UNIT ONE

DEVELOPMENT OF CAPITALISIM AND COLONIALISM IN

THE 19TH CENTURY
o Development of Capitalism in Europe and the U.S.A
The industrial revolution
 Industrial revolution began in England in mid 18th c (1750) because; England had a large
amount of coal and iron resources and also the establishment of capitalism. Industrial
revolution was a change made in the process of production
Consolidation of the capitalism in modern Europe
 The consolidation of capitalism in modern Europe was the result of a change in the
manufacturing methods. It was the replacement of manual works by the machines.
 Working at home was also replaced by working in the factory.
 Machines driven by steam engines or water power invented to replace human labour.
 The communication system was also improved due to the introduction of the steam
locomotive and steam boat
 A large number of people who worked in home by using their hands and simple tools
joined factory.
The Industrial revolution had two stages
The First stage of Industrial revolution (1750-1850)
 During this stage manual work was replaced by complex machines. The invention of new
machines
 one of the early machines was invented by James Hargreaves invented the spinning
Jenny in 1765
 771, Richard Ark Wright invented another spinning machine. It was run
by horse power, Later replaced water power
By the end of 18th c water power was replaced by a new source of power called steam engine
 James Watt invented the steam engine in 1769.
 By early 1800, the steam engine was used in locomotive
 In 1804 Richard Trevithick of England built the first steam locomotive
 In 1807 the American inventor Robert Fulton built the first steam boat
 In 1825 the first commercial railway worked between Stockton and Darlington
in Britain
 In 1829 George Stephenson an England developed the first the first successful
were railway locomotive
 In 1856 Hennery. Bessemer invented a machine that could eliminate impurities
from liquid Iron and produced steel to be manufactured quickly and cheaply
 In 1831 Michael Faraday (American) studied the principle of Dynamo and
electricity

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 Gradually, communication lines continued to be constructed in Germany, France and
Untied state
The second phase of Industrial revolution in the (1870-1900) Europe and USA
The major invention of the phase included the followings
 In 1879 Rudolf Diesel invented the diesel engine, and modern ship and Automobile
industries began to use it extensively
 In 1876 Alexander Graham Bell, an American invented Telephone
 In 1896 G, Marconi an Italian invented the Wireless Telegraphy
 In 1840 the first postal system was started in England by 1870 .The universal postal
union was created to facilitate the passage of from one country to another.
 The first telegraph company was founded in 1846, and western union company organized
in 1856.
o The Suez Canal which connects Mediterranean Sea with the Red sea. It
reduced the time and energy required to travel to south East Asia via Cape of
Good Hope. The construction ended in 1869.
o The Panama Canal that connects Atlantic with the Pacific Ocean. The
construction of this canal enabled the United States to have easy access to the Est.
The construction ended in 1914.
o The Russians also made an extensive canal construction linking the Volga and
Don Rivers and Baltic and White seas.
 Generally in line with this Steam engine revolutionized Ocean voyages.
Features of the industrial revolution at this stage
A, Replacement of coal by gas and oil as a source of power
B, Electricity used as a major source industrial energy
C, Radical change in transportation and communication
D, Substitution of steel in place of iron
E, Development of automatic machinery and high degree of specialization
F, Spread of industrialization to Europe and USA
Until the second half of the 19th c England had been the leading industrial nation. But since 1830
British industrial technology was transferred to Europe and the USA. In the 1870s Japan
followed the trend of western industrialization.
Effects of Industrial Revolution
It brought about economic social and political change
1. Economic Effects:-
A. changed people way of life.
B. enabled industrial Europe to dominate the world in the 19th c
C. urbanization was accelerated.
This brought about movement of people from rural areas to urban centers
2. Social effects
The division of the society in to two basic social classes

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 A, The capitalist or bourgeoisie and the working class (proletariat)
A, The term bourgeoisie was originated from the word burgher, meaning town-dwellers
 This social class was made up of factory owners and the rich merchants of
the period
 The bourgeoisie owned the factory building ,the machines ,the raw
materials and the manufactured products
B. The proletariat or working class:-They were the industrial workers who sold their labour
for money
However, the workers had a number of problems during the period such as.
 Working for long hours, for more than 12 hours a day
 Bad working conditions
 To get more profit the capitalists employed women and children who were extremely
exploited
 Poor payment
 The workers also face problem of malnutrition and disease like cholera
 Unemployment
Generally, all of the above mentioned problems enforced the works to struggle for their rights.
Workers used different forms of struggle in different countries.
 The Luddite movement:-They were a group of skilled workers in England who
destroyed the machines to express their grievances
 The chartists movement:-worker believed that problems could only get a possible
answer by presenting petition to the English parliament
 Scientific Socialism:-One of the most famous founders of scientific socialism was Karl
mark (1818-1883)
 Marx’s socialism is also known as Marxism or communism. Marx and his
communist supporter and colleagues, Fredrick Engels, wrote the “communist
manifesto” in1848
 Marx concluded that violent struggle between capitalists and workers will
continue and the final victories will be for workers.
Generally this kind of workers movement and the effort of liberal intellectuals and workers
organization, enforced European government enact several laws to alleviate workers movements
(problems)
The Government of England passed laws.
 Reducing working hours
 Prohibiting the employment of child labor
 Introducing health, sanitation and safety devices in factories (working place)
In Germany, the government of the first security laws for workers compensation in the event of
accident on job, old-age pensions, for sickness and unemployment insurance was drafted.
In urban center workers cooperatives were established to from companies, in to manufacturing
commodities

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In agriculture, farmers organized cooperative. This helped them to have easy access to buy seed
and fertilizer without the involvement of the middle men
This period (1870-1914) was characterized by the spread of education. Before 1860, the vast
majority of Europeans were illiterate and practically unschooled. Liberal democracy granted
universal male suffrage to the lower class. It became imperative to introduce basic education to
enlighten the masses to exercise its rights. In England education Bill was passed in 1870 by
which school attendance increased from 1 million to 4 million in 10 years. Similarly decrees
were passed in other west European countries. Thus by 1900 great number of people in France,
Britain, Germany, Holland, Switzerland and Scandinavian could read and write
3. Political Effect:-Industry creates military power and financial strength. Thus industrialized
state has came to dominate the world
A. COLONIALISM:-The emergence of colonization due to European nation need sources of
raw materials, markets for its manufactured goods and place of settlement for its overgrowing
population
By 1914 seven European countries had colonized 115 less developed countries. Encourage
territorial expansion E.g. Britain and France
The ideas of liberalism, democracy and pluralism spread all over the industrialized world
B. Liberalism:-
 it explained by John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
 Is a belief in free speech, criticism, freedom of worship and people’s control over the
state
C. Pluralism: -
 Means the existence of multi-party political system.
 Pluralism is the existence of a number of groups that belong to different political out
looks, religious beliefs or different race in a specific society and
 People can live together peacefully
D. Nationalism;-may take various forms
A. plan to make one’s country superior over others, another form of nationalism
B. another form of nationalism in a desire to make one’s nations united and strong
C. a campaign to free one’s country from foreign control is one form of nationalism

Unification of Italy
Italy had once been the center of the Roman Empire. It had also been the place where the
Renaissance culture developed .After the Great exploration and Discoveries, Italian famous cities
of Venice, Naples, Florence, Rome, and Genoa lose their importance because of the decline in
the Mediterranean trade. The decline came about as a result of the shift of trade routes from the
Mediterranean to the Atlantic shore
The congress of Vienna and its impact on Italy

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Following Napoleon’ defeat representative from the victorious nations (Prussia, Russia and
Austria) met at the congress of Vienna in 1815. The congress reshaped the map of Europe to
something like it was before Napoleonic war. Thus Italy divided in to the following separate
states (disunited state)
A. The kingdom of piedmont and Sardinia was recognized as an independent Italian state
B. Venetia and Lombardy become Austrian provinces
C. Parma, Modena, Tuscany and Lucca were under Italian local rulers but subjected by
Austrian influence
D. Napiel and Sicily known as the kingdom of two Sicily were under local rulers by
Ferdinand, dominated by Austria.
E. Rome was under the control of the French troops since 1848. Stationed to support the
pope. The French troop stayed in Rome until the Franco- Prussia war of (1870-1871)
Obstacles for the unification of Italy
A. Hegemonistic Austria mainly because it wanted to retain its possession as well as the
influence it had over other Italia state. Besides, it wanted to discourage uprising and any
inciting lessons which might also affect the Austrian Empire
B. The Roman Catholic Church was also the main opposition force of unity, because a
united Italy mighty decreases the importance and sphere of spiritual power of the pope.
The church leaders believed a united Italy would end the pope rule over the papal state.
How did Italy Achieve Unification
 The unification of Italy went through several stages. Before unification, there had
been eight separate petty states in Italy; Piedmont-Sardinia took the lead in the
movement to unify Italy
 The three nationalist namely Giuseppe Mazzini, Giuseppe Garibaldi and cavort
played a great role for the unification of Italy.
Giuseppe Mazzin1805-1872
 The role of Giuseppe Mazzini in the unification and independent movement of Italy
were started by educated Italians before 1848.Giuseppe Mazzini organized the young
Italy movement, Mazzini wanted to create a united and republic Italy through a
popular revolution
 Mazzini inspired young Italians through his poems, by reviving memories of the
glories of Ancient Rome, the great contribution of the renaissance to the world culture
and called a rebirth
 By popular uprising of the young Italy lead by Mazzini in the north state Parma,
Modena, Tuscany and papal Romagna resulted in the unification of the state with
piedmont-Sardinia in 1859.
Giuseppe Garibaldi 1807-1882
 Giuseppe Garibaldi led a military campaign against Francis (1859-1861) the ruler of
the kingdom of two Sicily in 1860

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  Garibaldi’s forces known as Red shirts or the thousands his successful campaigns
crushed every resistance to unification in the south. The kingdom of two Sicily
known as Napiles and Sicily were joined with piedmont- Sardinia
Count camillio Benson de Cavour
 The skillful diplomacy of count camillio Benson de Cavour(1810-1861) the prime
minster of piedmont - Sardinia, great contributed to the unification of Italy
Cavour allied with France and Britain in the criminal war (1853-56) against Russia
 In 1859 Cavour declared war on Austria. France came to the side of Cavour and
helped. Finally Austria defeated in the battle magenta and solferno Cavour regain
Lombardy and joined with piedmont-Sardinia. But Venetia remain by the Austria
The kingdom of Italy was proclaimed in Turin in 1861. And served as capital city.
 In 1866 the Austro-Prussia war Italy allied with Prussia and defeated Austria Italy
regained Venetia and united with piedmont-sardine.
 In 1870 when France fought against Prussia, the France trope withdrew from Rome
for fighting. This final event completed Italian unification.
 The capital city of united Italy was transferred from Turin to Rome. But the state of
Vatican remains under the papal state.

Unification of Germany
In the first-half of the 19th century, the Germans were divided as Italians. There were different
factors hindered the unification of Germany.
Factors hindered the Unification of Germany
A. Internal
 There were religious differences between the protestant north-east and the
Catholic south.
 There were also political differences between the autocratic north and the more
liberal south.
 There were also economic disagreement between an Agrarian East dominated by
the Junkers (land lords) and the most industrialized west.
B. External
 Austria which dominated the North German states had a negative attitude towards
German unification. She tried to check the growth of Liberalism and Nationalism
in Germany through strict control over the German states.
 France which had influence over the Catholic German states in the South was
against the creation of a united German and strong nation-state that could become
a rival to French power in Europe.
th
In the late 18 century German liberals began to agitate for a united German father land. The
following factors helped for the development and realization of German Unification.
Factors which accelerated the German Unification

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  The wars of Napoleon Bonaparte inspired German National feelings.
The Congress of Vienna Which met in 1815 to reshape the map of Europe after the fail of
Napoleon reduced the number of German states to 38 (Before they were more than 100) and
organized them into an

 Austrian dominated German Confederation. The creation of the confederation promoted

closer ties among the German states.
 Austrian domination stirred Nationalism among the Germans. Austria and Prussia were
the most powerful members of the German Confederation which commpeted each other
to play the leading role in the movement to unify Germany.
 The idea of Liberalism and Nationalism developed in due course and favored German
unification.
 The 1848 revolutionary movement in Europe contributed for the revival of German and
Italian nationalism.
How did German Achieve Unification
German unification was achieved gradually and by different methods. These were mainly by:
 Economic Unity it was promoted before political unification was achieved.
 Zollverein called a custom union was set up in 1819. Zollverein maintained
free trade between member states by removing or Eliminated tariff barriers in
the trade among German states (but it imposed high tariff against non member
state like Austria) .This paved the way for political unification.
 The systematic elimination of foreign powers facilitated unification. This was
achieved through diplomacy and wars
The rise of Bismarck
 Otto Von Bismarck chancellor of Prussia in 1862. Bismarck said that
Germany would be united by “Blood and Iron”. He also supported the idea
of William 1st; again, the parliament rejected the budget for the strong
army.
Finally to achieve the German unification Bismarck declared three wars against Denmark,
Austria, and France.
1. Danish war (1864) Bismarck declared war against Denmark to regain the two border
German lands, Holstein and schieswing formerly controlled by Denmark. He asked the
support of Austria, Denmark was defeated and lost the two regions. Prussia took
Schleswig and Austria gained Holstein.
2. Austro-Prussian war of 1866The army of Prussia defeated Austria at the battle of
sadawa in1866. Holstein was given to Prussia. In this war Italy allied with Prussia to get
Venetia from Austria by peace agreement after the war.
Austria agreed to dissolve the German confederation which had been dominated by
herself
In 1867, Prussia organized a new German confederation under her domination. The
northern state were forced to joined a north German confederation
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 3. The Franco-Prussia war (1870-71) the last decisive war in the course of German
unification was the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71. Napoleon II declared war on
Prussia in 1870. The French force were defeated by the Prussia army at the battle of
sedan
The southern German states were able to unite with north Germany. In January 1871
at Versailles in (France) Bismarck proclaimed William 1st as emperor (Kaiser) of
the German empire.
The treaty of Frankfurt signed after the war in 1871 between France and Germany,
by this Treaty France
 Ceded (gave) its coal and Iron rich provinces of Alsace and Loraine to Germany.
 Agreed to pay huge war indemnity to Germany.
 The German army was to stay in France until the war compensation was paid

The American Civil War (1861-1865)

After it independence from Britain in 1783, the United States developed economically at a
relatively faster rate.USA which had shown a more rapid industrial development. The 13
colonies that become independent from British rule strengthen their union .The number of states
joining the union or the federation increased. During the presidency of Abraham Lincoln 1860-
1865, the numbers of states of the union were thirty-three.
Causes of the American Civil War
Some of the causes were as follows
 Economic; Difference between the North and the South USA.
o The north had already Started Industrial development using free hired labor it
developed capitalist system.
o The southern economy was based mainly on plantation agriculture using slave
labor producing mainly cotton and tobacco.
 Political differences between the North and South on the question of slavery. The North
wanted to abolish slavery they were called to Abolitionists, while the South wanted to
preserve it. When the issue become serious southern states decided separation. Thus
eleven southern states broke away and established the confederates states of America
(C.S.A) led by Jefferson Davis
But the north wanted to preserve the unionist and committed to defend and maintain the
supremacy of the USA constitution. The northern states opposed, this conflict is known
as the America civil war over the issue of slavery.
The election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860 as president of U.S.A, Lincoln was democrat and an
ardent opponent of slavery anti-slavery leader. The slave owning southern states feared that his
election to the presidency will end slavery in U.S.A.
 In March 1861 Abraham – Lincoln declared war on the separatists and the
American civil war broke out between the Unionists and the confederates.

