‭- Exam Preparation Notes‬

‭Based on:‬
‭●‬ ‭Robbins, S. P., & Judge, T. A.‬‭Organizational Behavior (OB)‬‭(Specify Edition, e.g.,‬
‭18th Ed.)‬
‭●‬ ‭Griffin, R. W.‬‭Management‬‭(Specify Edition, e.g., 12th Ed.)‬

‭●‬ ‭Relevant Readings & Cases as listed‬

‭Topic 1: Introduction to Management and Organizational Behavior (OB)‬

‭●‬ ‭Textbook References:‬‭Robbins OB Ch. 1, Griffin Management Ch. 1‬

‭●‬ ‭Key Concepts:‬

‭○‬ ‭Management:‬‭The process of getting things done effectively and efficiently,‬

‭with and through other people.‬
‭■‬ ‭Efficiency:‬‭Doing things right (resource usage).‬

‭■‬ ‭Effectiveness:‬‭Doing the right things (goal attainment).‬

‭○‬ ‭Management Functions (Griffin):‬

‭■‬ ‭Planning:‬‭Defining goals, establishing strategies, developing plans.‬

‭■‬ ‭Organizing: Arranging and structuring work to accomplish goals.‬

‭■‬ ‭Leading: Working with and through people to accomplish‬‭1‬ ‭goals‬

‭(motivating, directing, communicating).‬
‭■‬ ‭Controlling:‬‭Monitoring, comparing, and correcting work performance.‬

‭○‬ ‭Management Roles (Mintzberg - often covered):‬‭Interpersonal,‬

‭Informational, Decisional.‬
‭○‬ ‭Management Skills:‬‭Technical, Human (Interpersonal), Conceptual.‬

‭○‬ ‭Organizational Behavior (OB - Robbins):‬‭A field of study investigating the‬

i‭mpact that individuals, groups, and structure have on behavior within‬
‭organizations, for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving‬
‭an organization's‬‭2‬ ‭effectiveness.‬
 ‭○‬ ‭Core Topics in OB:‬‭Motivation, leader behavior, power, interpersonal‬
‭ ommunication, group structure/processes, learning, attitude development,‬
c
‭perception, change processes, conflict,‬‭3‬ ‭work design.‬
‭○‬ ‭Levels of Analysis in OB:‬‭Individual, Group, Organizational System.‬

‭●‬ ‭Relevance/Significance:‬

‭○‬ ‭Understanding management provides the framework for how organizations‬

‭operate.‬
‭○‬ ‭Understanding OB provides insights into the "human element" – why people‬
‭behave the way they do at work – which is crucial for effective management.‬
‭○‬ ‭Good interpersonal skills (a key part of OB) are essential for managerial‬
‭success at all levels.‬
‭●‬ ‭Potential Exam Focus:‬‭Definitions of management & OB, the four functions of‬
‭management (POLC), levels of OB analysis, importance of interpersonal skills.‬
‭●‬ ‭Memory Tip:‬‭Remember management functions as‬‭P-O-L-C‬‭.‬

‭Topic 2: Management History‬

‭●‬ ‭Textbook References:‬‭Typically covered in introductory Management chapters‬
‭(like Griffin Ch 1 or a dedicated history chapter).‬
‭●‬ ‭Key Concepts:‬‭Understanding the evolution of management thought helps‬
‭appreciate current practices.‬
‭○‬ ‭Classical Approaches:‬

‭■‬ ‭Scientific Management (Taylor):‬‭Focus on efficiency, "one best way,"‬

‭time-and-motion studies.‬
‭■‬ ‭General Administrative Theory (Fayol, Weber):‬‭Focus on the overall‬
‭ rganization. Fayol's 14 principles of management; Weber's Bureaucracy‬
o
‭(ideal type characterized by division of labor, hierarchy, rules,‬
‭impersonality).‬
‭○‬ ‭Behavioral Approaches:‬

‭■‬ ‭Early Advocates:‬‭Importance of people (Owen, Munsterberg, Follett,‬

‭Barnard).‬
 ‭■‬ ‭Hawthorne Studies:‬‭Highlighted the importance of social factors and‬
‭human relations in productivity. Led to the Human Relations Movement.‬
‭■‬ ‭Human Relations Movement:‬‭Belief that satisfied workers are productive‬
‭workers (may be overly simplistic).‬
‭■‬ ‭Behavioral Science Theorists:‬‭Using scientific methods to study OB‬
‭(Maslow, McGregor, etc. - often revisited in motivation/leadership).‬
‭○‬ ‭Quantitative Approach (Management Science):‬‭Using quantitative‬
‭techniques (statistics, optimization models) to improve decision-making.‬
‭○‬ ‭Contemporary Approaches:‬

‭■‬ ‭Systems Approach:‬‭Views organization as a set of interrelated parts‬

f‭ unctioning as a whole, interacting with its environment (inputs,‬
‭transformation, outputs, feedback).‬
‭■‬ ‭Contingency Approach:‬‭Recognizes that organizations, employees, and‬
s‭ ituations differ and require different ways of managing ("it depends"‬
‭approach).‬
‭●‬ ‭Relevance/Significance:‬‭Shows how management thinking evolved from purely‬
‭ echanistic views to incorporating human factors, data, and situational context.‬
m
‭Many historical concepts still influence modern management.‬
‭●‬ ‭Potential Exam Focus:‬‭Key figures/ideas within each approach (Taylor, Fayol,‬
‭ eber, Hawthorne Studies), differences between approaches, the core idea of‬
W
‭Systems and Contingency theories.‬

