DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

MODULE-1
Overview of Civil Engineering Systems
Meaning of the word 'civil' is about cities and citizens. Hence virtually
anything under the sky is the scope of civil engineering (engineering is the science
or profession of an engineer. 'Engineer' means a person who designs and
constructs with desired safety and economy.)

Civil engineering aims at providing basic services, facilities, amenities and

needs of the people in urban as well as rural areas for efficient and economical
distribution of the available resources in nature. It also includes general safety,
wellbeing and health of people.

It is the oldest branch of engineering which involves surveys, planning,

designing, construction and maintenance/repairs for any construction project
including supervision for expected quality of materials of construction and
strength, stability, durability through supervision as well as efficient
construction management techniques.

Civil engineering plays a vital role in all other branches of engineering also.
Out of very fundamental human needs (viz. food, shelter, clothing, air, power
supply and water), civil engineering directly or indirectly deals with power
supply, shelter, air, water and food through housing, roads, irrigation
systems, environmental engineering etc.

Advanced instruments and techniques such as digital measurements, Global

Positioning System (G. P. S.), Geographical Information System (G. I.
S) Satellite Remote Sensing are used for least errors, fast work and efficient
resources management.

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Structural Engineering

It is a branch of civil engineering that includes safe and economical design of

structures and structural members as well as connections such as rivets, bolts,
keys, welds, etc.
For a given loading, suitable cross section of members (beams, columns, etc)
can be determined. Structural engineering further includes engineering
mechanics, strength of materials, theory of structures, design of steel and
Reinforced Cement Concrete (R.C.C) structures, etc.
For the given loading, conventional materials as well as alternate/modern
materials are used to get minimum possible size of structural members with
adequate factor of safety viz. prestressed concrete.

Applications:
• Design and erection/construction of structural members as well as
structures, connectors/fixtures with adequate factory of safety and
economy.
• Design of superstructure and substructure (foundation) of a building or
factory shed, etc.
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 • Investigation of failure of a member or structure for assigning
responsibility and for avoiding repetition of the mistakes/causes of
failure.
• Design of steel components and structures including water tanks.
• Design of concrete members, rigid pavements, bridges, etc.

Geotechnical Engineering
It is the civil engineering discipline that deals with study of soil properties and
engineering behaviour of soil under the action of particular loads and moisture
content. It includes soil mechanics, some aspects of geology and foundation
engineering.

Physical properties of soil has great impact on stability and safety of

structures. Particle size, chemical composition, moisture content and swelling-
shrinking of soil are the factors that control bearing capacity of soil which must
be considered for design of foundations, roads, buildings, etc. In general, this
discipline is very close to structural engineering.

Applications:

• Sub-soil exploration i.e. determination of important physical and

engineering properties of soil lying underneath.
• Design and construction of foundations for water structures, buildings
and machines. (Including choice of type of foundation).
• Effective, efficient and economical type of foundation for load transfer
on wider area.

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 • Estimation (determination) of bearing capacity (B.C.) of soil and
improving the B.C.
• Repair/maintenance of foundations (if possible) to avoid failure and/or
settlement.
• Design of retaining dams/embankment walls,
• Ascertaining stability of ground slopes and/or improving the stability to
landslides. Avoid/control
• Improvement in foundation design, type and construction for specific
requirements like atomic power docks/harbours/ports airports,
• Study of sub-soil layers and soil profile for preparing soil maps.
• Advanced studies and applications such as estimation of depth of water
table, ground water, seismic activities, fault/plate movements at
different depths below ground level.
• Design and construction (as well as maintenance) of transportation routes
and allied structures such as bridge, tunnel, shafts, etc.

Construction Technology

It is the discipline (subject) that deals with different types of

constructions/erection of structures with requisite economy, efficiency and factor
of safety. It also includes excavation, erection/construction of foundations and
footing, concreting, finishing, masonry (wall), bridges, tunnels, underground
and underwater constructions with different techniques and modern methods,
construction machinery (automation, earth moving machines, etc.). It takes
care of 'shelter' as fundamental human requirement.