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  The confederates were led by Jefferson Davis while the unionists led by
Abraham Lincoln. 16th president of USA.
The course of the war
In the war, the two sides had different advantages. The north had large material and human
resources while the South lacked both but the southern states had well experience officers and
trained solders which the north lacked it.
 At the beginning of the war the confederacy had the upper hand over the North. Thus to
reverse the situation Lincoln took the following measures.
1. Appointed efficient generals like Ulysses S. Grant and W.T. Sherman
2. Introduced the Emancipation Proclamation and the Homestead Law
 The Emancipation proclamation was a law enacted to free slaves in rebel-
held territories of the south.
 The Homestead Law gave the right to a plot of land in the west to whoever
was ready to work on them.
What was the importance of these proclamations o the Unionists?
These proclamations had the effect of weakening the economic strength of the South and
bolstering (increasing) the union Army. By the end of the war more than 186,000 black soldiers
had served in the union army.
 The effective Military leadership of the newly appointed generals, the decisive role of the
two proclamations along the Lincoln’s dedication to the abolitionists cause ended the war
in the victory of unionists.
 Jefferson Davis was captured and on May 26, 1865 the last confederate troops
surrendered.
 Five days after the victory, President Lincoln who was sincere democrat the one who
led the American people during the grim civil war was shot by the agents of slave
owners.
Consequences of the Civil war
High Military causalities
Agricultural devastation; that led to diseases; and starvation in the south etc.
Slavery officials abolished though racial discrimination survived in U.S.A right up to
1960s.
The civil war by preserving the national unity of America, paved the way for the rise of
the U.S as a major global power.
Abraham Lincoln was assassinated at Ford’s Theater in Washington D.C by an agent
of the defeated slave owners named Wilkes Booth, on 14 April 1865.
Colonial Rivalries of European Powers
Why did European Powers Colonize Africa?

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European colonial penetration into Africa passed through several stages and involved different
methods. The nature of contacts between Europe and Africa changed from time to time
depending on the changing interests of the Europeans.
Before the 1500, Europeans regarded Africa as “Dark Continent” as it was not explored and well
known. When the Afro-European relation

 began in the 1500 European Interest was based on small scale trade in commodities like
gold, ivory, and slaves.
 The Europeans concentrated on the Mediterranean and West African Coasts. It was
during this period that Europeans gave for West African coasts such names like Gold
Coast, Slave Coast etc according to the trade in terms they traded.
 With emergence of Industrial Revolution and nation states, the interest of European
Powers towards Africa Changed to colonial conquest of African countries for Economic
control.
 European powers came into conflict each other in the scramble and partition of
Africa.
 Two major developments in Europe in the 19th century arose European interest in the
scramble for and partition of Africa. These were;
1. The development industrial capitalism in Europe the 19th century needed overseas
colonies for new source of raw materials, Markets for their manufactured goods
new area for investment and cheap labor. Theses economic interests become the
basic factors at the root of colonial rivalries among European powers.
2. The Emergence of Germany and Italy as newly united nation states change the
balance of power in Europe and increased the international competition for colonies.
In this the British were successful in building a vast colonial Empire and boasted of
their large empire saying “The Sun Never Set In The British Empire”
European conflicts and cooperation’s in the Scramble for Africa
 European powers were constant (conflict) rivalry among themselves. They want to
acquire large colonies and to build vast colonial empire in Africa.
 The British intended to build a colonial Empire that extended from Cairo in Egypt to
Cape Town in the Southern Africa by conquering territories in between. The French on
the other hand wanted to have a vast Empire that extended from Djibouti in the east to
Dakar (Senegal) in the west.
 Britain and France the colonial powers had been on the very near to war at
Fashoda in the Sudan in 1898 for the control of the Nile Basin. This was known
as The Fashoda Incident. The two colonial power avoided war by making an
agreement when the French army withdrew from the area allowing the British to
control the Nile Basin.
There were two immediate factors for the scramble Africa in the second half of 19th c.

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1. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. Egypt had become the focus of Britain and France
political and economic interest. Following the British occupation of Egyptian 1882, Britain and
France become bitter rivals
 The canal was built by France engineer called Ferdinand de Lesseps. Thus
France owned a big share in the canal company.
 In1875 Britain had also bought the Egyptian share of the company from Khedive
Ismail, then the ruler of Egypt, sold the share to overcome the bankruptcy.
However, the opening of the Suez Canal increased the importance of Egypt especially to
Britain. The canal was a strategic link with British Indian Empire and the Far East.
 To secure their loans, Egypt’s two big creditors Britain and France created dual control
over Egypt since 1879
 The Egyptian nationalist who opposed foreign influence rose up in armed rebellion. This
revolt was led by Egyptian officer, colonel Ahamedurbaid (Arabi pasha). In May 1882,
Arabi and the Egyptian nationalists successfully gained control of certain part of the
country. At this time the British force intervened in the internal affairs of Egypt and
crushed the force of urbi.
 Due to change of government in France and the French could not participate in the
intervention. Following this British occupied Egypt since1882.
2. The involvement of King Leopold II of Belgium and Germany in the colonization of Africa
aggravated the ongoing rivalry for colonies.

Finally these disagreement were solved by the Berlin conference, these was a need for
agreements on how to partition Africa without going to war or conflict. The Berlin
conference was arranged by Otto von Bismarck, chancellor of Germany in order to
partition Africa peacefully the Berlin conference (1884-1885). Fourteen leaders of west
European and that of the United States attended the conference to discuss how to partition
Africa peacefully
The Process of Colonial occupation of Africa
Before 1500 European, regarded Africa as a Dark Continent because Africa was not
explored and well known. However to achieve their objective Europeans started to know
about Africa through the following ways.
 First, European explorers came to Africa and continued to explorer Africa
 Following the footsteps of explorers, European missionaries arrived in Africa
under the cover of religion.
 The explorer and the missionaries gathered useful information which was used by
companies and European Governments.
 But some other explorers and missionaries did for curiosity and true scientific
missions
 Finally colonial powers replaced the companies and started to administrate Africa.

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 Colonial powers made treaties with local rulers and gradually acquired the land of these
rulers. These treaties were often agreements by which Africa rulers accepted the
protection of one or the other European power.
British occupied Egypt in 1882. In 1898 the British defeated the mahadist resistance at
the battle of Omdurman. This victory enables to occupy the Sudan.
In 1899, seyyid Mohammed Abdile Hassan organized Somalia combatants and
confronted British colonizers, Abdile Hassan called for united Somalia to stand against
the common enemy. Although he was defeated by the British force in 1920
It was only in Ethiopia that successful resistance against the European colonial conquest
was carried out during this period.
Why Africans were defeated by Europeans
 Europeans had modern weapons and trained professional armies
 Africa were technologically backward and could not manufacture firearms
 They also it difficult to acquire firearms through purchase.
 African resistance was not coordinated and lacked unity.
Effects of colonialism in Africa
 Economic and culture of the Africans were destroyed
 Africans lost their freedom
 Africans were exploited and oppressed
 African also disunited and forced to accepted foreign culture
 The languages and cultures of Europeans were expanded etc.
 Colonial Administration
 During this time European used different methods or policies to rule Africa
 The British Administration policy
 The British Administration policy known as Indirect Rule, designed by Lord Fredrick
Lugard. The British made local-chiefs obey their wishes often by giving them instruction
 The France Administration policy
 The French colonial Administration policy known as Direct Rule, designed by French
colonial minister Albert sarrout. The French mainly preferred to give direct orders.

UNIT TWO
The formation of Modern Ethiopian Empire 1855-1906
Ethiopian long distance trade in the 19THcentury Nature of Long Distance Trade
Trade: -is an economic activity of buying and selling goods. Based on its geographical
coverage, people and regions involved trade can be divided in to local trade and long distance
trade.
Local Trade: -refers to the local exchange of goods mainly among people of the same region.
This kind of trade was conducted at markets usually held weekly on fixed day
Long distance trade: - involved different markets, peoples, regions and variety of items. It was
Conducted by caravan merchants who travelled wide distance it was

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 Conducted trade in both import and export items.
Due to the following factors the long distance trade revived Ethiopia in 19th century revived
i. The rise of Mohammed Ali to power in Egypt which resulted in political stability of
the Red sea
ii. The conquest of the Caucasus by Russia increased demand for Ethiopia slaves and
Luxury goods like ivory, gold and civet.
iii. The beginning of diplomatic relation with Europe. This was after about two Century
of Ethiopia lack of interesting in diplomatic relation with Europe. In the 19th century
the European interest in Ethiopia was revived. The coming of Europeans in to
Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa since the first decade of the 19thcentury opened
Commercial competition in the region.
Since the first decade of the 19thcentury, European envoys visited the courts of different
Ethiopian rulers and signed a treaty of commerce and Friendship at different periods
 The Englishman Henry salt met the ruler of Tigrai Ras Woldeselassie in 1805.
 His counterman W.C Harris signed a Treaty of commerce and Friendship with king
Sahleselassie of shoa in 1841.
 Two years later, the same king signed a trade treaty with the Frenchman, Rochet d
Herricourt.
 Another Englishman Walter plowden, did the same in 1849 with Ras Ali II.
iv. European nations established their control over a number of ports of the Red sea and
Gulf of Aden
a) An Italian privet company bought the port of Assab from local chiefs in 1869.and later
transferred to the Government of Italy in 1882.
b) The French controlled the port of Obback in1862.
c) The British already control Gulf of Aden since 1939.
The Ethiopia long distance trade was accelerated by the above foreign intervention.
v. The rise of the Oromo monarchial states in the Gibe region was resulted the political
stability in the region. Of the revival of long distance trade in 19thcentury the political
stability in the region also encouraged the caravan merchant to travel deep in to the
interior of the south-western Ethiopia regions in search of export items. The local
rulers of the region welcomed merchants and gave them patronage as they paid tax
and imported luxury goods for them.
The above situation was accelerated the revival of long distance trade in Ethiopia during the 19th
century.
Merchant of the Long Distance Trade
The long distance trade in the 19th century involved different group of merchant the most
dominant merchant known as
a) Jebarty and
b) Afkala

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  The Jebarty: - were Muslim merchants of northern Ethiopia trading as far as the red sea
coast.
 The Afkala: -were from south-western Ethiopia by the middle of the 19th century the
Afkala dominated the trade of the south western and surpassed the Jabarti in the region.
 Afar and Harari merchants turn a British trade between Shoa and the port of Djibouti and
Gulf of Aden respectively
 Somali and Borana merchants dominated the trade between southern Ethiopia, Kenya and
Somalia.
The long distance Trade in Ethiopia dominated by Muslim merchant because of the following
factors
a) The trade was mainly linked with the Muslim MiddleEast. This made it easier for
Muslim merchant than Christians to deal with their co-religionists.
b) Muslims did not have much access to land as the majority of Christians who rather
preferred agriculture to trade.
c) Muslims used trading activity for expanding Islam religion
Caravan merchant usually traveled in group for safety and security. They had the leaders of
their own known as Negadras (head of merchant) The Negadraes were responsible to:-
 Mobilize merchants
 Fix the date of departure
 Choose camping sites for rest
 Setting disputes among merchants and
 Pay taxes at custom posts.
The long distance trade (caravan merchants) consisted entirely men. Women did not take in the
part of long distance trade as merchants .women involved in local transaction , However women
did participated indirectly in the L.D.T helping husbands or parents in packing goods, taking care
of stores of goods and preparing provision of merchants.
Foreign merchants consisting of Greeks, Arabs, Armenians and Indians dominated the external
trade at the port and coastal regions.
 In the North West, Sudanese merchants known as the Jelaba played a leading role.
 The southern trade of Ethiopia connecting the country with Somalia and Kenya was
mainly dominated by a group of merchant known as the saffare.
Items of Trade
 The long distance trade of Ethiopia was based on exchange of both import and export
goods.
Import items: - include brass, clothes, spices, copper, beads, silk, silver, etc.
Export Items:-were ivory, musk, wax gold, skins, and hides, coffee and slaves.
Slave trade had a very old history in Ethiopia. The economics of slavery had two dimensions.
These are:-
I. Slave served their masters in households and agricultural fields.
II. They were sent to the Sudan and Middle East.