‭●‬ ‭Memory Tip:‬‭Think of the progression: Efficiency -> People -> Data -> Systems ->‬
‭"It Depends".‬

‭Topic 3: Managing Diversity, Social Responsibility and Ethics‬

‭●‬ ‭Textbook References:‬‭Robbins OB Ch. 2‬

‭●‬ ‭Relevant Reading:‬‭Tomas M. Jones (1991) - Ethical Decision Making‬

‭(Issue-Contingent Model)‬
‭●‬ ‭Case:‬‭Rajwant Engineering: Survival or Ethical Values‬

‭●‬ ‭Key Concepts:‬

‭○‬ ‭Diversity:‬‭Ways in which people in an organization are different from and‬

 ‭similar to one another.‬

‭■‬ ‭Surface-Level Diversity: Easily perceived differences‬‭4‬ ‭(age, race, gender,‬

‭ethnicity). Can lead to stereotypes initially.‬
‭■‬ ‭Deep-Level Diversity:‬‭Differences in values, personality, work‬
‭preferences. Becomes more important in the long run.‬
‭○‬ ‭Managing Diversity:‬‭Creating an inclusive environment where differences are‬
v‭ alued and utilized for organizational benefit. Benefits include better decision‬
‭making, creativity, customer understanding. Challenges include‬
‭communication barriers, resistance to change, potential conflict.‬
‭○‬ ‭Ethics:‬‭Principles, values, and beliefs that define right and wrong conduct.‬

‭○‬ ‭Ethical Dilemmas:‬‭Situations where choices affect the welfare of others, and‬
‭there may be conflicting values or potential negative consequences.‬
‭○‬ ‭Factors Influencing Ethical Behavior:‬

‭■‬ ‭Individual Characteristics (Values, Personality - e.g., Locus of Control, Ego‬

‭Strength).‬
‭■‬ ‭Structural Variables (Formal rules, performance appraisal systems, reward‬
‭allocation).‬
‭■‬ ‭Organizational Culture (Shared understanding of what matters, tolerance‬
‭for risk/unethical behavior).‬
‭■‬ ‭Issue Intensity (Jones, 1991):‬‭Morality of an issue is contingent on‬
f‭ actors like: Magnitude of Consequences, Social Consensus, Probability of‬
‭Effect, Temporal Immediacy, Proximity, Concentration of Effect. Higher‬
‭intensity makes ethical considerations more salient.‬
‭○‬ ‭Social Responsibility (CSR - Corporate Social Responsibility):‬‭A‬
‭ usiness's intention, beyond legal/economic obligations, to do the right things‬
b
‭and act in ways good for society. Views range from obligation/responsiveness‬
‭to responsibility. Arguments for/against CSR exist.‬
‭●‬ ‭Relevance/Significance:‬‭Diversity is a reality and potential strength. Ethical‬
‭ ehavior and social responsibility are crucial for long-term organizational‬
b
‭reputation, stakeholder trust, and sustainability. The Jones model provides a‬
‭framework for understanding‬‭when‬‭ethical issues become prominent.‬
 ‭●‬ ‭Case Link (Rajwant):‬‭Likely explores a situation forcing a choice between‬
‭ otentially unethical actions for business survival versus upholding ethical values,‬
p
‭illustrating an ethical dilemma.‬
‭●‬ ‭Potential Exam Focus:‬‭Levels of diversity, benefits/challenges of diversity‬
‭ anagement, factors influencing ethical decisions (individual, org, issue‬
m
‭intensity), definition of CSR. Understand the components of Jones'‬
‭Issue-Contingent model.‬

‭●‬ ‭Memory Tip:‬‭Diversity: Surface vs. Deep. Ethics: Influenced by You, the Org, and‬
‭the Issue itself (Intensity).‬

‭Topic 4: Job Attitudes‬

‭●‬ ‭Textbook References:‬‭Robbins OB Ch. 3‬

‭●‬ ‭Key Concepts:‬

‭○‬ ‭Attitudes:‬‭Evaluative statements (favorable or unfavorable) concerning‬

‭objects, people, or events. Reflect how one feels about something.‬‭5‬
‭○‬ ‭Components of an Attitude (CAB Model):‬

‭■‬ ‭Cognitive:‬‭Beliefs, opinions, knowledge (e.g., "My pay is low").‬

‭■‬ ‭Affective:‬‭Emotional or feeling segment (e.g., "I am angry about my low‬

‭pay").‬
‭■‬ ‭Behavioral:‬‭Intention to behave in a certain way (e.g., "I'm going to look‬
‭for a new job").‬
‭○‬ ‭Cognitive Dissonance (‬‭Festinger): Any incompatibility an individual might‬
‭ erceive between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes.‬
p
‭Individuals‬‭6‬ ‭seek consistency and will try to reduce dissonance (e.g., change‬
‭attitude, change behavior, rationalize). Importance, influence, and rewards‬
‭affect the desire to reduce dissonance.‬
‭○‬ ‭Major Job Attitudes:‬

‭■‬ ‭Job Satisfaction: A positive feeling about one's job resulting from an‬
‭ valuation of its characteristics.‬‭7‬ ‭(Key correlates: Performance, OCB,‬
e
‭Customer Satisfaction, Absenteeism, Turnover, Workplace Deviance).‬
‭■‬ ‭Job Involvement:‬‭Degree to which people identify psychologically with‬
 ‭their job and consider perceived performance important to self-worth.‬