Applications:

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 • Construction management Project management and systematically
completion of a construction work. i.e. systems approach, considering
special requirements for the construction.
• Maximization and optimization of material, labour, money construction
and time required for
• Use of modern and effective methods/techniques (CPM, Bar charts,
PERT, etc.) and construction machines, use of smart and
alternative/composite materials of construction.
• Scheduling and phasing of works for managing the operations and stages
involved in the construction.
• Achieving good quality of work with economy, efficiency and factor of
safety as guiding principles.
• Ensuring expected strength, durability and workmanship of the
constructions, following relevant acts, rules and regulations, byelaws and
specifications regarding construction work and materials of construction.

Hydraulics

Hydraulics is an applied science that studies pipe flows and open channel
flows, dams and irrigation, hydropower, hydrodynamic machines, fluid control
circuitry, etc. Fig. 1.2.13 gives allied branches and general classification of
Mechanics' oriented basic fields.

Applications:

• Determination (measurement) of fluid properties such as density,

viscosity, vapour pressure, etc.
• Control and monitoring of flow of oils, gas/air, water, etc.
• Design of valves, gates.

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 • Design of conveying (distribution) systems for fluids.
• Design of dynamic machines turbines, etc.)
• Design of hydropower system.
• Storm water management.
• Design of streamlined bodies, boats, ships, etc.
• Determination and minimizing energy losses.
• Measurement of fluid flow parameters (velocity, pressure, discharge,
etc.).

Water Resources and Irrigation Engineering

It is another very important discipline of civil engineering that deals with

tapping or storage of water and supplying water cultivation or either for crop
for drinking and other domestic/industrial uses.
Two important basic human needs viz. water and food are taken care of by
irrigation engineering directly and indirectly.
Water as an important and scarce natural resource is in the form of surface
water (run off after rainfall) and sub-surface water (ground water) which is
stored in dams and reservoirs or tapped from wells (open wells, tube wells,
etc.) An irrigation project may be multipurpose. i.e. for water supply as well
as for hydropower generation. Irrigation engineering thus includes estimation
of quality and quantity of water available, its storage and distribution through
open canals or pipe-networks either under gravity or by pumping. Agriculture
mainly depends on irrigation since all areas do not have sufficient rainfall and
water is made available in non-rainy seasons also for cropping. Irrigation
engineering under takes flood control also.

Applications:

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 • Estimation of quality and quantity of surface and subsurface water
available at given places.
• Water supply schemes for cropping, drinking and other purposes.
• Calculations of reservoir capacity, catchment area, command area, etc.
• Design and construction of reservoir and dams.
• Design and construction/laying canals, pipes, pumps and allied
structures such as spillways, gates, weirs-notches, etc.
• Flood control arrangements, diversion works, etc.
• Estimation of water requirement for cropping, (for avoiding excessive use
of water) so that most efficient and economical use of water is made.
• Recommending/providing non-conventional effective techniques such as
drip irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, etc.
• Study and recommendation of cropping pattern/crop rotation for efficient
use of water and higher yield such as inter-cropping, alternate cropping

Transportation Engineering

This is the discipline that deals with study of present (existing) transportation
systems and their improvement for safe, economical and efficient (in less time)
conveyance of materials/goods/finished products as well as human beings and
animals. It includes design, construction and management of roads, railways,
navigation and air-routes. Allied constructions such as tunnels, bridges,
culverts, aqueducts, are also covered in the sub-disciplines such as bridge
engineering, highway engineering, tunnelling, etc.
Traffic management including traffic signals, number of lanes (and width of
roads), parking facilities and curves are also a part of transportation
engineering. Applications of transportation engineering are highlighted by
today's problems of congestion, road accidents, heavy traffic in urban areas
and disaster management (to have effective and efficient transportation of

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people in case of emergency situations such earthquakes, hurricanes, etc.). as
floods, war, Thus it has socio-economic implications for regions and the nation.

Applications:

• Design and construction of different types of roads.

• Traffic management and parking facilities.
• Design and provision of curves and allied structures such as bridge,
culvert, tunnel, ghat-roads.
• Survey, design and provision of different modes of transportation. viz.
airports, railways, roads, ports and harbours, etc.
• Use modern techniques of management to ensure rapid transportation of
people and goods/raw materials/agricultural produce with sufficient
convenience, comfort, economy and safety.
• Avoid heavy traffic through cities/villages by providing bye-
pass/diversion roads, expressway.
• Help the economic growth of regions and country through fast
transportation system.
• Provide durable and strong as well as safe modes of transport and
repair/maintenance with least possible delays and inconvenience.