14
  Majority of the slaves were young females.
 At this period the war captives, victims of slave raids and those who didn’t pay their
debts or tributes were considered as slaves.
 In the last quarter of 19th century the slave trade reached its peak due to:-
 The frequent wars and territorial expansion.
 The introduction of modern firearms and their use in slave raiding.
 Territorial expansion was often accompanied by slave- raids.
Markets, Trade Routes and Medium of Exchange
The major markets of the long distance trade were located along the trade routes.
a) The most prominent markets like Bongain kaffa, Hirtmata in Jimma, saqa in Limu
Enarya, Assendabo in walaga Basso in Gojjam Darita and Yifag in Begemidir Adwa
in Tigrai. These markets were linked the south west with northern region of
Ethiopia and ended at port of Massawa
 Markets of matamma located in Ethio- Sudan border linked with trade rout at Gonder
b) Market located on the east-west long distance trade included sodo in Gurage,
Ankober, Aliyu Amba, Abdulrasul in northern shoa, Ancharo, Dawe Dire Dawa and
Hrarar in Hararge. These markets served the trade routes leading to the ports of
Tajuraand Obockin Djibouti and Zeila and Berbera in Somalia.
The major trade rout of L.D.T of the 19THcentury connected market centers along the north-
South and East-West axis. The south-western part of Ethiopia was the origin of the routes.
 The Medium of exchange in the 19th century were
 The traditional barter
 Amole or salt-bar
 Maria Theresa (silver coin) first minted in Vienna (Austria) in 1751. It was imported to
Ethiopia by foreign merchants in the late 18th century
The long distance trade of the 19th century in general
 Served the major means of income.
 Served the exchange of views and technologies.
 Encourage the division of labour and specialization in production.
 Contributed to the political and the religious transformation of Gibe Oromo state.
 Promoted the conquest of the peoples and state of southern south-eastern and south-
western Ethiopia in the last quarter of the 19th century by central Christian kingdom.
 Led to armed clash and wars, and invented foreign enemies, such as Egypt and Italy
The Revival of Imperial power in the Christian Highland kingdom and the
process of Imperial building 1855-1900
Two major events of the 2nd half of the 19thcentury history of Ethiopia are
a) The formation of modern Ethiopia Empire and
b) The struggle against foreign aggression (Egypt, Italy and Mahadist Sudan)

15
The process of Empire building was started by emperor Tewodros II (r1855-68) followed by
Aste Tekle Giyogis II (1869-71) and Aste Yohannes IV (1872-89) and completed by Menilik II
 For about century before the rise of emperor Tewodros II the Christian kingdom went
through a period of great crisis called Zemen Mesafint. (1769-1855)
 The period of zemene mesafint was characterized by the decline of imperial power , the
growing and strength of regionalism
 The period also characterized
 Endless civil war
 Peasants had been improve shed and made insecure as a result of frequent war
 Ethiopia orthodox church suffered from internal division caused by doctrinal issues
 Foreign threats (Egypt, Mahadist Sudan and Italy)
Generally this crisis came to an end with the rise of Kassa Hailu from Quara a district of
Begemidir province in Gonder, kassa was not born a royal family
 He fought his way to power by defeating different powerful regional war lords between
(1852-55)
 He gained successive military victory over power regional war lords
a) Dejazmach Goshu of Gojjam was defeated at the battle of Guramba in November
1852
b) Ras Biru Aligaz and three other war leaders were defeated at the battle of Gorgora
BichanApril 1853.
c) Ras Ali II, the last warash dynasty leader crushed at the battle of Ayshal in June 1853
d) Finally in February 1855 kassa Hailu defeated Dechazmach Wube of semen and
Tigrai at the battle of Derasege
 Kassa crowned himself emperor Tewodros II in February 1855.
Reforms that attempted by Tewodros
Tewodros relation with the church:-
 As a precondition for political unity he sought to bring religious unity first
Early in his reign, Tewodros worked in collaboration with the Bishop. He declared the orthodox
Tewahdo as the official faith. In addition, he expelled leaders of the Catholics (De Jacobi’s) from
Tewodros Administration policy:-he sent out to create a centralized unitary state by conquer
the different independent and semi- independent regional rulers. To this end he made series of
military expedition to wallo, shoa, Gojjam and other northern prevention. In all these campaigns,
he was military victorious. He assigned governors of his own choice for regions.
 He also tried to established a national salaried army which was recruited from
different regions
 Stop slave trade
The Reform plans of Tewodros failed because:-
His dream of restoration of imperial power failed because. Tewodros entered in to conflict
with the clergy due to his plan:-
a) He wanted to redistribute church lands.

16
 b) He reduced the number of priest and deacons in each church to 2 and 3 respectively
c) He ordered the clergy to cultivate their own fields and pay tribute to the state
d) When Tewodros imprisoned the bishop Abune selama in 1864. The bishop died in
prison1867. The anti- Tewodros propaganda of the clergy became more effective
among the masses
e) Regional lords fought hard against the emperor’s policy. They did not want to lose
the political and economic right they used enjoy.
 He took these measures as one solution to the financial constructions his plan of
modernization and reforms
This made Tewodros and his army became busy fighting rebellions and regional governors.
Tewodros punished the rebels by cutting limbs and legs and burning villages .This made him
unpopular. People could not see real changes and allied with the regional lords.
The conflict with British Government (external policies)
 Tewodros wanted diplomatic relations with European government to secure
assistance against Egyptian threat and in the development of the country.
 Tewodros wanted to modernize the country through introduction of European
technology. He wanted to import arms from Europe and also desired to see guns and
armament produced in Ethiopia.
He wrote letters to various European powers to support his programme of introducing European
technology, but not response came
 In November 1862, Tewodros sent a letter to Queen Victoria of England.
 The letters admitted the technological backwardness of his country and the urgent
need for training and educating his people.
The Europeans were not interested to help Tewodros due to the fact that
a) They preferred to secure their economic interest in and strategic significance of Egypt
b) They did not want to see the rise of a powerful nation in the Red Sea region.
Following this Tewodros gathered some Europeans missionary of different nation in his kingdom
and ordered them to manufacture modern arms for him at Gafat, a place near Debre Tabor.
 These Europeans were not skilled in the manufacture of weapons; however, they did
their best to produce some cannons known as seipastopol.
Tewodros imprisoned Europeans because he could not get a response to his letter of 1862.he
refuse toreleased them Europeans request and warnings
This led to the British military expedition led by General Robert Napier to Ethiopia in 1868.
 On 10 April 1868, the battle of Eroghe was fought between the British and Tewodros.
The troops were completely defeated.
 Twedros released the prisoners when the British stormed Maqdala and rushed to capture
him, Tewodros committed suicide on 13 April 1868.
 The British had no plans for permanent occupation and the left out.
 After his death at Meqdala in 1868, there was no return the Zemen Mesafinf
Power rivals after the death of Tewodros II
17
 Following the death of Tewodros II, three warlords competed for power, namely
 Waqshum Gobeze Gebermedin of Lasta
 Ras kasa Mircha of Tigrai and
 Negus Menelik of showa
However waqshum Gobeze succeeded Tewodros and crowned Emperor Tekle Giyorgis (1868-
71)
During these three years, kasa Mircha of Tigrai was challenging Tekle Giyorgis for power
 In July 1871, kasa Mircha took the upper hand over emperor Tekle Giyorgis at the battle
of Assem (near Adowa) after 6th month Kasa Mircha he was crowned Emperor
Yohannis. Generally, Tewodros’s reform plans failed because of
a. The opposition from the feudal lords
b. His quarrel with the church and
c. The conflict with the British Government

Internal Political Developments and External Challenges during the

Region of Emperor Yohannis IV (1872 – 1889)
 Following the collapse of Tewodros’s region, a competition for power came into being. It was
between three warlords, namely:
o Waqshum Gobeze Gebre Medhin of Lasta,
Ethiopia.

o Kasa Mircha of Tigrai, and

o Menelik of Shoa
 However, Waqshum Gobeze succeeded Tewodros and became Emperor Tekla Giyorgis (1868-
71)
 During these three years, Kasa Mircha of Tigirai was challenging Tekla Giyorgis for power.
 In July 1871, Kasa Mircha took the upper hand over Emperor Tekla Giyorgis at the battle of
Assem.
 Following this, he was crowned Emperor Yohannis IV on January 1872, at Aksum.
 Yohannis began his region with efforts at strengthening hi imperial power.

18
  He launched military expeditions to Gojjam, Begemidir, Hamasien and Yejju to get the
submission of local chiefs.
 But he did not continue to use military means for building imperial authority. Instead, he
recognized the local hereditary chiefs so long as they accepted him as overlord and paid him
annual tributes. Thus he shared power in the Kingdom annual tributes. Thus he shared power in
the Kingdom with vassal rulers including those who were once rebels.
 As a result of this, the Emperor crowned Adal Tessema of Gojjam as Negus Tekla Haymanot of
Gojjam and Kaffa in 1881 to check the advance of King of Shoa (Menelik) to the south western
Ethiopia.
 On the other side Menelik continued straggling for the throne and Menelik did not recognize
Yohannis as an emperor at the beginning. Instead, he used to call himself “king of Kings” and
had foreign relations with the state like Egypt, Britain, France and Italy as independent ruler, He
used these contact to import firearms, he could fought for the throne and He did not pay tribute
to Yohannis up to 1878.even more he was expanding to the direction of Wollo.
 Yohannis realized the challenge of Menelik from the beginning, but unable to take actions
immediately. It was due to that:-
I. He was too busy in strengthening his power in northern provinces,
II. In 1875 and 1876 Ethiopia was invaded by Egypt.
In 1878, Yohannis secured a peaceful submission of Menilik and Yohannis also made an
agreement with Menelik at a place called Liche, near Ankober in shoa.
Menelik agreed to:-
a) Drop the title “King of Kings” and use only the title king.
b) Pay annual tribute to Yohannis
c) Stop independent contract with foreign countries
On his part, Emperor Yohannis agreed:-
a) Recognized King Menelika as hereditary ruler of Shoa.
b) He also accepted Menelik’s control over Wallo.
c) In addition, both Yohannes and Menelik agreed to help each other against common enemies.
What was the importance of this agreement?
1. The treaty Put an end to the shoa Administrative autonomy without bloodshed
2. Yohannis got submission of the strongest regional rival to his throne.
3. Menelik recognized the emperorship of Yohannis.
4. It also saved meneliks possible destruction by the imperial army.
However, Menelik continued his secret contact with foreigners. In 1883, the Italians promised to
help Menelik in importing arms through the port of Assab
 The import of army demanded needed wealth and financial resources. He could get this wealth
from the rich region of the south, southeast and southwest towards which he expanded and
controlled the profitable trade routes. To achieve this, the shoan army commanded by Ras
Gobena crossed the Gibe River and moved to the Oromo states.

19
 Simultaneously, the army of Gojjam under Dejjazmach Dereso had already begun collecting
tributes from the local peoples in the southwest.
Menelik of shoa and Tekel Haymanot of Gojjam become rivals with contending interest in the
southwest. Yohannis order, to avoid fighting, two kings, Menelik and Tekle Haymanot went war.
The two rival forces fought at the battle of Embabo in wollega on June 6 1882.The force of
Tekle Haymanot were defeated himself wounded and made captive by Menelik.
 Following this, Emperor Yohannis called the two kings to Waraillu in Wollo, and punished both
of them.
 He took away Kafa and Agawmider from Teklaymanot and Wollo from Menelik.
 But he made a marriage arrangement between Meneliks daughter, Zewditu, with his son, Ras
Araya Sellassie. This arrangement between political marriages aimed at binding the two
dynasties (Shoa and Tigrai) and to win the loyalty of Menelik.
 He also allowed Menelik to expand into the south western regions.
Religious Policy of Yohannis IV
Yohannis saw religious unity as essential precondition for building a strong imperial state. Yet
his kingdom was in trouble owing to the religious division within the church. Yohannis wanted
to expel catholic missionaries from his regions and the expansion of Islam.
.
 In May 1878, Yohannis called a religious Council of Borumeda (in Wollo).Representatives of
different doctrine within the Orthodox Church debated over their differences and tried justify
their own doctrines.
 At the end of the council, Yohannis declared the Orthodox Tewahdo faith as the only official
doctrine.
 AtBorumeda, Yohannis also declared that all Muslim should become Christians.
As a result of this, the Muslim population was forced to take different reactions.
 The political leaders of the region accepted to change their religion.
- For Example: - Mohammed Ali was baptismal name as Mikael, and Ahmed Liban (Abba
Watew) became Haile Mariam. Mohammed Ali later becomes the ruler of Wollo,first as Ras and
later Negus.
 Some people in wollo refused conversion and prefer exile far regions as Gurage, Jimma,
Metemma and Arsi.
 Those who remained in wollo rose in rebellion inspired by religious leaders like Sheik Talha of
Argobba, rose in rebellion. However, the rebellion was crushed by the joint army of Yohannis
and Menelik.
Egyptian Aggression on Ethiopia, 1872-1885
 Etio-Egyptian conflict continued during the reign of Emperor TewodrosII (r1855-1868), the
former Kasa Hailu. Before he crowned, when he was a rebel in the lowland of Quara, Tewodros
was defeated by the Egyptians at the battle of Debarkiin 1848

20
  The Ethio-Egyptian conflict reached its peak during the reign of emperor Yohannis IV (r1872-
1889) .Already in 1846, Egypt had taken over possession of the port of Massawa from the
Ottoman Turkey. Egypt had officially taken Massawa by a lease contract of 1866
 Egypt blocked the import of arms to Ethiopia and
 Egyptian began collect heavy taxes on Ethiopia merchant
From 1872, onwards of Egyptian troops began to advance in to and control other Red Sea port
and coastal regions well as the border prevention of Matamma and Bogas. The Egyptians started
to make attacks on area further in land in Mereb Mellash. The early phase of Egyptian expansion
in to the border regions of north-western Ethiopia and the Red Sea coast gave way to a more
aggressive invasion and attempt at occupation of Ethiopia.
 The Egyptian ruler Khedive Ismail pasha (r.1863 79), had the ambition of building Greater Egypt
in north-east Africa
 He hoped to established mastery over the Nile valley and its sources.
 Khedive Ismail wanted to rule the region from the Mediterranean Sea to the Equatorial Lake and
from Chad to the Indian Ocean.
 As a source of Blue Nile Ethiopia become a major target to Egyptian expansion
The major factors encourage Egyptian expansion on Ethiopia.
I. Because of the success of the 1868 British military expedition. Egypt consider Ethiopia as weak
country
II. The Egyptians believed that the internal political turmoil and the regional rivalries, following the
death of Tewodros II, had further weakened Ethiopia.
III. Ismail saw Europeans as friends to Egypt, who would not give military support to Ethiopia
In 1871 the Khedive appointed Werner Muzinger as governor of Massawa. In 1872, Muzinger
led an invasion in to the region of Bogos, in the present day of Eritrea.
However Yohannis was not ready for a military confrontation with Egypt. For the three years of
his reign, he had to bring local rebellions under control and strengthen his imperial power. But he
did not remain passive.
The first reaction of yohannis was a diplomatic campaign aimed at seeking a peaceful solution to
the Bogos crisis. To this end, he wrote a letter to Khedive Ismail July 1872. In the letter he
protested Egyptian- occupation of Bogos defined his boundary in the north-east and demanded
the withdrawal of Egyptian troops from Ethiopia.
Kadive Ismail ignored the protest and continued to take control of more territories.
Yhohannis also sent letters to the rulers of Britain, France, Germany, Austria and Russia. He
informed the European powers of the unlawful invasion of his country by Egypt, whom he
accused of planning to Islamize and enslave his people. He expressed his belief and hope that the
Christian nation of Europe would defend his country from Egyptian aggression.
European was not prepared to help Yohannis Europeans did not want torisk their trade and
investment in Egypt by a direct conflict with that country.
Khedive Ismail told Europe that his expansion in Ethiopia was motivated by a desire to expand
western civilization and end slavery and slave trade

21
 In 1875, the Egyptian invasion came from the direction of the sea along three fronts.
1) An Egyptian army led by Mohammed Rauf Pasha moved from the port of Zeila and controlled
the Emirate of Harar in Oct. 1875.
2) Wirner Muzinger, the architect of Egyptian aggression in Ethiopia, led a small Egyptian army
from the port of Tajura into Afar. But his expedition was not successful because almost all the
soldiers of Muzinger including himself were killed in Nov. 1875 by the Afar people.
3) An Egyptian army of about 2500 – 3000 men under a mercenary from Denmark, named Colonel
Arrendrup, entered Massawa. His army was well armed and had more training
 Yohannis mobilized his army and defined his empire. He declared war 23 October 1875.withn
two weeks, he mobilize about 20,000 to 30,000 soldiers. On16 November, 1875Ethiopia and
Egypt fought at the battle of Gundet, near the Mereb River on Egypt. The Egyptian army was
encircled and the Ethiopia scored a complete victory at Gundet
Emperor Yohannes, having declared a general mobilization marched against the enemy at
Gundet with his army in 1875.
 Finally, Khedive Ismail prepared about 15,000 a second larger expedition against northern
Ethiopia, led by the Commander in Chief of the Egyptian army Mohammed Ratib Pasha, with
General Loving (an American) as a second in command.
o Yohnnis again mobilized his army for the second time .Amore bloody war than that of Gundet
was fought between 7-9 March 1876 at Gura. The battle of Gura resulted in heavy losses on
both side The Egyptian army defeated again in the battle of Gura. Ethiopia scored two victories
within a matter of four moths
o Emperor Yohannes left the Egyptians in some of occupied regions of Ethiopia.
The Aftermath of Gura
 The military victory of Ethiopia at the battle of Gundet and Gura destroyed Egyptian plans of
expansion in Ethiopia.
 After the battles of Gundet and Gura, Egypt also behaved like a victor. The Egyptians requested
Yohannes to return arms captured from the battles and to free the war prisoners.
 Egypt agreed to free trade with Ethiopia
 Yohannes released the prisoners of war, but he refused to return the captured weapons.
 In 1877, Khedive Ismail sent the British General Gordon to Yohannis to negotiate peace on
behalf of Egypt. But, his mission, too, remained fruitful results. This is because Ismail expressed
the need to limit the import of arms to Ethiopia.
 Khedive Ismail unwilling to return occupied areas Ethiopia to Yohannes and demands for war
indemnity
 From 1877 to 1884, between Ethiopia and Egypt was a period of “no peace, no war”.
The Hewett Treaty and Ethio- Mahdist Conflicts
 Egyptian rule in the Sudan had met a very serious challenge since 1881 by the Mahadist
Movement.