‭■‬ ‭Organizational Commitment: Degree to which an employee identifies with‬

‭ particular organization and its goals‬‭8‬ ‭and wishes to maintain‬
a
‭membership.‬‭9‬ ‭(Types: Affective, Continuance, Normative).‬
‭■‬ ‭Perceived Organizational Support (POS): Degree to which employees‬
‭ elieve the organization values their contribution and cares about their‬
b
‭well-being.‬‭10‬

‭■‬ ‭Employee Engagement: Individual's involvement with, satisfaction with,‬

‭and enthusiasm‬‭11‬ ‭for the work they do.‬
‭●‬ ‭Relevance/Significance:‬‭Attitudes significantly influence workplace behavior‬
(‭ performance, turnover, etc.). Understanding attitudes helps managers predict‬
‭and potentially change employee behavior.‬
‭●‬ ‭Potential Exam Focus:‬‭Components of an attitude (CAB), cognitive dissonance‬
t‭ heory, definitions and importance of key job attitudes (especially Job‬
‭Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment), relationship between attitudes and‬
‭behavior.‬
‭●‬ ‭Memory Tip:‬‭Think‬‭CAB‬‭for attitude components. Remember Dissonance =‬
‭Discomfort = Drive to change something.‬

‭Topic 5: Personality & Individual Differences‬

‭●‬ ‭Textbook References:‬‭Robbins OB Ch. 4‬

‭●‬ ‭Key Concepts:‬

‭○‬ ‭Personality:‬‭The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and‬

‭interacts with others. Described in terms of measurable traits.‬‭12‬
‭○‬ ‭Determinants:‬‭Heredity (genetics) and Environment (culture, family,‬
‭experiences). Often seen as an interaction.‬
‭○‬ ‭Personality Assessment:‬‭Self-report surveys are common, observer ratings‬
‭can be useful. Prone to biases.‬
‭○‬ ‭Key Personality Frameworks:‬

‭■‬ ‭Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI):‬‭Classifies people into 16 types‬

‭based on four dichotomies (Extraverted/Introverted, Sensing/Intuitive,‬
 ‭Thinking/Feeling, Judging/Perceiving). Popular, but validity for predicting‬
‭job performance is debated. Good for self-awareness/team building.‬
‭■‬ ‭Big Five Model:‬‭Proposes five basic dimensions underlie all others and‬
‭ ncompass most significant variation. Strong evidence supports its‬
e
‭relationship to job performance (especially Conscientiousness).‬
‭■‬ ‭O‬‭penness to Experience: Creative, curious, cultured vs. practical,‬
‭conventional.‬

‭■‬ ‭C‬‭onscientiousness: Responsible, dependable, persistent, organized‬

v‭ s. easily distracted, disorganized. (Strongest predictor of job‬
‭performance).‬
‭■‬ ‭E‬‭xtraversion: Sociable, gregarious, assertive vs. thoughtful, reserved,‬
‭timid. (Predicts performance in managerial/sales jobs).‬
‭■‬ ‭A‬‭greeableness: Good-natured, cooperative, trusting vs. cold,‬
‭disagreeable. (Predicts performance in service jobs).‬
‭■‬ ‭N‬‭euroticism (Emotional Stability): Calm, self-confident, secure vs.‬
‭ ervous, depressed, insecure. (Low neuroticism/high stability related‬
n
‭to job satisfaction).‬
‭○‬ ‭Other Relevant Personality Traits:‬

‭■‬ ‭Core Self-Evaluations (CSE):‬‭Bottom-line conclusions individuals have‬

‭ bout their capabilities, competence, and worth. (Related to job‬
a
‭satisfaction/performance).‬

‭■‬ ‭Machiavellianism:‬‭Pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, believes‬

‭ends justify means.‬
‭■‬ ‭Narcissism:‬‭Grandiose sense of self-importance, requires excessive‬
‭admiration, has sense of entitlement.‬
‭■‬ ‭Self-Monitoring:‬‭Ability to adjust behavior to external, situational factors.‬

‭■‬ ‭Risk-Taking:‬‭Willingness to take chances.‬

‭■‬ ‭Proactive Personality:‬‭Identify opportunities, show initiative, take action,‬

‭persevere.‬
‭■‬ ‭Locus of Control:‬‭Degree to which people believe they control their own‬
‭fate (Internal vs. External).‬
 ‭○‬ ‭Person-Job Fit:‬‭Matching job requirements with personality characteristics.‬

‭○‬ ‭Person-Organization Fit:‬‭Matching people to the organizational culture.‬

‭●‬ ‭Relevance/Significance:‬‭Personality influences choices, behavior, performance,‬

‭ nd fit within a job/organization. Understanding personality helps in selection,‬
a
‭placement, and managing interactions.‬
‭●‬ ‭Potential Exam Focus:‬‭Definition of personality, Big Five Model (know the‬
‭ imensions and their general implications for work), Locus of Control,‬
d
‭Person-Job/Person-Organization fit. Be aware of MBTI but also its limitations.‬
‭●‬ ‭Memory Tip:‬‭Remember the Big Five as‬‭O-C-E-A-N‬‭.‬

‭Topic 6: Perception and Individual Decision Making‬

‭●‬ ‭Textbook References:‬‭Robbins OB Ch. 5, Griffin Management Ch. 9 (Problem‬
‭Solving/Decision Making)‬
‭●‬ ‭Relevant Reading:‬‭Tomas M. Jones (1991) - Ethical Decision Making (revisited)‬

