that integrates both structural
support and thermal shielding into a single, multifunctional component.
Developed to enhance the performance and efficiency of spacecraft during
 30

atmospheric entry, 3DMAT utilizes a three-dimensional woven carbon

fiber architecture impregnated with a high-temperature resin, resulting in a
material that can withstand extreme thermal loads while also bearing
mechanical stresses. This dual functionality allows 3DMAT to serve as
both a heat shield and a load-bearing structure, effectively eliminating the
need for separate thermal and structural components.

These materials have achieved high Technology Readiness Levels (TRLs),

making them viable for upcoming missions, including lunar and Mars
sample returns.

1.7.2 Application of Machine Learning in TPS Design

The application of machine learning, particularly Physics-Informed

Neural Networks (PINNs), is revolutionizing TPS design processes. PINNs
enable the simulation of complex thermal behaviors with reduced
computational resources, facilitating rapid prototyping and optimization of
TPS materials and structures.

1.8 ADVANCEMENTS IN TPS MATERIALS FOR NEXT-

AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS

With the demand for reusable and cost-efficient spacecraft growing,

the development of advanced materials for Thermal Protection Systems
(TPS) has become a central research focus. Innovative materials like
Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs), especially SiC/SiC, are being
explored for their superior thermal and mechanical performance under
extreme aerospace conditions.
 31

1.8.1 High-Temperature Capabilities of Emerging Materials

New-generation materials are revolutionizing the design of thermal

protection systems by offering the ability to withstand operating
temperatures exceeding 1600°C, which is essential for the next era of high-
performance aerospace vehicles. These advanced materials—such as ultra-
high-temperature ceramics (UHTCs), enhanced carbon-carbon composites,
and multifunctional 3D-woven ablators—are specifically engineered to
endure extreme thermal and mechanical stresses associated with prolonged
hypersonic flight and repeated atmospheric reentry. Unlike conventional
thermal protection systems that degrade or erode after a single use, these
new materials exhibit remarkable thermal stability, oxidation resistance,
and structural durability, even after multiple high-temperature cycles.

1.8.2 Durability and Reusability in Harsh Environments

Materials such as silicon carbide/silicon carbide ceramic matrix

composites (SiC/SiC CMCs) are at the forefront of next-generation thermal
protection systems due to their exceptional resistance to extreme
environmental conditions. These composites are engineered to perform
reliably under the high thermal and mechanical stresses encountered during
hypersonic flight, atmospheric reentry, and prolonged space missions. One
of the key advantages of SiC/SiC CMCs is their outstanding resistance to
thermal shock, which allows them to endure rapid temperature fluctuations
without cracking or losing structural integrity—a common challenge for
many conventional materials during reentry or engine ignition phases.
 32

CHAPTER – 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

The field of Thermal Protection Systems (TPS) has seen

transformative advancements in recent decades, with a specific focus on
materials that can withstand the extreme conditions encountered during
high-speed atmospheric reentry and hypersonic flight. A significant area of
TPSresearch has been the development of Ceramic Matrix Composites
(CMCs), particularly Silicon Carbide/Silicon Carbide (SiC/SiC)
composites. These materials have shown remarkable potential due to their
superior thermal stability, mechanical strength, and resistance to oxidation,
making them ideal candidates for use in aerospace applications, particularly
in reusable space vehicles.
Zhang (2021), in his review published in the Journal of Materials
Science, highlighted the recent progress in CMCs, with an emphasis on
their applicability in aerospace and automotive sectors. The study
underscored the shift from traditional monolithic ceramics to fiber-
reinforced ceramic composites, which offer improved damage tolerance
and long-term durability under repeated thermal cycles, making them more
suitable for reusable aerospace systems.
Sharma et al. (2014) further reinforced the potential of CMCs,
specifically focusing on their structural performance under high-
temperature conditions. In their review in the International Review of
Applied Engineering Research, the authors discussed the high strength-to-
weight ratio of these materials and their ability to retain mechanical
strength and thermal integrity even at temperatures exceeding 1600°C.
These attributes make CMCs, and particularly SiC/SiC composites, ideal
for aerospace components such as nose cones and wing leading edges,
 33