22
  By late 1883 Egyptian control of the Sudan was over and some Egyptian troops were
trapped in the areas along the Ethio-sundaes border. It could be saved if it were allowed
to escape through Ethiopia territory.
 As a protector of her colony, Britain was to save the Egyptian garrisons in Eastern Sudan.
Due to this, Britain sent Rear Admiral William Hewett to Ethiopia to negotiate with
Yohannes on behalf of Egypt on June 3, 1884.
 The Peace Treaty of Hewett or Adwa was signed between Yohannes and William Hewett.
According to this treaty;
A. Egypt accepted Ethiopia’s free transit of import and export, goods including firearms, through
Massawa.
B. Restoration of Bogos and other occupied territory to Ethiopia was promised.
C. Ethiopia agreed to help in the safe evacuation of the trapped Egyptian army via Massawa
 The Hewett Treaty created two strong enemies for Ethiopia, the Mahadist Sudan and Italy
The Hewett Treaty might appear to have been a diplomatic victory for Ethiopia
However, the Hewett Treaty had disastrous results to the Ethiopian side because,
I. To fulfill of his promised Yohannis sent his General Ras Alula to western Ethiopia to
help in the evacuation of the Egyptian troop’s .Alula accomplished his mission at a very
great cost. He fought against the Mahdist at the battle of Kufit in Sept. 1885 and other
battles. By so doing this Ethiopia was considered as an ally of Egypt, become an ardent
enemy of Mahadist Sudan
II. Ethiopia did not regain Massawa, instead Britain replaced Egypt by Italy as the dominant
power in the Red Sea region.
Britain secretly transferred the port of Massawa to Italy, in Feb. 1885 in order to stop
French expansion in the region.
 To avenge Yohannes, the Mahdist Sudan began attacked and invaded the Ethiopian border
territories along the Metemma - Gonder area.
 In the meantime, Emperor Yohannes was busy in trying to check Italian territorial
encroachment in the Mereb Mellash so,
 He sent Negus Tekla Haymanot to defend Mahadist the North-east region the Metemma-
Gonder area. However, he was defeated at the battle of Sarwuha, north of Lake Tana, in
1887, by the Mahdists. The Mahdists burnt down churches, raided the local people and
some people enslaved and forced the payment of tributes, they under took forceful
Islamization of the peoples and took many war captives.
 Another problem for Yohannes during the period was the plot of Negus Tekla Haymanot
of Gojjam and Menelik of Shoa rebel against him in mid-1888.
 So, Yohannes was forced to postpone his confrontation with the Italians and marched south
to deal with Menelik and Tekla Haymanot. He first punished Gojjam and got the
submission of Tekla Haymanot, then the made peace with Menelik.

23
  Though too late, yohannes attempted to make peace with the Mahadists, but it was not
successful instead they required him to embraced Islam as a precondition for peace. Due to
this, war became inevitable.
 Finally, on March 9, 1889, the Ethio - Mahdist war was fought at the battle of Metemma,
where the Yohannis was wounded. Yohannis died the next day. The Mahadists captured his
dead body and beheaded by the Mahdists. This brought the end of Yohannes IV’s reign.
The Region of Emperor Menelik II (1889- 1913)
 Menelik was Negus of Shoa from 1865-1889. After the death of Emperor Yohannes in
1889, Menelik became the Emperor of Ethiopia.
Expansion to the South, South West and South East
 The process of expansion and formation of modern Ethiopia empire was completed
during the reign of Emperor Menilik expanded his Kingdom to the South, South East and
South West Ethiopia, used both the forceful subjugation and peaceful submission by
influencing the local rulers.
 There were three events which facilitated the success of Menelik’s expansion as King
of Shoa, such as:-
I. The Liche agreement of 1878 reduced the tensions with Emperor Yohannes.
II. The Battle of Embabo (1882) eliminated strong rival of Menelik, King TeklaHaymanot
of Gojjam, from the resourceful regions of the South West.
III. His commercial relations with Italians enabled him to import firearms.
Menelik began the process of expansion when he was the king of shoa .During the year from
1875-1889 succeeded in subdividing and incorporating the regions of Gurage, Wollega,
Illubabor, Arsi, Harar and the Gibe states. Most of the Oromo western Ethiopia and the Christian
Gurage incorporated through peaceful submission
However Menelik faced strong challenges from the Muslim Gurage, Arsi and Harar after
abloody war, the Muslim Gurage under the command of Hassan Enjamo was totally subdued
in1888.
 The Arsi Oromo were defeated finally at the battle of Azule in 1886
 The resistance of the Harari and the Oromo of the southeast subdued at the battle of
Chellenqo in1887
 Menelik’s imperial expansions also continued after he was crowned walayta, Bale, Kaffa,
Sidamo were incorporated.
 Walayta under Kawo Tona fought against Menelik army in 1894,however he lost the battle,
 The people of Kaffa under its local ruler Tato Gaki Serecho strongly resisted the army of
Menelik. Ras Wolde Giyorgis supported by some local Oromo rulers of southwestern
Ethiopia, and crushed kaffa in 1897.
 During this phase of expansion coincided the outbreak of Great Famine, known as the
“Kifu Qan” (1888-1892)

24
 The main cause of the famine the cattle epidemics which killed hundreds of thousands of
cattle.
 As a result many northerners moved to less affected regions of the south. Some of them also
joined the army of Menelik, participated in his wars of expansion and settled in the
conquered regions of the south.
o Menelik’s expansion was completed in the subsequent years after the battle of Adwa
between 1896-1900.
o During this period, Menelik occupied the border areas of Ogaden, Assosa, Benshihangul,
Borana and Kaffa.
 Finally, the formation of modern Ethiopian Empire became accomplished in 1900.
 The fate of these peoples and rulers of the newly incorporated regions was being decided
based on the nature of their reactions to the expansion.
 However, in both cases the incorporated regions faced harsh feudal exploitation, paid
heavy tributes, suffered ethnic and religious oppressions.
Italian colonialism in the Horn of Africa
In 1869, an Italian private shipping company had bought the port of Assab from local chiefs.
Thirteen years later the possession of the port was transferred to the Italian Government in
1882. In violation of the Hewett Treaty, Britain secretly transferred the port of Massawa to
Italy, in Feb. 1885 in order to stop French expansion in the region.
In the early stage of their expansion, Italian occupied area of Aylet, Wia, and Saati and headed to
the Mereb Melash.
 They blocked the import of firearms in to Ethiopia and then began to ask heavy taxes
from Ethiopian merchants, while they continued their expansion into the Mereb Mellash.
Ras Alula Engda (Abba Nega) warned Italian but the Italian ignored the warning. In
January. 1887, Ras Alula crushed 500 Italian troops at Dogali. This events known as the
victory of Dogaly
 Italian desire for revenge following the battle of Dogali increased.
 To achieve this, the Italian Government allotted additional budget and Italians began to
recruit collaborators. Internal conflicts in Ethiopia laid the ground for these divisive
activities
 But British sent envoy Gerald Portal to meet Yhannis in November 1887 he proposed
 War indemnity for Italian
 Official Ethiopia apology for Alula attack
 Restoration of occupied coastal regions to Ethiopia
His mission was failed. Yohannes wrote a letter to Queen Victoria in condoming British
diplomatic dishonest and unfairness.
Italo - Shoan relation started in 1876, when the Italian Geographical Society led by Antinori
came to Shoa Menelik gave them resting place called Let Marefia in shoa. Menelik needed
Italians, for firearms

25
  In Oct. 1883, the treaty of commerce and friendship signed between Menelik and
Atonally. They agreed upon:-
 Consular exchange
 Free trade between them
 Free movement of their people
 Freedom of religious propagation
 The major objective of the treaty was to strengthen the Assab Shoan trade.
 The second Italo - Shoan treaty, signed in 1887, was the convention of Neutrality. It
was signed mainly to reduce the power of Emperor Yohannes IV.
 Meanwhile, Italy sought the British intervention to fulfill her colonial ambition in
Ethiopia.
o He sent a letter to Queen Victoria, informed his readiness and preference for war rather
than let the Italians take Ethiopian land.
o Yoahnnes also wrote to the government of the French about the diplomatic Miss Chief of
Britain.
o Finally, he declared war on the Italians and called his people to arms. By doing so, he
mobilized about 70,000 troops.
 He marched to the North to fight the Italians at Saati in March 1888.
 On the other hand, the Ethiopian army began to suffer from shortage of food. Majority
of the troops of Yohannes were peasants who wanted to go back to cultivate their field.
 In addition, Yohannes received news about the Mahadist invasion of Gondar and the
plot of his vassals, Menelik and Tekla Haymanot against him.
 Generally, Italy’s refusal to engage in battle, combined with internal rebellion and
Mahadist threat, drew the attention of the Emperor to the Northwest.
Finally, he died in 1889 at the battle of Metemma where he fought with Mahdist Sudan
(Ansars).
The Treaty of Wuchale, the Birth of Eritrea as an Italian Colony and the
Battle of Adwa
 Meniliks friendship with Italy which began when he was the king of shoa continued after
he became emperor as well.
 The Treaty of Wuchale was drafted by Antonelli and it was signed between Antonelli of
Italy and Menelik on 2 May 1889, in northern Wollo.
 The treaty contained 20 article But the controversial article were III and XVII
 Emperor Menelik signed the Treaty of Wuchale due to the following two major
reasons ;Menelik seemed to have found it difficult to dislodge Italians by force. The
Italians had already occupied part of the Mereb Mellash region before the treaty.
 He feared that any disagreement with the Italians would result in their subversive
activity among his rivals for the throne, like Ras Mengasha Yohannis of Trigrai.
 The battle of Adwa was the result of the Wuchale Treaty. Particularly, Article III and
Article XVII contributed a lot for the battle.

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Article III: - deals with the boundary delimitation between Ethiopia and Italian occupied region
of the Mereb Melash.

 Additional convention was signed in Oct. 1889 between Italy and Ras Mekonnen. The
Italians inserted in the convention the clause of “Effective Occupation.”
 This clause stated that the boundary demarcation would be based on the actual
possession. This allowed the Italians to occupy more and advance further south as far as
the Mereb River.
 Due to this, Menelik’s protest over the violation of boundary agreement bore no fruit.
Article XVII: - the Italian copy of article XVII of the treaty bound Menelik to make all his
foreign contacts through the agency of Italian Government, while the Amharic copy says if
Ethiopia wishes.
 This reduced the country to the status of Italian protectorate.
 Menelik abrogated the Treaty of Suchale in Feb. 1893.
 In 1894 Ras Mengasha of Tigrai came to Addis Ababa and swore allegiance to Menelik
with a high ceremony.
 The Italians wanted their strong desire of occupying the whole of Ethiopia through arms.
 On the other hand, Menelik mobilized a force of some 100,000 troops accompanied by
his wife Empress Taytu marched north.
 The Adwa campaign had three phases. These are the battle of Ambalage, 7 Dec, 1895;
the siege of Mekelle, 7-21 Jan, 1896, and the final battle of Adwa, 1 March, 1896.
 At Ambalage, the first Ethiopian army led by Fitawarari Gebayahu gained victory over
the Italian forces.
 The Italians then fortified themselves at Mekelle. The Italians again forced to surrender.
Finally, they were again enforced to go north.
 The battle of Adowa was the last and decisive war between the two powers.
 The war lasted for one full day; Ethiopian troops displayed a high degree of courage and
unity. The battle of Adowa was extremely bloody. The Italians lost the battle and the
Ethiopians stook the upper hand over them.
10.7.2 Consequences of the Victory of Adowa
 It claimed the lives of thousands of fighters on both sides.
 Italy lost one third out of 20,000 troops and 2000 of them were taken as captives of war
and 1500 were wounded.
 Ethiopia lost about 7000 soldiers.
 It guaranteed the political independence of Ethiopia.
Following this, different colonial powers opened their legation in Addis Ababa.
 It became a symbol of black dignity and self-rule. In addition, in inspired further black
solidarity and nationalism.

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  It aroused internal oppositions against the government of Prime Minster Francesco
Crispi, which led finally the downfall of Crispi’s government.
 Italy recognized the absolute independence of Ethiopia and accepted the total
cancellation of the Wuchale treaty, by the Addis Ababa Treaty, which was signed
between the two countries on 26, Oct, 1896. The boundary between Ethiopia and Eritrea
was formally delimited later in 1900.
 The echo of Adwa also inspired the early Pan-African movement. However, the Italians
not totally driven out of Ethiopia and remained in Eritrea up to 1941. Ethiopia lost her
Red Sea ports and access to sea.
 Moreover, Italy used Eritrea not only as a base for her subversive activities against
Ethiopia, but also for another invasion of the country in1935.
. The Process of Modernization of Ethiopia Began by Menlik II
 Modern roads and bridges were constructed and postal and telegraphic systems were
introduced.
 Currency reforms were carried out in 1894 and the Bank of Abyssinia was introduced in
1905.
Menelik II School was opened in 1908 and Menelik II Hospital was established in 1910. In
addition, different small scale industries and public services were introduced
s far as the scramble for east Africa was concerned, the most important powers were Britain,
France and Italy.
 In the 1880’s, Somalia also partitioned among the three powers and came to be known as
the British, French and Italian Somaliland.
 In the West, the Sudan was controlled by Britain and so was Kenya in the South.
Why did Ethiopia remain independent in this period of the scramble for Africa?