‭●‬ ‭Case:‬‭Crisis Management (Take home)‬

‭●‬ ‭Key Concepts:‬

‭○‬ ‭Perception: A process by which individuals organize and interpret their‬

s‭ ensory impressions in order to give meaning to their‬‭13‬ ‭environment. What we‬
‭perceive can be different from objective reality.‬‭14‬
‭○‬ ‭Factors Influencing Perception:‬

‭■‬ ‭Perceiver: Attitudes, motives, interests, experience, expectations.‬

‭■‬ ‭Target: Novelty, motion, sounds, size, background, proximity, similarity.‬

‭■‬ ‭Situation: Time, work setting, social setting.‬‭15‬

‭○‬ ‭Attribution Theory:‬‭Tries to explain how we judge people differently‬

‭ epending on the meaning we attribute to a given behavior. We try to‬
d
‭determine if behavior was internally (under personal control) or externally‬
‭caused (due to the situation).‬
‭■‬ ‭Determinants:‬‭Distinctiveness (different behaviors in different‬
s‭ ituations?), Consensus (everyone facing similar situation responds same‬
‭way?), Consistency (responds same way over time?).‬
 ‭■‬ ‭Errors/Biases:‬

‭■‬ ‭Fundamental Attribution Error:‬‭Tendency to underestimate external‬

f‭ actors and overestimate internal factors when judging others'‬
‭behavior.‬
‭■‬ ‭Self-Serving Bias:‬‭Tendency to attribute own successes to internal‬
‭factors and failures to external factors.‬
‭○‬ ‭Shortcuts in Judging Others (Perceptual Errors):‬

‭■‬ ‭Selective Perception:‬‭Interpreting based on one's interests, background,‬

‭experience, attitudes.‬
‭■‬ ‭Halo Effect:‬‭Drawing a general impression based on a single‬
‭characteristic.‬
‭■‬ ‭Contrast Effects:‬‭Evaluation affected by comparisons with others‬
‭recently encountered.‬
‭■‬ ‭Stereotyping:‬‭Judging someone based on perception of the group they‬
‭belong to.‬
‭○‬ ‭Link between Perception and Decision Making:‬‭Decisions are made based‬
‭on‬‭perceptions‬‭of problems, alternatives, and outcomes.‬
‭○‬ ‭Rational Decision-Making Model (Ideal):‬‭Assumes complete information,‬
‭ lear preferences, no time/cost constraints. Steps: Define problem, Identify‬
c
‭criteria, Allocate weights, Develop alternatives, Evaluate alternatives, Select‬
‭best alternative.‬

‭○‬ ‭Bounded Rationality (Real World):‬‭Decision makers operate within the‬

‭ onfines of limited information processing capability. They construct‬
c
‭simplified models, leading to‬‭satisficing‬‭(choosing the first "good enough"‬
‭option) rather than optimizing.‬
‭○‬ ‭Intuitive Decision Making:‬‭Unconscious process created from distilled‬
‭ xperience. Relies on holistic associations, affect-laden. Can be powerful but‬
e
‭risky.‬
‭○‬ ‭Common Decision-Making Biases/Errors:‬‭Anchoring, Confirmation,‬
‭Availability, Escalation of Commitment, Randomness Error, Risk Aversion,‬
‭Hindsight Bias.‬
 ‭○‬ ‭Ethical Decision Making (Jones, 1991):‬‭Recall that the‬‭intensity‬‭of the‬
‭ thical issue (magnitude of consequences, etc.) influences the‬
e
‭decision-making process.‬
‭●‬ ‭Relevance/Significance:‬‭Our perceptions shape our reality and how we judge‬
‭ thers/situations, directly impacting decisions. Understanding biases helps make‬
o
‭more objective and effective decisions. Crucial for problem-solving (Griffin Ch. 9)‬
‭and crisis management.‬

‭●‬ ‭Case Link (Crisis Management):‬‭Likely involves rapid decision-making under‬

‭ ressure, where perceptual biases and bounded rationality can significantly‬
p
‭impact outcomes.‬
‭●‬ ‭Potential Exam Focus:‬‭Definition of perception, factors influencing it, attribution‬
t‭ heory (internal/external, errors), common perceptual shortcuts, steps in rational‬
‭model vs. bounded rationality/intuition, common decision biases, Jones' model‬
‭(again).‬
‭●‬ ‭Memory Tip:‬‭Perception isn't reality. Decisions are often biased; be aware of‬
‭common traps (Anchoring, Confirmation, Availability, Escalation).‬

‭Topic 7: Organization Structure and Design‬

‭●‬ ‭Textbook References:‬‭Griffin Management Ch. 12‬

‭●‬ ‭Case:‬‭Zappos, Holacracy‬

‭●‬ ‭Key Concepts:‬

‭○‬ ‭Organizing: Arranging and structuring work to accomplish organizational‬

‭goals.‬
‭○‬ ‭Organizational Structure: The formal arrangement of jobs within an‬
‭organization. Often‬‭16‬ ‭visualized in an organizational chart.‬
‭○‬ ‭Organizational Design:‬‭Creating or changing an organization's structure.‬

‭○‬ ‭Key Elements of Organizational Design:‬

‭■‬ ‭Work Specialization (Division of Labor):‬‭Dividing work activities into‬

s‭ eparate job tasks. Can increase efficiency but also lead to‬
‭boredom/fatigue if extreme.‬
‭■‬ ‭Departmentalization:‬‭Basis by which jobs are grouped together‬
 ‭(Functional, Product, Geographic, Process, Customer).‬