which are exposed to the harshest thermal and mechanical loads during
atmospheric reentry. This aligns with the growing interest in designing
reusable TPS systems that can endure multiple reentry cycles without
degradation, a critical consideration for next-generation spacecraft like
SpaceX'sStarship.
Blosser (1996), in a NASA Technical Memorandum, explored
metallic TPS development, emphasizing the need for lightweight and
durable materials for reusable launch vehicles (RLVs). While metallic TPS
materials offered satisfactory thermal protection, their ability to withstand
extreme temperatures over multiple reentries was limited. This research set
the stage for further exploration into ceramic-based systems, particularly
CMCs, which can provide superior thermal and structural performance for
vehicles that require repeated reentries.
More recently, Le Maout et al. (2024), in their study published in the
Journal of the American Ceramic Society, developed a numerical oxidation
model for SiC-coated TPS materials, specifically designed for hypersonic
applications. Their model accurately predicted the transition from passive
to active oxidation under high-temperature, oxidative environments, a key
factor in the performance of SiC/SiC composites in long-duration,
hypersonic missions. This research further supports the use of SiC/SiC
composites in next-generation spacecraft, where high temperatures and
prolonged exposure to harsh conditions are common, such as in the
SpaceXStarship.
Uyanna and Najafi (2020), in their comprehensive review published
in ActaAstronautica, discussed the historical development of TPS
technologies, categorizing them into passive, semi-passive, and active
systems. Their work focused on the transition from single-use ablative
systems to modern, reusable TPS solutions. This evolution reflects the
 34

industry's move toward enhancing TPS performance to meet the increasing

demands of reusable spacecraft. The review highlighted challenges such as
material degradation, sensor integration, and modeling techniques, all of
which are critical for the development of advanced TPS materials like
SiC/SiC CMCs that can withstand multiple reentries while ensuring the
vehicle's structural integrity.
In another review, De Napoli (2022), in Frontiers in Physics,
discussed the multifunctional properties of Silicon Carbide (SiC),
particularly in its role as both a thermal protection material and a radiation
detection material. While the study primarily focused on SiC's application
in radiation detection, its findings further underscore SiC's robustness and
stability under extreme conditions. This supports SiC's continued role in
high-performance TPS applications, where materials must perform not only
under thermal stress but also in complex environments requiring both
thermal and electronic functionality.
These studies collectively demonstrate the ongoing advancements in
TPS technology, particularly the shift toward Ceramic Matrix Composites
like SiC/SiC composites, which are poised to meet the growing demands of
reusable and long-duration space missions. The research underscores the
importance of material innovation to address challenges such as high
thermal resistance, oxidation, reusability, and multi-cycle performance—
key factors that will shape the future of space exploration.

2.2 OBJECTIVE

The important objectives of the present work are as follows.

 To investigate the suitability of SiC/SiC CMCs for next-generation

TPS in aerospace applications.
 35

 To evaluate the thermal and mechanical performance of SiC/SiC

CMCs under extreme reentry conditions

 To assess the durability and reusability of SiC/SiC CMCs during

multiple thermal cycles.

 To simulate the behavior of SiC/SiC CMCs using advanced tools

like ANSYS and SolidWorks for thermal analysis.

 To provide recommendations for the implementation of SiC/SiC

CMCs in future spacecraft TPS designs.

CHAPTER – 3

PROBLEM INDENTIFICATION
 36

In SpaceX’sStarship program, significant problems have been identified in

the performance of its thermal protection system (TPS), particularly during
repeated test flights and operational phases. The TPS utilizes silica-based
ceramic heat shield tiles, inspired by NASA’s LI-900 silica tiles, but
redesigned in a hexagonal pattern to minimize gaps and reduce stress
concentrations. Despite these design improvements, the silica-based tiles
have shown persistent issues such as fragility, chipping, cracking, and
detachment under mechanical stresses and aerodynamic loads during ascent
and re-entry. Additionally, the tiles are highly susceptible to impact damage
from debris and environmental conditions encountered during flight.
Repeated thermal cycling from multiple re-entries further accelerates
fatigue and material degradation, weakening the tiles over time. These
problems have led to frequent inspections, repairs, and replacements after
each mission, thereby increasing turnaround times and operational costs,
and hindering the Starship program’s aim of achieving rapid and
economical reuse.

CHAPTER – 4

MATERIALS &METHODLOGY

4.1 METHODLOGY

The methodology adopted is illustrated in the process flowchart

(Figure 3.1). It begins with a literature review on SiC/SiC CMCs. Suitable
 37

materials are selected based on key thermal and mechanical properties.

Experimental setup includes thermal and mechanical testing under reentry
conditions. Simulation is carried out using ANSYS and SolidWorks.
Results are analyzed and compared with traditional TPS materials. Final
evaluation leads to recommendations for TPS applications.

Figure:4.1 Process Flow Chart