UNIT THREE
THE ETHIOPIAN EMPIRE AND THE EMERGRNCE OF
AUTHOCRACY 1906-35
3.1 Internal Power Struggle and Foreign Intervention In the
Early Twentieth Century
The problem of Succession and the Tripartite Treaty
The Empire of Ethiopia entered the twentieth century centralize, victorious over colonial
aggression and politically stable. However, internal peace and stability lasted only for a short
period. It was disturbed by internal power struggle and the revival of foreign threats.
In1906 Menelik suffered a stoke and his personal control there after was somewhat
weakenend and was not able to give effective leadership. In the same year Ras Mekonnen
wolde mikael, a cousin of the Emperor and his right hand man died.This person was expected

28
to become Menelik;s successor.Consequently, power struggle in the place and political
instability in the empire began.
The internal crisis mentioned above drew the attention of the neighbouring imperialist
powers, who had colonial territories adjacent to Ethiopia. Britain, France and Italy partly
worried by the opening of the Gernan Legation in Addis Ababa in 1905, became more
anxious abou Ethiopias internal development. They worried about the poltical empire
uncertainity following the death of Menelik that might affect their economic and poltical
interests in Ethiopia. These imperialist powers were in vigorous competition for larger sphere
of influence in the Horn of Africa.The combination of all these factors led to the signing of
an agreement known as The Tripartite Treaty. The treaty was signed between Britain, France
and Italy in December 1906. As discussed in unit two, the treaty partitioned Ethiopia into
spheres of influence belonging to each of the three European countries. Nonetheless, the
treaty remained on paper and Ethiopia did not disintegrate, but it posed quite an imaginable
danger on the countrys independendence.
Despite the deterioration of his health, the Emperor took some steps to solve the internal and
external problems of his country. Firstly, he wrote a letter to thesignatoryies of the Tripartiete
Treaty in which he underlined the need to maintain the unity and independence of his
country. Secondly, in an attempt to ensure the normal running of his government in the event
of his illness, he established a council of Minsters in October 1907.The introduction of the
ministerial system for the first time in the history of the country was thus partly a response to
foreign pressures. Yet the ministerial system remained to be more symbolic that real. The
same old palace officials were given new titles to perform more or less the same tasks they
were in charge of in the traditional administrative system.
Thirdly, as a solution to the problem of succession, in May 1909, the emperor officially
announced Lij Iyasu as his heir. The prince was a grandson of Meneliks from his daughter
princess Shewaregad and Ras Mikael (formerly Imam Mohammed Ali) who was the ruler of
southern wollo. The heir was, however, a minor of about 12 years of age and could not
exercise power by himself. Thus Menelik appointed a showan aristocrat, Ras Bitwadad
Tesemma Naddaw as regent to Lij Iyasu.
Power Struggle Between Emperss Taytu and the Shoan Nobility
Emperor Menilks arrangement as regards to his future succession won the disfavor of his
own wife,Emperss Taytu. The Emperss had no child of her own to succeed to the throne. She
was worried about her poltical future following the death of Menilik. She feered that the
accession to power of a ruler with no blood or marriage ties to her might affect her and her
familys role in the future poltics of the country. Thus, the Empress come up with her own
chice for imperial succession amed at guaranteeing the continuity of her political influence.
To this end, she preferred princess Zewditu, the daughter of Menelik by another woman, to
Lij Iyasu. Zewditu was married to Taytu,s nephew, Ras Gugsa wolle Bitule. Thus, Taytu was
resistant to the selection of Lij Iyasu as this would evidently erode her political significance.
The office of regency, was give give to Ras Tesemma.

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 Using her position as the wife of the Emperors, Empress Taytu hurried to build a power
group centerd around her blood and marital relations. Menlik was still alive and Ras
Tesemma and members of the council were respectful to Taytu. This enabled the Empress to
exercise great power. She, indeed, overshadowed the power of the regent and the council.
She arranged series of political marrages among her relative and important political figures,
families and local dynasties. She appointed her close allies and relative to higher ranking
positions, while she dismissed or demoted her political opponents including members of the
council of Ministers. Eventually, Taytu measures threatened the poltical supremacy of the
shoan nobility. The latter could not tolerate Taytu,s and her relative,s monopoly of power.
The father of Lij Iyasu, Ras Mikael, allied with the Shoan nobility, in order to defend the
position of his son. Ras Mikael was already in conflict with Ras wolle, Taytu,s brother in
northern wollo. While opposition against the growing political power of the Empress was
underway, she tried to dissolve the council of Ministers. This attempt united her opponents
and speeded up her downfall. In march 1910, Empress Taytu was removed from government
duties, and was told to limt herself to taking care of her dying husband. Her request for self-
exit to her birth place was not accepted by her opponents. Her appeal for the intervention of
the legations and the churches of Addis Ababa too bore no fruit. She thus had to take care of
the alling emeror. Menelik died in December1913. Taytu was then exiled to Entoto where
she stayed until her death in 1918.
The removal of Empress Taytu from political dominance was immediately followed by
political rearrangement. Taytu,s appointement and dismissalswere cancelled. The powerful
relatives and close allies of Empress Taytu were detained and lost power.
The Challenge of Iyasu
A year after the removal of Empress Taytu power struggle revived once again. This time the
struggle was between the old nobility and palace guards of Emperor Menelik on the one hand
and Lij Iyasu on other. It began following the death of Ras Bitwoded Tesemma in April
1911. To begin with, the shoan nobility did not fully support Lij Iyasu, as he was the son of
non- shoan reginal rulers ,Ras Mikael of Wollo. The welcomed his selection half- heartedly
because, it was the wish of Menelik. They were also hopeful that their own man, Tesemma
would protect their interests. But the death of the regent gave rise to new tensions. Iyasu
refused to accept any other regent to replace Tesemma, and publicly declared that he could
lead the country by himself.
The brief reign of Iyasu (1913-1916) was heavily strained by internal problems and external
pressure. However, Iyasu had introduced a range of positive reforms to his credit.
Lij Iyasu introduced several modern reforms.
 He modified the traditional methods of tithe (Asrat) collection. Formerly,the amount
of the tax to be paid had been determined by an official befor havesting.
 He also outlawed the traditional of Lebashay or method of criminal dection, and the
Quragna system, by which an accused and the accuser were chained together until
justice was given.

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  Iyasu established a modern municipal police consisting of former soldiers that served
as Italian colonial troops in Libya. They were nicknamed as Trunbulle from the name
of the capital of Libya, Tripoli.
 Lij Iyasu also formed a separate department of education that had formerly been
attached to the Ethiopian Orthodox church.
 He introduced an auditing system meant to protect public property.
Moreover, Lij Iyasu followed a more liberal policy towards Ethiopian Muslims. He
encouraged the building of mosques. He established marriage ties with local Muslim-
dynastyies.Muslims were shown positive gestures and, indeed, there rights better
respected under Lij Iyasu,s rule.
Lij Iyasu met strong internal and externalopposisions. Internal opposition came mainly
from the old shoan officials of Menelik. In their struggule to overthrow Iyasu, his
opponents made advantageous use of his personal weaknesses, polygamous marriages,
and lack of attention to government affairs in the capital. His marriages with Muslims
were interpreted as his abandonment of christiainity and an attempt at weakening the
Orthodox Church.
Yet the root causes of the internal opposition to Lij Iyasu were his attitude towards the old
nobility of Menelik and his political measures that were seen as threats to shoan political
supremacy. Indeed, Lij Iyasu had no respect for the old officials. He dismissed and relatives.
Of all his measures, the one that was considered to be the most serious political threat to the
shoan establishment was the coronation of his father Ras Mikael. In 1914, Ras Mikael was made
Negus of Wollo and Tigrai. The provinces of Gojjam and Begemider were added to him later in
1915. Lij Iyasu thus, made his father the king of the northern provinces.The more Iyasu
promoted his friends and relatives to key positions, the more the old officials of Menelik lost
their former economic and political privileges. Consequently, they united in opposision against
Iyasu.
Equally disasterous to the young ruler was the method he used in his foreign policy, which
provoked external powers, namely Britain, France and Italy. Two policies of Iyasu antagonized
these powers. First, Iyasu was strengthening friendly relations with Germany and Ottoman
Turkey, which as you will seenin unit four were the majorenemies of the three countries
mentioned above in the First world war (1914-18). Even worse, in the eyes of Britian and Italy,
was Iyasu,s moral and material support to the Somali nationalit sayyid Mohammed Abdle
Hassan who had waged awar of resistance against British and Italian colonialism in somaliland.
Both of these were seen as great offences to the interest of the three colonial powers. These
powers, eventually formed a unity with the internal enemiss of Lij Iyasu in the move to despose
him. Iyasu was on his usual visit to Harar and Jigiga regions while his opponents decided to
despose him.
The Shoan nobility appealed to Abune Matheos to excommunicate Lij Iyasu whom they charged,
above all, with a pro- Muslim policy. The bishop was peruaded to support their cause, and on 27
september, 1916 Iyasu was officially desposed. On hearing the cop Iyasu headed to the capital to

31
avert the cop. The army of his opponents met Iyasu and his men at Mieso, near Asebe Tafari
(chiro)town. Lij Iyasu was defeated and fled to wpllp, and then became a fugitive for five years
until he was captured in Tigrai in1921. He was in detention at Fiche up to 1921 and then
transferred to Garamulata in Hararge, where he styed in detention until his death in 1936.
Menwhile Negus Mikael had made an attempt to restore his son to power, and to this end he lead
a huge army from wollo to the capital.On27 october ,1916 hus northern troops met the army of
the centreal government at the battle of segele near sheno town in shoa. He was defeated and
captured. He died in prison two years later.The administration of wollo fell directly under the
central government.The bloody coup against Lij Iyasu, ended up with the restoration of shoan
political superemacy.
The coup maker chose their new leadr from among the Family of Menelik. The proclamaied
Zewditu, the daughter of Emperor Menilik. Empress. The empress was crowned on February 11,
1917. To avoid possible problem of succession, they nominated the son of Ras Mekonnen, Ras
Tafari, as heir to the throne, but shortly afterward he also assumed the power of a regent.
Awoman took the imperial crown for the first time in Ethiopia history. The new arrangement was
made so that the ruler would work in harmony with the newly re-organization council of
Ministers. For the shoan nobility Zewditu was a suitable choice. She was politically less
ambitious, and as a daughter of Menelik, she could maintain their interests.
The Diarchy (1916-30)
The term diarch in Ethiopian politicis refers to the period of dual rule between 1916 and 1930.
Two centers of power existed during this period. These were Zewditu and Ras Tafari.Zewditu
was the empress, but her heir and regent, Ras Tafari, exercised extensive powers. Thus the perod
has often been referred to as the diarchy.
After the beginning, the diarchy appeared to be a period of poltical stability characterized by the
unity of shoan force. The council of minsters mainly consisted of the old shoan nobility. The war
minster, Fitawrari Habte Giorgis Dinagde was appointed chairman of the council. Noetheless,
the diarchy was not free from political crisi. This was the out come of a persistent power struggle
between two political groups who are refered to as the traditionlist and the progressives. The
traditionalists consisted of the old nobility, respesented by the Empress and the council the
progressive consisted of the commercial strata, the young and the educated as well as the
enlightenrd noblility rallied around Ras Tafari. The traditionalists defened the old order of
religious, social economic and political system. They were above all opposed to the growing
powere of Ras Tafari. This group was also opposed to modernization, extensive diplomatic
relations and foreign investements in Ethiopia. On the other hand, Ras Tafari and the group
around him were the prime –movers of progressive ideas.
Ras Tafari realized the importance of recuruting domestic and foreign allies and the need to
eliminate internal challenges to his power. He dismissed the members of the council of Minsters
in 1918. Only the war minster, Fitawrari Habte Giorgis remained in power. The minsters were
removed through underground agitation against their corruption and the public demonstration of
the Mehal Sefari, who were soldiers and civil servants closely attached to the palace.The council

32
of minsters was replced by new council known as the crown council staffed mainly by Tafari,s
favourities and allies. The crown council was only an advisory body. The young educated allies
of Tafari criticized the feudal order, heavy taxation, corruption, slavery. These intellectuals
called for the development of their country through the expansion of modern education. They
also insisted the expansion of veterinary services, health services, the expantion of
infrastructure,abolition of the gebbar system and slavery,etc. A news paper named Berhanena
Selam served as forum of thein critics.
Ras Tafari patronized the idea of the intellectual and made many reforms.
 Modern education was expanded young Ethiopians were sent abroud for further
education. He established printing press, and welcomed foreign investement and
missionaries.
 In 1923, he won Ethiopia,s admission to the League of nations. As a precondition to her
membership, an anti- slave trade decree was issued in the country in the same year. The
next year, a decree on the gradual eradication of domestic slavery was issued. It was,
indeed, the first serious and consistent attempt to put an end to slavery and slave trade.
However, both practices continued up to the 1930s.
 In 1924, Ras Tafari and some of the nobility made an extensive tour in Eourpe. This gave
Tafari a wider exposure to western civilization. He earned sympathy and popularity in
many countires. Europeans saw bright prospects for investement in Ethiopia under the
leadership of Ras Tafari.
 In 1926, the deaths of Fitawrari Habet Giorgis and Abune Matheos removed serious
obstacles to Ras Tafari and his allies. Ras Tafari took over the lands and troops of the late
war minster and farther strengthened his power.
 In 1927, Ras Tafri obtained the unconditional surrender of one of the powerful opponents
to his power, Dejazmach Balcha Safo, a veteran of Adwa and a governor of Sidam. He
was then made a prisoner, but he later dide fighting against Fascist Italy in 1937.
 Simliary in 1928, Ras Tafari succeeded to get the submission of Dejazmach Abba
Wuqaw, the commander of palace guards, who rebelled in defence of Zewditu. Abba
wuqaw was sentenced to death though this was later changed to life imprisonment.
Menwhile, the supporters of Ras Tafari and above all the Mehal safari demanded that the
heir should be crowned Negus. The empress conceded to this demand and crowned him
in October 1928 with a ceremony attended by foreign diplomata.
The last confrontation of Tafari was with the ex-husband of Empress Zewditu Ras Gugsa wolle,
the governer of Begemidri (1918-30). Though divorced from Zewditu at her coronation, he
contined to get her support and was made governor of Begemidir from 1918-30. The conflict
between Ras Gugsa and Negus Tafari had personal, poltical and economic causes. Neturally Ras
Gugsa had to defend the power of Zewditu, as his own fate was closely related to her stay in
powe. Ras Tafaris plan to centralized the customs of the Metemma trade was the source of their
economic conflict. Eventually the two fough each other. The army of Ras Gugsa was defeated at