‭■‬ ‭Chain of Command:‬‭Line of authority extending from upper to lower‬

l‭evels, clarifying who reports to whom. Concepts: Authority, Responsibility,‬
‭Unity of Command. (Less rigid in some modern structures).‬
‭■‬ ‭Span of Control:‬‭Number of employees a manager can efficiently and‬
‭ ffectively supervise. Wider spans possible with trained employees, clear‬
e
‭tasks.‬

‭■‬ ‭Centralization:‬‭Degree to which decision making is concentrated at‬

‭upper levels.‬
‭■‬ ‭Decentralization:‬‭Degree to which lower-level employees provide input‬
‭or make decisions. Trend towards decentralization/empowerment.‬

‭■‬ ‭Formalization:‬‭Degree to which jobs are standardized and employee‬

‭behavior guided by rules/procedures.‬
‭○‬ ‭Mechanistic vs. Organic Structures:‬

‭■‬ ‭Mechanistic:‬‭Rigid, tightly controlled (high specialization, formalization,‬

‭centralization). Like bureaucracy. Efficient but less flexible.‬
‭■‬ ‭Organic:‬‭Highly adaptive, flexible (low specialization, formalization;‬
‭decentralized). Suited for dynamic environments.‬
‭○‬ ‭Common Organizational Designs:‬

‭■‬ ‭Simple Structure:‬‭Low departmentalization, wide spans, centralized‬

‭authority (often small businesses).‬
‭■‬ ‭Functional Structure:‬‭Groups similar occupational specialties together‬
‭(e.g., Marketing Dept, Finance Dept). Efficient, but can create silos.‬
‭■‬ ‭Divisional Structure:‬‭Composed of separate business units or divisions‬
(‭ e.g., based on product, geography). Focuses on results, but duplicates‬
‭activities.‬
‭■‬ ‭Matrix Structure:‬‭Assigns specialists from different functional‬
‭departments to work on projects led by project managers. Dual chain of‬
‭command. Complex but flexible.‬
‭○‬ ‭Contemporary Designs:‬‭Team structures, Project structures, Boundaryless‬
‭organizations (virtual, network).‬
 ‭○‬ ‭Holacracy (e.g., Zappos):‬‭An alternative management system focused on‬
s‭ elf-management, distributed authority within defined roles and circles, rather‬
‭than a traditional hierarchy.‬
‭●‬ ‭Relevance/Significance:‬‭Structure provides the framework for coordinating‬
‭ ctivities and achieving goals. The choice of structure depends on strategy, size,‬
a
‭technology, and environment. Inappropriate structure hinders performance.‬
‭●‬ ‭Case Link (Zappos/Holacracy):‬‭Illustrates a real-world attempt to move away‬
f‭ rom traditional hierarchical structures towards more adaptive, decentralized‬
‭models. Highlights the challenges and potential benefits.‬
‭●‬ ‭Potential Exam Focus:‬‭The six key elements of organizational design, differences‬
‭ etween mechanistic and organic structures, characteristics of common designs‬
b
‭(Functional, Divisional, Matrix), basic idea of Holacracy/self-management.‬

‭●‬ ‭Memory Tip:‬‭Structure follows Strategy. Think Mechanistic = Machine (rigid),‬

‭Organic = Organism (flexible).‬

‭Topic 8: Managing Employee Motivation‬

‭●‬ ‭Textbook References:‬‭Robbins OB Ch. 7, 8; Griffin Management Ch. 16‬

‭●‬ ‭Case:‬‭Engstrom Auto mirror: Motivation at good times and Bad‬

‭●‬ ‭Key‬‭Concepts:‬

‭○‬ ‭Motivation: The processes that account for an individual's intensity, direction,‬
‭and persistence of effort toward‬‭17‬ ‭attaining a goal (usually organizational).‬

‭○‬ ‭Early Theories (Foundation):‬

‭■‬ ‭Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs:‬‭Physiological -> Safety -> Social ->‬

‭ steem -> Self-Actualization. Must satisfy lower needs before higher ones‬
E
‭become motivating. (Intuitive but not well supported by research).‬
‭■‬ ‭McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y:‬‭X assumes workers dislike work, are‬
‭lazy, need coercion. Y assumes workers like work, are creative, seek‬
‭responsibility. Manager's view affects actions.‬
‭■‬ ‭Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory (Motivation-Hygiene):‬‭Hygiene factors‬
(‭ salary, conditions, supervision) prevent dissatisfaction but don't motivate.‬
‭Motivators (achievement, recognition, growth) lead to satisfaction and‬
 ‭motivation. (Criticized methodologically, but influential).‬

‭■‬ ‭McClelland's Three Needs Theory:‬‭Need for Achievement (nAch - desire‬

t‭ o excel), Need for Power (nPow - desire to influence others), Need for‬
‭Affiliation (nAff - desire for close relationships). Focus on nAch for‬
‭performance; high nPow/low nAff for managerial success.‬
‭○‬ ‭Contemporary Theories (Current best understanding):‬

‭■‬ ‭Self-Determination Theory:‬‭People prefer to feel control over their‬

‭ ctions. Extrinsic rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation if seen as‬
a
‭controlling. Focus on autonomy, competence, relatedness.‬
‭■‬ ‭Goal-Setting Theory (Locke):‬‭Specific and difficult goals, with feedback,‬
l‭ead to higher performance. Goals should be SMART (Specific,‬
‭Measurable, Achievable,‬‭18‬ ‭Relevant, Time-bound). Requires goal‬
‭commitment, task characteristics, national culture considerations.‬
‭■‬ ‭Self-Efficacy Theory (Bandura):‬‭Individual's belief in their capability to‬
‭ erform a task. Higher self-efficacy leads to more effort, persistence.‬
p
‭Increased by enactive mastery, vicarious modeling, verbal persuasion,‬
‭arousal.‬
‭■‬ ‭Reinforcement Theory: Behavior is a function of its consequences‬
(‭ behaviorist‬‭19‬ ‭view). Ignores inner state. Focus on positive reinforcement,‬
‭shaping behavior.‬
‭■‬ ‭Equity Theory / Organizational Justice:‬‭Employees compare their job‬
i‭nputs/outcomes ratio with that of relevant others. Perceived inequity‬
‭motivates action (change inputs, change outcomes, distort perceptions,‬
‭choose different referent, leave).‬
‭■‬ ‭Organizational Justice:‬‭Overall perception of fairness. Includes‬
‭ istributive (fairness of outcomes), Procedural (fairness of process),‬
D
‭Informational (fairness of explanations), Interpersonal (fairness of‬
‭treatment).‬
‭■‬ ‭Expectancy Theory (Vroom):‬‭Motivation depends on expectation that‬
‭ ffort leads to performance (Expectancy), performance leads to rewards‬
e
‭(Instrumentality), and rewards satisfy personal goals (Valence). All links‬
‭must be strong.‬
‭●‬ ‭Relevance/Significance:‬‭Motivation is critical for performance, engagement,‬
‭ nd retention. Understanding different theories helps managers design jobs, set‬
a
‭goals, provide rewards, and treat employees fairly to enhance motivation. Griffin‬
‭Ch. 16 likely focuses on applying these concepts.‬
‭●‬ ‭Case Link (Engstrom):‬‭Explores how motivational strategies might need to adapt‬
‭ ased on the company's situation (good vs. bad times), potentially linking to‬
b
‭expectancy, equity, or goal-setting.‬

‭●‬ ‭Potential Exam Focus:‬‭Define motivation (3 components), briefly explain key‬

‭ arly theories (Maslow, Herzberg, McClelland), detail contemporary theories‬
e
‭(Goal-Setting, Self-Efficacy, Equity/Justice, Expectancy). Understand the different‬
‭types of Organizational Justice. Be able to apply Expectancy Theory (E->P, P->O,‬
‭V).‬
‭●‬ ‭Memory Tip:‬‭Expectancy:‬‭E‭ff
‬ ort ->‬‭P‬‭erformance ->‬‭O‭u
‬ tcome (Reward) ->‬‭V‭a
‬ lue.‬
‭ quity: My Input/Output vs. Your Input/Output. Justice: Fair Outcomes, Fair‬
E
‭Process, Fair Info, Fair Treatment.‬

‭Topic 9: Group Behavior‬

‭●‬ ‭Textbook References:‬‭Robbins OB Ch. 11‬

‭●‬ ‭Key Concepts:‬

‭○‬ ‭Group:‬‭Two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have‬

‭come together to achieve particular objectives.‬
‭■‬ ‭Formal Group: Defined‬‭20‬ ‭by organization structure (e.g., departments,‬
‭teams).‬
‭■‬ ‭Informal Group:‬‭Alliances that are neither formally structured nor‬
‭organizationally determined (e.g., lunch group, friendships).‬
‭○‬ ‭Reasons for Joining Groups:‬‭Security, status, self-esteem, affiliation, power,‬
‭goal achievement.‬
‭○‬ ‭Stages of Group Development (Tuckman's Model):‬

‭■‬ ‭Forming:‬‭Uncertainty, testing the waters.‬

‭■‬ ‭Storming:‬‭Intragroup conflict, power struggles.‬

‭■‬ ‭Norming:‬‭Cohesiveness develops, relationships form, norms established.‬

 ‭■‬ ‭Performing:‬‭Group is fully functional, energy focused on task.‬

‭■‬ ‭Adjourning:‬‭(For temporary groups) Wrapping up activities.‬

‭○‬ ‭Group Properties:‬

‭■‬ ‭Roles:‬‭Set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone‬

‭ ccupying a given position (Role Perception, Role Expectations, Role‬
o
‭Conflict).‬
‭■‬ ‭Norms:‬‭Acceptable standards of behavior shared by group members (e.g.,‬
‭ erformance norms, appearance norms). Conformity pressure. Reference‬
p
‭groups. Deviant workplace behavior can result from negative norms.‬
‭■‬ ‭Status:‬‭Socially defined position or rank given to groups or members.‬
‭ etermined by power, ability, personal characteristics. Status differences‬
D
‭affect interaction, norms.‬
‭■‬ ‭Size:‬‭Affects behavior. Smaller groups faster at tasks; larger groups better‬
‭ t problem-solving. Risk of‬‭Social Loafing‬‭: tendency to exert less effort‬
a
‭when working collectively.‬
‭■‬ ‭Cohesiveness:‬‭Degree to which members are attracted to each other and‬
‭ otivated to stay in the group. High cohesiveness + high performance‬‭21‬
m
‭norms = high productivity.‬‭22‬
‭■‬ ‭Diversity:‬‭Can improve decision making but may increase conflict initially.‬