33
the battle of Anchim, in Begemidir, on 31 march 1930 by the imperial army. Gugsa himself died
in the battle.
Two days later Empress Zewditu died,Tafari was crowned Emperor Hsile Selassise Ion 2
November 1930. The Dual rule thus came to an end. It was replaced by a monarchy headed by
Haile Selassies as an undisputed autocrat.
3.2. Emergence of Autocracy in Ethiopia 9(1930-35)
The term autocracy refers to a political system in which power has virtually concentrated in the
hand of one ruler. The government of Emperor Haile Selassie was an autocratic state. Haile
Selassie built his government with a highly centralized system of rule. He exercised unlimited
power. The coronation of Ras Tafari Negus by 1928 and Emperor in 1930 marked the beginning
of Haile Selassie,s autocracy. Once he secured virtual control of power, the emperor introduced
many changes and reforms aimed at laying the foundation for an autocratic rule.
The Constitution of 1931
The first written constitution of Ethiopia was introduced in 1931. A constitution is a document
that contains basic laws and principles by which a country is governed. The 1931 constitution
served as a legal basis of the incipient autocratic state. Acording to one of the Emperor,s
speeches of the time, the reasons for its introduction were the need for;
 Regulating the relations between the monarchy and the nobility
 Establishing friendly relations with foreign powers, and
 Keep fair rule and guarantee justics for the people.
These reasons point to a combination of internal and external factors behind the need for the
constitution. Internally, the Emperor wanted to resolve the challenge of regional forces to the
centreal government and the problem of succuession. Externally, he wanted to demonstrate his
interst to modernize the country. The concern for fair justice for people, however, was more of a
white- wash of the constitution than a genuine conviction. Above all, the constitiution was
intended to be a legal instrument of Haile Selassie,s incipient autocratic rule.
The constitiution gave extensive powers to the emperor. He was empowered to;
 Appoint and dismisscivel and military officials,
 Declare or end wars,
 Estabilish a parliament which he could convene or disband at his own will,
 Decide on the size of the army and command it,
 Issue decrees and sign treaties in the absence of parliament.
The constitution reserved the imperial thron only for the family of Haile SelassieIand his
descendants.
The parliament then established had two houses, known as the chamber of senate and the
chamber of Deputies. Members of the parlament were not elected through universal adult
suffrage.The masses of the Ethiopian peoples were not given the right to vote in elrctions.
Instead, the Senators were a ppointed by the emperor from among the nobility,prince, judges,
ministers and other high-ranking civil and military officials. The Deputies were nominated by the

34
nobility and local chiefs. The constitution stated that this was to continued until the Ethiopia
peoples were able to elect members of parlament.
The 1931 constitution greatly reduced the political power of the hereditary nobility of provinces.
However, it still respected their economic privileges, such as the right over tributary lands. They
were not allowed to sign treaties with foreigners, and import arms and decorations without the
permission of the Emperor. The nobility had the obligation of defending the throne and the
constitiution.
The constitution also consisted of the right and duties of citizens. Ethiopians were granted the
right of free movement, security of privet property,appointment to civil and military posts and
due process of law to those accused of crimes before any punishment. Convesely, all Ethiopian
citizens had the obligation of paying government taxes and tributes and of giving military service
when the need arises. Civil right, however, remained on paper. The Ethiopian masses were not
really represented in the parlament set up. The dominant feudal model of production contined to
be highly exploitative. The only beneficiary of the constitution was the ruling class. Most of all
the constitiution was chiefly aimed at legitimizing the autocratic rule of Haile Selassie.
Administration
The emergenent autocratic state adopted a policy of monarchial control over the provinces. The
objective of this policy was to eliminate the possibility of regional challenges to the central
government. It also aimed at establishing complete control over human and material resources of
all provinces in the empire. To this end, local hereditary chiefs were dismissed one after the other
and replaced by loyal appointed officials.
The process of building a strong monarchiacal authority in the modern period begun from as far
back as the 19th century.A more direct control over Wollo was established following the defeat
of Negus Michael in 1916. After the defeat of Ras Gugsa in1930 Begemidir came under the
direct control of the central monarchy, The local dynasties of Gojjam and Jimma lost their
autonomy in 1932, respectivively, The only region that was allowed to continue to be ruled by
descendants of local hereditary chiefs was Tigrai. It was governed by the grandson of Emperor
Yohannis IV, Ras Seyoum Mengesh and Ras Gugsa Araya. Emperor Haile Selassie tried his best
to win loyalty of the Tigrean princes through political marriages.
At the centre, state was commited to the improvemrnt of its bureaucracy and consolidation of
power. To this end, efforts were made at the expansion of modern education in Addis Ababa and
the provinces. Graduates from local schools, and foreign educated Ethiopians were appointed to
different administrative, financial, diplomatic and military posts. Other than Ethiopians, a
number of foreign advisors were also employed in different ministries.
Economy
To revitalize the economy, the incipient autocratic state centralized the financial resources.
Reforms were introduced in the collection of the two major sources of state income- land tax and
tax on goods. Under the new state, land sale became a common practice. In the southern
provinces, the process of land sale farther reduced peasants to landless tenants. The tenants had
to pay rent for cultivating the land which formerly belonged to them. They had no right on the

35
land, and viction from land was common in these regions. The government also encouraged
settlement on uncultivated lands through exemption from tax for some years. This gradually
incrased the size of lands that paid taxes. Finally in 1935, the government began the practice of
collecting fixed taxes in cash at the rate of 30 Maria Theresa talers per gash (40 hectares of land).
Tributes in kind and labor gradually changed to cash payment.
Likewise, the land tax and the income from good tax were centralized. Traditional customs posts
were reduced in number. The government established its own customs posts, at which its own
official were in charge. Rule and regulations were set for the collection of taxes. Customs
officials were regulated and supervised by the central adminsrtationof cusoms and commerce.
Military Reforms
The attempt at creating a national and moder army could be traced back to Emperor Twodros II.
Nonetheless, significant achievements were made, particularly, under the emerging autocratic
state of Hsile Selassies. The eliminatation of regional forces, one after the other, helped Emperor
Haile Selassie to embark upon the creation of a national army. The army could served the
autocratic state as a major force of control over its own people. The state also reorganized
military training. In 1930, the Ethiopian government began the training of the Imperial
Bodyguard were the most privileged ground troops in the country.
In 1934, the first modern military academy for the training of officers eas opened at Holeta
Gennet, on the way to Ambo, the province in shoa. The trainees were recruited from schools to
be trained for three years. Instructors of the officers school came from Sweden. However, the
outbreak of the Italo-Ethiopian war in 1935 soon forced the closure of mis school. In addition to
mis, few young Ethiopians were sent to Europe for advanced military training.
3.3.Socio- Economic Development 1906-1935
Despite the protracted political crisis that emanated from internal power- struggle, the modern
Empire of Ethiopia also saw wide range of socio- economi development, during the first three
decades of the 20th century.
One significant development was urbanization. The process had already began in the last quarter
of the 19th century. During that period, the expanding army of Emperor Menelik established
many garrision centers gradually evolved into Ketemas,(towns). These later grew into provincial
towns.The site was Empress Taytu,s choice. The expansion and development of Addis Ababa
was, however, a post- Adwa phenomenon. Different factors contributed to the development of
Addis Ababa as permanent capital.
The relative peace and internal stability that followed the Adwa victory, encouraged settlement
of different social classes in the capital. Job seekers and foreign nationals, diplomats and
merchants were settled. As the result of this settlement churches, markets and different modern
institutions were established. This contributed to the expansion of Addis Ababa, The completion
of the construction of the Dijbouty- Addis Ababa railway, in 1917, contributed to urban
development. In the provinces crossed by the railway line, a nuber of stations like Dire Dawa,
Miesso, Nazreth (Adama), Modjo and Debre Zeit (Bishoftu) grew into big commercial centers.

36
The introduction of the raiway also brought about the revival of external trade through Dijbouty.
Railway became an important channel for the introduction of foreign technology, ideas and
culture. It also facilitate transportation andefficient administration in the regions along the
railway. The European powers which had colonies adjacent to Ethiopia were all interested in
maintaining and expanding commercial relation with the country. However, a Ethiopia,s external
trade was dominated by foreign merchants consisting of Indians, Greeks, Armenians, and
Syrians.
Some members of the ruling class began to involve in business undertakings such as money
lending, hotel, taxi transport, cinema, banking,etc. These members of the ruling class saw
changes in their way of life. They adopted a new mode of consumption, leisure and easy life.
This eas accompanied by privatization and sale of land cash payment of taxes and tributes, and
accumulation of capital The new transformation worsened the condition of the peasantry more
than ever. The amount of tribute peasants had to pay in cash, kind and labour grew quickly. Land
sale drove away peasants from their own farms, or reduced them to tenancy. Life became
increasingly difficult, particularly, in the newly incoraporated regions of the empire. The state
attempt at the eradication of slave trade and the abolition of corvee labour were continued. Yet
these reforms brought no significant improvement on the life of the common people.
To ensure the efficient administration of the vast Ethiopian empire emphasis was first given to
the import of modern communications technology. Telephone, telegraph and postal services
were introduced before the close of the 19th century.These were followed by the introduction of
the motor car in 1904. The railway and the airplane were introduced in 1917 and 1929
respectively.Bank of Abyssinia was introduced 1905, Menelik IIschool was opened in1908,
Menlik II hospital was established in1910 and different small scale industries and public services
were introduced.Generally, modern technology was not an outcome of indigenous inventions.
The main agents of technical innovation in the country, the craftsmen, were ostracized, looked
down upon and associated with evil spirits and practices by traditional Ethiopian society. There
was no incentive for creativity. Hence, modern technology was totally imported from advanced
countries. Even then, it was only the few urban centers, which benifited from the changes
introduced.
UNIT FOUR
AFRICAN RESISTANCE TO COLONIALISM AND THE
STRUGGLE AGAINST COLONIAL
4.1.The Africans Peoples Resistance Against Colonia Expansion
form the 1870s to 1914
The struggleagainst colonialism bad passed through different stages.Methods of resistance in
different parts of Africa were equally different Resistance to colonialism began early in the
course of European colonial expantion. This military resistance can be called early resistance.
Resistance to colonial expantion was organized by people and states that already existed at the

37
time of colonia conquest, These early resistance were successfully subded by colonialists befor
the outbreak of first world. The struggle for independence from colonial rule in the inter-war
period was the second stage of African resistance against colonialism. The success during this
period was very little.The last and decisive stage came after World War II. This was the stage
which witnessed the emergence of organized national liberation movements that free the
continent from the yoke of colonialism.
Samori Toure of the Mandinka
Samori Toure was one of those leaders in west Africa who set out to build empires a little befor
European colonial conquest in Africa. Several such states were created by Jihads led by local
rulers. Samori Toure emerged as a leader in the 1870s. He built an empire that encompassed ares
in the present state of Senegal, south- eastern Mali and Guinea. He had admirable military skills
and leadership qualities which earned him the praise the Napoleon of west Africa The period of
his empire building coincided with growing European, particularly French, colonial expantion in
West Africa. In1886-7, Samori Tourie had to make peaceful arrangements with the French after
a short military ecounter. Samori Toure acquaied weapons through his trade with coastal towns.
His fellow tribesmen, the Mandinka metal workers were also engaged in manfuctureing and
reparing rifles and muskets for samori. In due course of time, he added new territories to his
former lands. However, his former territories started to be gradually conquered by the French
who now intensified their colonial conquestsbetween 1891 and 1894. Samori Toure fought back
the French for several years Finally a French army succeeded in capturing samori in 1898, and
exiled him to the French colony of Gabon where he died two years later at the age of seventy.
The Ashanti Empire
The Ashanti (Asante )emerged as a nation in life seventeenth century, and were able to build a
large and strong empire by the nineteenth century. Their empire stretched in the area of the
present state of Ghana, in West Africa.The empire was governed by kings who used the title
Asantehene. The British began their colonial venture by annexing a coastal strip of land in what
has later became Ghana.They called it the British Gold coast colony in 1874, of course the coast
was not part of the Ashanti empire. However,the British did not intend to remain pnly on the
coast.
Later in the same year 1874, trying to take the hinterlands, beyond their Gold coast colony, the
British fought against the Ashanti Empire. The Ashanti, who had a well- organized army
defended this British attempt to seize their empire. In 1896, the British made the first military in
1896 and occupied the Ashanti Empire. The second campaign was fought in 1900. The Ashanti
had bravely fought against the British, paid mmense sacrifices,but unable to fend off British,
colonialism. By 1900 the Gold Coast, under the rule of the British, was made up of all the areas
of present- day Ghana.
The Urbi Pasha,s Rebellion in Egypt
Following the opening of the Suze canal in 1899,colonial powers were attracted to this
waterway. Britain was determined to get safe passage for her ships sailing to and from India.
British and French Imperialism dominated Egypt Egyptian finances came under the control of

38
Britain and France, who wanted to collect loans that they had given to Egypt. As the result the
Egyptian government faced financial constrains. It tried to take took several measures to save
government expenditure. The custs in the pay of officers of the Egyptian army was one of the
measures taken by the Egypian governments. Urabi Pasha was a coloneal in the Egyptian army
when British and French imperialism dominated Egypt. The colonel organized a nationalist army
revolt against ritish and Fernch imperialism and the puppet Egyptian rulers. He carried out a
strong war resistance against the imperialists. In 1881, the army of Urbi pasha was finally
defeated at the Battle of Tel El-Kabir by British forces.Thereafter, Britian full colonial control of
Egypt since 1882. The Fench never thought earlier that the British had intended to colonize
Egypt. When British took-over Egypt the French felt chated. Thes became part of the cause of
bitter British- Fernch colonial rivalers in Africa. Furthermore, acting as protector of Egypt,
Britain moved into the Sudan where it had to face another strong resistance organized under the
Mahadist movement. The Mahadist movement had started a war national liberation against
Egyptian ruler in 1881.
The Mahdist Movement in the Sudan
The Mahdi which literally means the one that shows the correct way practicing Islam in the
Sudan began a religious revivalist and anti colonial resistance movement against Egypt in 1881.
The person that came to be known as the Mahdi was Muhammed Ahmed Ibn Abdallah. As the
colonial master of Egypt, Britain took over the Sudanese problem. The Mahdist had defeated the
force of Gordon who had been assigned as a colonial governor in the Sudan. Goron was killed
and beheaded. Some of the Egyptian army in the east was subsequently trapped. It was to help
the safe escape of this army that the British Rear Admiral Hewett signed the Hewett Treaty of
1884 with Emperor Yohannis IV. As you learned in unit three, Sudan achieved independence
until it was invaded again in 1898. This time, it was General Kitchner that led the joint Egyptian
and British forces. Finally, after a heroic resistance under the leadership of Khalifa Abdulallhi
(the successor of the Mahdi) against General Kitchner, the Mahadist were defeated at the battle
of Omdurman in 1898. From 1898 onwardsSudan fell under joint British and Egyptian control.
This joint control was known as the Anglo Egyptian condominium rule. But the real masters of
Sudan were the British.
The Maji Maji Rebellion
In 1885 the sultan of Zanzibar leased the coast to the German East Africa coast. Right from the
start, faced resistance from the local population. One of the early resistance to the Germans in
Zanzibar was led by Bushiri Ibn Salim ( an Arab sugar planter). Bushri organized the resistance
by calling to arms the different ethnic communities there. The Germans tried to overcome this
problem through 600 Sudanese mercenaries recruited from Egypt. The resistance was crushed
and the leader Bushiri was killed in battle in 1889.After their victory on the coast, the Germans
advanced into the interior of the mainland Tanganyika were they met politically disorganized
communities.At the outset they were able to control the region without much difficulty. Germany
declared a protector over the Tanganyika mainland in February 1885.But widespread revolts
scon broke out in 1905. The Maji Maji revolt broke out as a reaction to the oppressive colonial

39
policy of the Germans. The rebellion began when the local people in southern Tanganyika
resisted the attempts of the colonial government to force them into growing cotton for export.
This broad based peasant rebellion later come to be refered to as the Maji Maji revolt. The term
Maji means water, in the Swahili language. As strategy, leaders of the movement gave the revolt
a religious dimension. They claimed that German bullets could be made ineffective when
warriors sprinkle their bodies with Majic wate, people belived them. The Maji Maji revolt
continued to 1907. This mass resistance was brutually suppressed and the Germans continued
with their harrs colonial rule.
4.2 The First World War (1914-1918)
Causes of the First World War
The Rivalry amongImperialist Powers
The Industrial revolution was one of the major causes. As industrial expanded in western Europe
the need for raw materials, many of which were not available in their countries forced them to
look for colonies in backward area of the world.
Nationalism also created tension between France and Germany. France wanted to avenge its
defeat in the Franco- Prussian war of 1870-1871 and to regained its lost province of Alscace and
Lorraine. Balkan nationalism was another source of tention. They struggle to be independent
from the ottoman Turkrks domination.
Crisis preceding war
The Morocacan crisis of 1905 and 1911: In 1904, Britain and France concluded an anti- German
cordiale in which France got a free hand in Morocco and England a free hand in Egypt and the
Sudan.Germany opposed the agreement and side with Morocco against French penetration into
that land. The conflict was resolved by an international conference. Again in 1911, Germany
challenged French claim over Morocco. The disagreement was finally resolved when France
allwed Germany control some parts of the Congo, formerly belonging to France. Then France
was gaive a free hand in Morocco. France then established a protectorate over parts of Morocco
in 1912.
The Balkan Crisis
The Bosnian crisis : Bosnia Herzegovina had been part of the Ottoman Empire. But it was seized
in 1878 and annexed in 1908 by Austro-Hungarian Empire. Serbia, Who claimed the territory
opposed the action bitterly. Enemity cropped up between Serbia and Austro-Hungary. Following
this, the subject nations in the Balkan rose up against the religious and national oppression
imposed by the Ottoman Turks and this led to the Balkan war of 1912 and 1913. The outcome of
the war was that Turkey was ousted almost from the Balkan Peninsula.
Military Alliances
The formation of alliances was another development that added tension on the eve of the First
World War.
Triple Alliance: The Triple Alliance When originally formed in 1882, comprised Germany,
Austro-Hungary and Italy. Later named Central powers, which include Germany. Italy,

40
Austro-Hungary and Ottoman Turkey in 1914. Bulgaria joined the central power in 1915. Italy,
however, left if and joined the Triple entente in 1915.
Triple entente: First Britain and France formed the entente cordiale in 1904. It was transformed
into Triple entente when Russia joined the alliance in 1907. More than twenty countries,
including the USA, Japan, the Union of South Africa, Portugal and Rumania joined the Triple
entente, renamed the Allied power in the course of the First World war.
Owing to the mutual suspicion
European power were engaged in arms race. This was a persistent competition among European
power to get ahead of other in terms of quantity and quality of weapons. Germany had
increasingly built her industrial and military power since 1871. Between 1898 and 1914,
Germany had increasingly built her industrial and military power since 1871. Between 1898 and
1914, Germany had increasingly built her industrial and military power since 1871. Between
1898 and 1914, Germany built a naval power that was able to challenge British naval supremacy.
Mutual suspicion and fear of one another reigned among the nation of Europe.
The assassination of Francis (Franz) Ferdinand at Sarajevo
(Bosnia) was the immediate cause of the First World War.
This was an event triggered the tensions built over the past years to explode. The Austro-
Hungarian Crown Prince (Archduke) Francis Ferdinand was assassinated by Gavrilo Princip, a
Serb nationalist on June 28 1914.It was a direct challenge to the Austro- Hungarian Empire
which reacted by sending an ultimatum to Serbia, demanding that, Serbia stop and Austrian
propaganda and allow Austria to investigate the plot in Serbian that led to the assassination of
Francis Ferdinand.
The Course of the First World War
Russia, in support of Sebia, started mobilization for war from July 31 1914. Germany, Austria,s
ally, declared war on Russia and then on France, When Germany invaded neutral
Belgium,Britain declared war on Germany to help defende France. On August6,1914 Austria-
Hangary declared war on Russia. Thischain of events finaly dragged membersof both military
campes in the war.
The first world war was fought on different front. The front was the most disicive of all fronts.
The Germany followed the Schilieffen plan, which was designed by the Germany chief of staff
Alfred Von Schlieffen some eight years back. It was pland to attak France through Beligium and
occupiedpans within six weeksin a Swining Door opreation.Then to turn east against the
Russians whom they contemptuously assumed to mobilize slowly.According to the plan the
Germans advanced across Belgium into France and were hated on the Massive power not far
from paris.
Contrary to the German expectations, the Russians made rapied mobilization and attached the
Germans.The Germans was forced to trancfer part of their army to estern front. On the western
front, started a protected straggle between France, Britain Belgiim on one side and Germany on
the other. When opposing armies came to a stalement,they dug trenche that run from the

41
EnglishChannel to Switerland. The space between opposing trenches came to be known as No
man,s land where they fought a battle of attrition usingnew modern weapon such as gas, tank and
airplane.
The military balance was changed when, the USA entered the war. Germany,s attack on
commercial ship bound to Englandin the pacific was a major factor for the change.On May
7,1915, the German Submarine (underwater boat) sank a commercial ship and caused of large
number of people including many Americancitizens,In January 1917, the Germansstarted an all
out campaign of sinking ships trading with the Entente powers (Allied powers).USA declared
war on Germany on April 6, 1917.
In 1918,allied forces were reinforced by fresh American troops of two million men.Then the
allied powers started an offensive against the Germans and drove then from French soil. By late
1918, the German High command sued for peace and on November 11, 1918 the Germans ended
hostilities by accepting armistice.
The Consequence of the First World War
Social:-
 About 10 million soldiers lost their lives and over twenty million wounded.
 Millions of civilizations died as a result of hostilities, famine and disease and families
were dislocated.
Economic:-
 The total cost of the war is estimated over s 300 billion
 Distruction of industrial plants bridges and other infrastructure were destructed.
Political;-
 The United State of America and Soviet Union became the leading world powers.
 Three major European dynasties were dethroned:the Hohenzollerns of Germany, the
Hapsburgs of Austria- Hungary and the Romanous of Russia.
 New national states arose in central Europe.
- The Ottoman Turkish Empire disintegrated Turkey became a state, a state in which
the majority of the population was composed of a single Turkish nation.Arab
territories were taken away from Turkey. Arab states became independent later.
- The league of Nations was established to solve international problems and advance
world peace.
Series of peace agreements were concluded at the end of the war. The major peace agreement
was the Treaty of Versailles signed on June 28, 1919, with Germany. According to this treaty,
Germany lost territories in Europe. Her overseas colonies, were divided among the Allies
(chietly Britain and France) as mandates. The American president Woodrow Wilson had
forwarded his fourteen points, to serve as a guide line at the peace settlement. One of his
proposed point, was the right of self-determination for nations. The peace agreements faild to
translate into most of his important proposals for a lasting peace settlement.

42
The victory of World War I divided German colonies among themselves.They were to be given
the status of a mandate. German East Africa to Britain, Rwanda and Burundi to Belgium, South-
West Africa to the Union of South Africa. Cameroons and Togoland were divided between
Britain and France.Samoan Island to New Zealand, New Guinea to Australia, Marshal Islands to
New Zealand, Marshal Island and pacific Island north of the Equator to Japan.The mandatory
powers were entrusted to prepare these colonies for self- government and independence.
The Versailles Treaty put a strict limit on Germany,s military power. The Rhineland, which was
rich in mineral deposits was taken away from Germany and occupied by the Allied troops. It was
decided that the occupation was to last for fifteen years.
The unfair Treaty of Brest- Litovsk which Germany signed with Russia in 1918, was cancelled
and the Germans were obliged to withdraw from Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia and other occupied
territories. Germany was also required to pay large amount of war reparations.
The First World War had a significant impact on the anti- colonial struggle in Africa. Colonial
powers used Africa,s resource and Africans to Support their war efforts in Europe. Many
Africans were recruited as soldiers by their respective colonial rulers and these recruits fought in
Europe and in the Middle East This gave Africans opportunity to further developed their sense of
identity, self –awaereness and feeling of nationalism. These transformations infused the anti-
colonial struggle in Africa with new energy and vigour.
4.3 The Russian Revolution
Causes of the Revolution
Russia had a long history of feudal relations. It was ruled by Czar (Russian Emperor). Since
1613 mmbers of the Romanov Daynasty had been ruling Russia as absolute monarchs.
Autocratic rule had prevaild in much of Russias past The peasants did not own land until 1861.
They had been living as serfs. Conditions only improved in 1861 after Czar Alexander II by his
Edict of Emancipation freed all serfs and allowed some peasants to own land in Russia. Around
1900, there were omly few industries in Russia. The workers then living around Moscow and
petrbgrad (formerly St. petersburg) had to lead their live under difficult working conditions.
There were chains of workers pprotests, but governments did not; respond.
Various other sectors of Russian society were discontented throughout the nineteenth century by
autocratic rule of the Czars. This gave rise to different political groups who worked in secret.
Some liberal groups demanded the replacement of Czarist absolutism by a democratic
parliamentary government. The group called Social Revolutionaries thought that peasants should
rise up, and seize the land of all landlords. Such groups encouraged the peasants to rebel. Of all
these the most radical group was that of the Marxists. This group followed the teaching of Karl
Marx ()1818-1883 . These revolutionaries formed the Russian Social Democratic Labour party
(RSDLP) in 1898. This party was later divided into the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks. The
Bolsheviks (majorty) were led by Lenin,whose real name was Vladmir Ilich Ulyanov. The
Bolsheviks wanted to have a party with small numbers of selected and dedicated members only.
The Mensheviks (minorty) wanted to include all who were supporters of Marxist ideas. The
Bolsheviks were more radical than the Mensheviks. The Mensheviks were rather reformists.

43
 1. What were the basic difference between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks?
In the first two decades of the twentieth century, three revolutions unfolded in Russia
The 1905 Revolution.The prevailing popular discontent was rein forced by other factors. The
defeat of the Russian army in the Russo- Japanese war of 1904-5 precipitated the outbreak of the
Russian Revolution of 1905.On Sunday 21 January 1905, peaceful demonstrators led by preast
Father Gapon and others marched to the Czar,s winter palace to present a petition. Czar Nicolas
II,s troops fired on the peaceful and unarmed demonstrators. Many people were killed. This day
came to be known as Bloody Sunday. This event eradicated the belief of the masses that the Czar
was the Father of the people. Then violent uprisings were staged from 1905-07 discontented
people that are determined to bring about changes. As a result of this popular pressure, Nicolas
agreed to have a Duma (parliament) established. Elections to the Duma were allowed.
However, with the passage of time the electoral laws were changed to allow the landlords and
the rich, instesd of the masses to have more members elected in the parliament. Using his troops,
Nicolas put down all opposition and restricted the power of the Duma. Absolutism continued
until another revolution challenged it once again.
At the outbreak of the first World War in 1914, popular attention was diverted away from
internal discontent to external issuses. Russia sided with the Entente powers. In 1915 Nicholas II
declared himself commander –n- Chief of Russian army.But he was not really an effective
commander.Day to day government affairs were partially left in the hand of Czarina Alexander,
the German wife of Nicolals. She was advivised by a holy man; called Gregory Rasputin (1872-
1916) on important issues including appointments anddismissals of government officials.
Rasputin,s bad behavior made him unpopular and disliked by the people. The state had been run
by incompetent minsters, which showed that how corrupt regime had became.
The Road to the 1917 Revolution
The March Revolution
In December 1916, Rasputin was assassinated by discontented people.Meanwhile, the Russian
army lost battle after battle in the on going first World War.The military losses precipitated the
outbreak of the Revolution. Living conditions in the townsworsened due to food shortage and
inflation. In petrogard, workers went on strikes, and riots become common. Soldiers in
Petrograd. Finally, joined the people of the city. Eventually the Czar was forced on 3 March
1917 Czar Nicholas II was deposed to give up his thron. Then,the rule of the Romanvoy Dynasty
came to an end.
Following the overthrow of the monarch, influential members of the Duma organized a
provisional Government. The new government however faild to meet demands of the people.It
was unable to solve the major problems of the people mainly shortage of food and bringing the
war to an end. The government lost popular support. In the meantime, peasants, workers and
soldiers in petrogard came together and formed Soviets (councils or coordinating bodies). The
BBolsheviks under Lenin, who had jusy returned from exile, demanded that the ineffective
provisional Government be dissolved.