‭○‬ ‭Group Decision Making:‬

‭■‬ ‭Strengths:‬‭More complete information/knowledge, increased diversity of‬

‭views, increased acceptance of solution.‬
‭■‬ ‭Weaknesses:‬‭Time-consuming, conformity pressures, potential‬
‭domination by few members, ambiguous responsibility.‬
‭■‬ ‭Groupthink:‬‭Norm for consensus overrides realistic appraisal of‬
‭ lternatives. Occurs in cohesive groups with directive leaders, insulation,‬
a
‭stress. Symptoms: pressure on dissenters, self-censorship, illusion of‬
‭unanimity.‬
‭■‬ ‭Groupshift (Group Polarization):‬‭Group discussion tends to exaggerate‬
‭the initial positions of members (shift towards more caution or more risk).‬
‭○‬ ‭Group Decision-Making Techniques:‬‭Brainstorming, Nominal Group‬
 ‭Technique (NGT), Electronic Meetings.‬

‭●‬ ‭Relevance/Significance:‬‭Much work in organizations is done in groups/teams.‬

‭ nderstanding group dynamics, stages, properties, and decision-making pitfalls‬
U
‭is essential for managers and members.‬
‭●‬ ‭Potential Exam Focus:‬‭Define group, stages of group development (F-S-N-P-A),‬
k‭ ey group properties (roles, norms, status, size/social loafing, cohesiveness),‬
‭Groupthink (definition, symptoms, prevention), Groupshift.‬

‭●‬ ‭Memory Tip:‬‭Group Stages:‬‭F‬‭or‬‭S‬‭ure‬‭N‬‭o‬‭P‬‭erfect‬‭A‭n

‬ swer. Remember Social‬
‭Loafing = Slacking off in a group. Groupthink = Harmony > Reality.‬

‭Topic 10: Organizational Culture and Stress Management‬

‭●‬ ‭Textbook References:‬‭Robbins OB Ch. 14‬

‭●‬ ‭Key Concepts:‬

‭○‬ ‭Organizational Culture:‬‭A system of shared meaning held by members that‬

‭ istinguishes the organization from others. Represents shared values, beliefs,‬
d
‭assumptions. "The way we do things around here."‬
‭○‬ ‭Characteristics of Culture:‬‭(Often assessed on a continuum)‬
I‭nnovation/Risk-Taking, Attention to Detail, Outcome Orientation, People‬
‭Orientation, Team Orientation, Aggressiveness, Stability.‬
‭○‬ ‭Functions of‬‭23‬ ‭Culture:‬‭Boundary-defining role, conveys identity, facilitates‬
‭ ommitment, enhances social system stability, sense-making/control‬
c
‭mechanism.‬
‭○‬ ‭Culture as a Liability:‬‭Barrier to change, barrier to diversity, barrier to‬
‭acquisitions/mergers.‬
‭○‬ ‭Creating and Sustaining Culture:‬

‭■‬ ‭Founders' philosophy -> Selection criteria -> Top Management actions ->‬
‭Socialization process.‬
‭○‬ ‭Socialization:‬‭Process that adapts employees to the organization's culture‬
‭(Prearrival -> Encounter -> Metamorphosis stages).‬
‭○‬ ‭How Employees Learn Culture:‬‭Stories, Rituals, Material Symbols, Language.‬

‭○‬ ‭Creating an Ethical/Positive Organizational Culture:‬‭High risk tolerance,‬

 ‭low/moderate aggressiveness, focus on means and outcomes; building on‬
‭strengths, rewarding more than punishing, emphasizing vitality/growth.‬
‭○‬ ‭Stress: A dynamic condition in which an individual is confronted with an‬
‭ pportunity, demand, or resource related to what they‬‭24‬ ‭desire and for which‬
o
‭the outcome is perceived to be both uncertain and important.‬
‭■‬ ‭Challenge Stressors: Associated with workload, pressure,‬‭25‬ ‭deadlines (can‬
‭be positive).‬

‭■‬ ‭Hindrance Stressors:‬‭Keep you from reaching goals (red tape, politics,‬
‭confusion). (Negative).‬
‭○‬ ‭Potential Sources of Stress:‬

‭■‬ ‭Environmental:‬‭Economic uncertainty, political uncertainty, technological‬

‭change.‬
‭■‬ ‭Organizational:‬‭Task demands, role demands (overload, ambiguity,‬
‭conflict), interpersonal demands, structure, leadership, stage of life.‬
‭■‬ ‭Personal:‬‭Family issues, financial problems, personality (e.g., Type A).‬

‭○‬ ‭Consequences of Stress:‬

‭■‬ ‭Physiological: Headaches, high blood pressure, heart disease.‬

‭■‬ ‭Psychological: Anxiety, depression, decreased‬‭26‬ ‭job satisfaction.‬

‭■‬ ‭Behavioral:‬‭Productivity changes, absenteeism, turnover, eating habits,‬

‭sleep disorders.‬

‭○‬ ‭Managing Stress:‬

‭■‬ ‭Individual Approaches:‬‭Time management, physical exercise, relaxation‬

‭techniques, social support networks.‬
‭■‬ ‭Organizational Approaches:‬‭Improved selection/placement, goal-setting‬
‭programs, job redesign, employee involvement, organizational‬
‭communication, wellness programs.‬
‭●‬ ‭Relevance/Significance:‬‭Culture shapes employee behavior and organizational‬
‭ erformance. Stress is pervasive and has significant costs for individuals and‬
p
‭organizations. Understanding both allows for better management practices.‬
‭●‬ ‭Potential Exam Focus:‬‭Define organizational culture, its characteristics and‬
 ‭functions, how culture is learned/transmitted, socialization stages. Define stress,‬
‭ ifferentiate challenge/hindrance stressors, identify sources and consequences‬
d
‭of stress, list individual/organizational stress management techniques.‬
‭●‬ ‭Memory Tip:‬‭Culture = Shared Meaning = "How things are done". Stress‬
‭Management: Fix the Person (Individual) or Fix the Place (Organizational).‬

‭Topic 11: Basic Elements of Control‬

‭●‬ ‭Textbook References:‬‭Griffin Management Ch. 20‬

‭●‬ ‭Key Concepts:‬

‭○‬ ‭Controlling:‬‭The process of monitoring activities to ensure they are being‬

‭ ccomplished as planned and correcting any significant deviations.‬‭27‬ ‭Links‬
a
‭back to Planning.‬
‭○‬ ‭Importance of Control:‬‭Helps achieve goals, adapt to change, limit error‬
‭ ccumulation, cope with complexity, minimize costs, decentralize‬
a
‭decision-making (by allowing monitoring).‬
‭○‬ ‭The Control Process:‬

‭■‬ ‭1. Measuring Actual Performance:‬‭How to measure (observation,‬

‭reports), What to measure (criteria relevant to goals).‬
‭■‬ ‭2. Comparing Actual Performance Against Standard:‬‭Determine the‬
‭ egree of variation between actual performance and the standard (goals‬
d
‭set during planning). Range of variation is important.‬

‭■‬ ‭3. Taking Managerial Action:‬‭Correct actual performance (immediate or‬

‭ asic corrective action), Revise the standard (if unrealistic), Do nothing (if‬
b
‭deviation is acceptable).‬
‭○‬ ‭Types of Control (Timing):‬

‭■‬ ‭Feedforward Control (Preventive):‬‭Anticipates problems before they‬

‭occur (e.g., inspecting raw materials, careful hiring).‬
‭■‬ ‭Concurrent Control (Steering):‬‭Corrects problems as they happen (e.g.,‬
‭direct supervision, monitoring computer systems).‬
‭■‬ ‭Feedback Control (Post-Action):‬‭Corrects problems after they occur‬
‭(e.g., analyzing sales reports, final quality inspection). Most common, but‬
 ‭often too late.‬

‭○‬ ‭Areas of Control:‬

‭■‬ ‭Financial Controls:‬‭Budgets, financial statements (balance sheet, income‬

‭statement), ratio analysis.‬
‭■‬ ‭Information Controls:‬‭Management Information Systems (MIS) provide‬
‭managers with needed information regularly. Securing data.‬
‭■‬ ‭Operational Controls:‬‭Managing productivity, quality control.‬

‭■‬ ‭Behavioral Controls:‬‭Direct supervision, performance appraisals,‬

‭disciplinary actions, organizational culture/norms.‬
‭○‬ ‭Contemporary Control Tools:‬

‭■‬ ‭Balanced Scorecard:‬‭Looks at performance from four perspectives:‬

‭Financial, Customer, Internal Processes, Learning & Growth.‬
‭■‬ ‭Benchmarking:‬‭Searching for the best practices among competitors or‬
‭non-competitors that lead to superior performance.‬
‭○‬ ‭Qualities of an Effective Control System:‬‭Accurate, Timely, Economical,‬
‭ lexible, Understandable, Reasonable criteria, Strategic placement, Emphasis‬
F
‭on exception, Multiple criteria, Corrective action focus.‬
‭●‬ ‭Relevance/Significance:‬‭Control ensures that plans are being followed and‬
‭ oals are met. It's essential for evaluating effectiveness and efficiency and making‬
g
‭necessary adjustments.‬
‭●‬ ‭Potential Exam Focus:‬‭Define control, explain the three steps in the control‬
‭process, differentiate between feedforward, concurrent, and feedback control‬
‭(give examples), explain the purpose of a Balanced Scorecard and Benchmarking.‬
‭●‬ ‭Memory Tip:‬‭Control Process:‬‭M‬‭easure ->‬‭C‬‭ompare ->‬‭A‬‭ct. Control Timing:‬
‭Before (Feedforward), During (Concurrent), After (Feedback).‬

‭General Exam Preparation Tips‬

‭1.‬ ‭Active Recall:‬‭Don't just reread. Close the book/notes and try to recall‬
‭definitions, concepts, and models from memory. Test yourself.‬

‭2.‬ ‭Understand, Don't Just Memorize:‬‭Focus on‬‭why‬‭concepts are important and‬

 ‭how‬‭they relate to each other and to real-world management.‬

‭3.‬ ‭Use Textbook Resources:‬‭Pay attention to chapter summaries, key terms, review‬
‭questions, and cases in both Robbins and Griffin.‬
‭4.‬ ‭Connect the Dots:‬‭See how topics relate (e.g., personality -> attitudes ->‬
‭behavior; motivation theories -> control systems; perception -> decision making).‬
‭5.‬ ‭Practice Application:‬‭Think about how you would apply these concepts in a real‬
‭or hypothetical situation (like the cases discussed).‬
‭6.‬ ‭Review Cases/Readings:‬‭Understand the main issue, the concepts illustrated,‬
‭ nd the key takeaways from each case (Rajwant, Crisis Mgt, Zappos, Engstrom)‬
a
‭and the Jones article.‬
‭7.‬ ‭Manage Your Time:‬‭During the exam, allocate time wisely based on question‬
‭weighting. Start with questions you feel confident about.‬
‭8.‬ ‭Clarity is Key:‬‭When answering, define key terms clearly before explaining or‬
‭applying them. Use examples where appropriate.‬

‭Good luck with your examination!‬