44
TheBolsheviks held the popular slogans of the day, All power to the Soviets, and peace, Land
and Bread,. With these slogans and their organizing skins, the Bolsheviks won popular support in
September 1917 a military take- over was attempted by General Kornilov, the Commander- in
Chief of the Russian Army. Following the failer of this attempt, the Bolsheviks strengthened
their hold in Petrograd and Moscow where the Soviet were strong.
The October 1917 Revolution
The Bolsheviks of the Petrograd Soviets led a popular insurrection beginning from 25 October,
1917.The headquarters of the provisional Government fell into the hand of the Bolsheviks within
ten days. The provisional Government came to an end. The Bolsheviks seized political power.
They established a regime led by premer Lenin and war minster Leo Trotsky. Soon after they
secured state power, the Bolsheviks took the following measure.
 Organized the workers to take over factories and nationalized industry.An eight hour
working day was introduced by law.
 Directed the peasant to seize the noble,s estates by the decree passed in October 1917. It
confiscated the land of landlords and gave to the peasants. This was an important
measure meant to solve the age old agrarian problem.
 The decree on peace (october1917) relieved the soldiers from the war that they were not
willing to fight.Russia formally withdrew from World War I, after signing the Treaty of
Brest- Litovsk with Germany in 1918.
By introducing these and other measures, the Bolsheviks tried to meet the demands of the
people for peace, Land and Bread.
These Blshevik measures were disliked by those who lost their lands, and those who lost their
high offices in government .West European powers feared mat such an upheaval would set a bad
example to their own people The internal enemies of the Revolution, led by the ex-Czarist
officers organized military operations and attacked the revolutionary government. Their forces
were known as the White Armies. A civil war broke out. It lasted until 1922. The Red army of
the revolutionary government succeeded in crushing the rebel forces and saved the revolution.
In order to solve the mounting economic problems, Russia was then facing, the Bolsheviks
introduced the New Economic policy (NEP) in 1921.This policy restored smaller enterprises to
their owners, allowed peasants to sell their grains for profit, and revived commerce.
A new state called the union of Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR) was established in July 1918.A
secret police called Cheka was also organized, in the same year to suppress counter
revolutionaries. Lenin died in 1924 Joseph Stalin came to power after a duel with Leo Trotsky
for supreme power. In 1929, Leo Trotsky was sent into exile. He was assassinated in Mexico in
1940.Between 1928-38 Stalin carried out pruges within the Soviet communist party to strengthen
his totalitarian rule and eliminateoppositions.He introduced series of economic plans, called Five
Year Economic plans. The first of the five year economic plan lasted from 1928-32. All foreign
influence in Russian industry was abolished Industraliization showed rapid progess resulting in
high rate of production. But the process of forceful collectivization of farms faced serious
reaction particularly from the rich farmers (kulaks) and a result Russia faced severe food famine

45
in 1934. In the second Five Yearplan, however, the situation was some what alleviated. The third
five year year plan had just began when Nazi Germany attaked Russia in 1914 by that time
Stalin had already transformed Russia from a backward agricultural nation into a modern
industrial state. This economic strength enabled Russia to gain victory over Nazi Germany in the
second World War.
The Russian Revolution as a whole became an inspiration for those fighting against
oppression.Colonial people of Africa and Asia wre heartened in their anti- colonial struggle by
the successful example of the Russian Revolition. The strengtheining of the USSR. After second
world war changed the international balance of power. The USSR, became a strong supporter of
the national liberation struggle in Africa.
4.4 Anti- colonial Struggle in Africa Between the Two World
Wars
After World War I African struggle for independence against colonial rule gained
momentum.The new forms of struggle against colonialism had regional variations.The self- help
or welfare associations and the political parties of this period, the Wafdists in Egypt and Neo-
Dastur in Tunisia are treated separately were at the forefront of the anti –colonial struggle at this
stage. Africa self- help associations demanded the restoration of the expropriated lands to the
natives. Emergent political parties mobilized Africans national independence. All prepared the
ground for the more determined national liberation movements of the post World War II
Africa.Examples of the different forms of struggle are treated in the following pages.
The Young Kikuyu Association in Kenya
The Kikuyu are one of the largest communities of Kenya.The young Kikuyu Association was a
native association organized by African workers in urban areas and white farmlands. Their
common stand against British colonialism brought Africans together. The British chose the
Kenyan highlands for white settlement. The land formerly belonged to the Kikuyu had been to
white settlers.The Kikuyu became hostile to British colonialism and white settlers.
Moreover, in 1921 white farmers ganed up together in order to cut the pay all their African
workers, by one third. This initiated the Kikuyu to form the Kikuyu Association.The founding
leader of the association was a young telephone worker named Harry Thuku. The association
was formed in order to protect whatever little right the Africans had and to continue the struggle
against British colonial rule.Amajor demand was the return of lands expropriated by white
settlers. The British reacted violently.They took repressive measures, and imprisoned Harry
Thuku, in 1922.
The Bataka Association in Uganda
This was a native association established in the period between the two world Wrs inn Uganda.
Prior to the advent of colonialists to Uganda, there several kingdoms had been formed. Ankole,
Buganda Bunyoro and Toro were the well- known. The name Bataka was dewn from the ancient
history of the people of Buganda. Bataka had been the title used by clan heads that ruled the

46
people of Buganda in ancient times. This was befor the emergence of Buganda kingdom under
the rule of Kabaka s (kings).
In the process of colonization in Buganda Christiantiy and its missionaries played a considerable
role.Evangelization was carried on by European Christian missionaries since the early 1880s.
The missionaries who had been successful in converting court officials faced serious opposition
from the people in 1882. The rebellions were directed against the Kabaka and the missionaries.
However, the Europeanspresence helped to control these rebellions. The British declared a
protectorate over Uganda in 1900. The Buganda were then converted in mass to Christianity.The
Buganda rulers (the Kabaka and his chiefs) became accomplices in consolidating British colonial
were directed against the Kabaka ism in Uganda.
In 1900 here was an agreement between the British and Ugandan chiefs, the Kabaka. By the
agreement the chifes were allwed to represent the people in the colonial assembly as the Lukiko.
In the inter-war period, grop of young and educated Africans began to oppose the Lukiko and the
Governmemt of the protectorate of Uganda. They were both against being represented by the
Kabaka and the chiefs in the Lukiko. The coordinate thie struggle, fromed the Bataka
Association. The Bataka Association was the party of the common people, and became most
prominent, especially in 1947-8.
The Emergence of poltical parties and the Struggle Against Colonial Rule
Anti- colonial struggle guided by political parties had been the experience. In some parts of
Africa After World War I, anti- colonial struggle in some parts of Africa began to be led by
political parties. In South Africa capitalist economic sectors had developed earlier than in the rest
of Africa. Poltical awareness of the workers led to the establishment of political paries to guide
and coordinate their struggle against white minority rule. In South Africa racial discrimination,
minority rule and economic oppression had embittered the black majorty. The African National
Congress (ANC) greatly influenced those works from other parts of Africa that went to South
Africa as migrant labouers. When these labourers returned to their countries, they took with them
the ideas of organized struggle for both democratic rights and independence from colonial rule.
Such was the case, for instance, with those workers that came from Basutoland (Lesotho) and
Swaziland.
In other parts of Africa, political parties were formed with the express purpose of struggle to end
colonial rule. This was true of Nigeria, Egypt and Tunisia.
As early as 1918, a Gold coast lawer. J.E Casely Hayford founded the National Congress of
Britih West Africa which spread to Nigeria in 1920. This congress demanded that Africans
should participate in the government to have a saying in the local affairs.
Following World war I, the EGYTIAN waged a strong anti- colonial opposition against the
British. This was the background to the emergence of an Egyptian nationalist party called the
Wafd . The word lirerally means delegation. In 1919, the wafdist leaders headed by Saad Zaghlil
Pasha led a delegation to the Versaillies peace Conference and demanded Egytian independence.
The British responded by deporting Zaghlul Pasha to Malta, the Mediterranean island colony of
Britshin Pressed by these circumstances the British recognized Egypt,s independence in 1921.

47
However, the British troops did not evacuate Egypt until 1956. Therefore, the wafd party, which
until 1922 had some legal problem with the British, was formally founded n 1923 and continued
to struggle for full independence of Egypt.
In Tunisia , the Neo-Dastur party which was a successor of the Datsur party (which means party
of the constitiution )was formed with the major goal of winning the indepependence of Tuisia
from French colonial rule. It was founded in 1934 under the leadership of Habib Bourgiba (who
later became the first president of independent Tunisia, in 1956.)
One exceptional case was the struggle of the Riff commu

UNIT FIVE
ITALO-ETHIOPIAN WAR (1935-41) AND ITS
AFTERMATH
Italo-Ethiopian Relations, 1906-35
In unit two, you have seen that Ethiopian victory at the Battle of Adwa was the first major blow
to Italian colonialism in Africa. You also saw that the Italo- Ethiopian conflict of 1895/96 had
been wound up with the Addis Ababa peace Treaty of 1896. In that treaty Italy unconditionally
recognized the independence of Ethiopia. Indeed following its defeate at Adawa, international
and domestic crises forced the Italian government to adopt a policy of friendly relations with
Ethiopia. The Italian government renounced its policy of colonial expansion and reduced the
budget for it. Despite these peaceful move, however,colonial ambitions did not totally die out.
Thus, behind the official harmonious Italo- Ethiopian relations, there were signs of revival of
Italian colonial interests in Ethiopia. The first indication was Italy,s plan of building a railway
connecting her cooniaies of Eritrea and Somaliland, as manifested in the Tripartite Treaty of
1906. (see unit two).
The sconde sign of Italy,s growing colonial interest came following her entry into the First
World war on the side of the Entente powers in 1915. It became evident on the 1915 Allied
discussions as to how to redistribute colonial possessions in the event of victory. Italy made it
clear that it,s intention was to take over the colonies of British and French Somaliland as well as
the Bankof Abyssinia and the Djbouti- Addis A baba Railway. In short, Italy made it clear that
it,s intention was to became the supreme colonial power of the Horn of Africa.
However, Britain and France opposed to Italy,s demand and refused to surrender any of their
colonies as well as their capitalist investements in the Horn of Africa.
Thirdly in 1922 Fascists seized power in Italy. The leader of the Fascist part Benito Mussolini
rekindled the idea of an Italian colonial empire in Africa.Fascist leaders wanted to win mass
support by promising to avenge the defeat of Adwa and the restoration of the glory of Roman
Empire to Italy. Italy was under a great financial difficulty after the war and gained none of its
territorial claims at the peac settlement. This provided a new stimulus to the idea of Italian
colonial expantion. Italy,s Fascist government also wanted to divet the attention of its people by

48
entering into a war of expantion in Africa. All these factrrs accentuated Italian aggressive
designs on Ethiopia.
Fourthly, by the 1925 Anglo- Italian Agreement the government of Italy agreed to give a
diplomatic support to Britain,s plan of Building a Dam on Lake Tana.
Yet, Italy made no official moves that openly antagonized Ethiopia in the first three decades of
the 20th century. Italy tried her best to hide her colonial designs by showing friendly gestures
towards Ethiopia, without give up her grand plans.
 Italy gave diplomatic support to Ethiopia membership in the League of nation in 1923.
 Ras Tafari,s European tour of 1924 including an official vist to Italy.
 A Treaty of peace and Friendship was signed in Ausgust 1928 between Ethiopia and
Italy.
 To advance her real plans, Italy used her colonies of Eritea and Somali as bases of
military preparations and subversive activities against Ethiopia. Italians had also sown
seeds of internal division using different individuals or groups who had one another kind
of grievance against Haile Selassies and his government.
They also sought to use class, religious, ethnic and dynastic conflicts in Ethiopia for their own
ends. Indeed, Italians seem to have attained a certain mesure of success through this strategy.
The autocratic state of Haile Selassie had antagonized many hereditary regional rulers like Hailu
of Gojam, Dejazmach Ayalew Biru of Semen, Abba Jobir of Jimma, Dejazmach Haile Selassie
Gugsa of Tigrai and orhers who later became collaborators of Italy.
The Walwal Incident and the Reaction of the League of Nations
Walwal is a place located inside the Ethiopian territory of ogaden.However, by the 1930s
through a process of encroachment the Italians had established illegal control over it. On 5
December, 1934, Italian troops, who were just waiting for a pretext for aggression, opned fire on
an Anglo- Ethiopian Boundary commission passing through the area around the water wells of
walwal escored by Ehiopian troops. This led to an armed clash, in which Italians lost about thirty
soldiers. Ehiopian losses were about three-fold. Nonetheless, Italy demanded that Ehiopia should
apologize and pay reparations. Ethiopia took the matter to the League of Nations seeking
arbitration and justice.
The League of nations failed to give a just solution to the Italo- Ethiopian crisis. The Leagu was
dominated by European powers who themselves were imperialists, owning several colonies each.
Britain and France were instrumental in delaying the agenda. The two countries were, trying
their best not to disappoint Italy for fearing that Italy migh get into an alliance with Germany.
There were already signs of Germany,s intentions to avenge her defeat in world war I. The
poltical atmospheres in Europe were manifesting sings of another world war. Thus, Ethiopia was
left helpess. After a long delay, the League finally imposed sanctions on both Italy and Ethiopia.
The sanctions, however, were nominal and could not stop the aggressor. The league was above
all unable to take a military action against the aggressor.
In the end, the League of nations lacked both the will and the power to give a just decision. It
became incapable of stopping aggressions in Europe and Asi. Encouraged by the diplomatic

49
support from Britian and France and the weakness of the League, Italy invaded Ethiopia, using
the walwal incident as, a pretext.
5.2 The Italo- Ethiopia war of 1935-36
O++

++n 3october 1935 Italian troops crossed the Merab river into Ethiopia and started their war
aggression. Italian invasion came from two directions, in the north from Eritrea and in the south
from Italian Somaliland. Italian military operation in the north was led by Marshal Emilio De
Bono, who after the beginning of the war was replaced by pietro Badoglio. Badoglio led the
highly ruthless phase of the war on the northern front. His troops advanced rapidly into Tigri,
accompanied by air attacks. About three hundred airpolanes were ordered to shower the
internationally autlawed poision gas upon the Ethiopians. In the south, the Italian army ws under
the command of General Radolfo Grazziani. Italians also used about 100 airplaines for air
attacks on this front.
On the Ethiopian side, there was massive response to the mobilization order of the state.
However, Ethiopia,s counter offensive came very late. There were two reasons for the delay.
Firstly,Ethiopia trusted the Legue of Nations and the international community and hoped fair

50
justice. Secondly, Ethiopians wanted to stretch out Italy,s line of supplies by allowing them to
proceed deep into the interior. Ultimately Ethiopian force set out to confront the Italians on both
the northern and southern fronts.
In the north, the Ethiopian army was put under the overall command of Ras Kasa Hailu. It fought
the Italians in three directions.The forces under the Minster of war Ras Mulugeta Yegezu, fought
on the eastern direction at the battle of Amba Aradom. At the centere were the forces of Ras
Kassa and Ras seyoum Mengesh. Ras Imiru Haile Selassie led a force that fought against Italians
in shire, I.e western direction. The Ethiopians won some battles in the western front. However,
they were unable to stop the overall Italian advance.Ethiopi could not withstand Italian aerial
bombardment and poision gas Italians won

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