Significance of various modes of transportation depending on number of users

has following sequence:

(a) Roadways
(b) Railways
(c) Airways
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(d) Navigation (water ways)

Environmental Engineering

This civil engineering discipline deals with study of the natural

environment/ecosystems, inter-relation between biotic and abiotic factors,
safety of people against different types of pollution and treatment-disposal of
wastes.

It includes water supply engineering, sanitary engineering (public health

environmental studies. engineering) and considering the increase in population
and rapid rate of urbanisation, all types of pollution have increased and
health of people is at stake by and large. Hence environmental impact
assessment for industries, and factories control/eradication/prevention of
pollution have become very essential research/development areas for study.

Applications:

1) Measurement (quantification) of pollutants as regards air, water,

radioactive and noise pollution.
2) Water treatment for supplying potable (drinking) water.
3) Waste water treatment design, construction and repair/maintenance of
treatment plant (sewage treatment plant).
4) Research and development for recycling/reusing the mass or energy from
wastes.

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 5) Determining/fixing standards for effluents. 6) Monitoring, control and/or
prevention of different types of pollution.
7) Environmental Impact Assessment/analysis for factories and industries.
8) Conservation and preservation of natural resources and environment
(ecosystems in it)
9) Design, erection/construction and maintenance of water filters and water
supply schemes (pipe lines)
10) Testing and reporting of pollutants such as industrial effluents for
enforcement of relevant Laws/Acts.

Geographical Information system (GIS):

A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer system that
analyses and displays geographically referenced information. It uses data
that is attached to a unique location.
The advantages of using a geographic information system include:

• Improved decision making – decisions are made easier because specific and
detailed information is presented about one or more locations.
• Reduce costs and increase efficiency – especially regarding maintenance
schedules, fleet movements or scheduling timetables.
• Improved communication between any involved organisations or departments
as the visual format is easily understood by all.
• Easy recordkeeping – geographical changes are easily recorded by GIS for
those responsible of recording the changes.
• Managing geographically – knowing what is and will be occurring in a
geographic space in order to plan a course of action.

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 Disadvantages

• GIS technology might be considered as expensive software.

• It as well requires enormous data inputs amount that are needed to be
practical for some other tasks and so the more data that is to put in.
• Since the earth is round and so there would be geographic error that will
increase as you get in a larger scale.
• GIS layers might lead to some costly mistakes once the property agents are
to interpret the GIS map or the design of the engineer around the utility lines
of the GIS.
• There might be failures in initiating or initiating additional effort in order to
fully implement the GIS but there might be large benefits to anticipate as
well.

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 UNIT 2
BUILDING MATERIALS

BRICKS

Brick is a versatile building material that has a long history of use dating
back thousands of years. It is a durable material that has high compressive
strength making it suitable for use in construction and civil engineering
projects as a structural element for a project, including buildings, tunnels,
bridges, walls, floors, archways, chimneys, fireplaces, patios, or sidewalks.
Beyond the mechanical properties of brick, there are also aesthetic appeals to
the material that favor its use in architectural applications.

Many of the earliest forms of brick were unburnt bricks, which are dried
naturally using light from the sun and are also known as sun-dried bricks.
They are generally of lower strength and therefore are not used in modern
construction and civil engineering.

In this article, a review of the common types of brick will be presented,

considering their material formulation, fabrication method, and intended use.
Additionally, the article discusses the advantages of brick versus alternative
materials and highlights some of the physical properties of the material.

Brick characteristics

Brick can be used as facing bricks also called face brick, which means that
the face (the front surface of the brick) is exposed and visible. In cases of
face brick, the appearance of the brick surface must be given consideration,
which may dictate the use of a more expensive class of brick that has few or
no defects and exhibits a desired texture or design style. Backing brick does
not have a visible face and is used as a support system.

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While many bricks are solid, there is perforated brick and hollow brick (also
called cavity brick). Perforated brick and hollow brick are lighter in weight,
require less raw materials to fabricate, and are often used for non-load
bearing applications.

Advantages of Bricks

In construction applications, bricks offer several advantages over alternative

materials that serve the same purpose.

• Brick is a durable material, and can last hundreds or thousands of

years
• Brick is fireproof and can withstand exposure to high temperatures
• Brick offers good noise reduction and sound isolation capabilities
• Brick does not require the application of paints or other finishes for
protection from the environment
• As a modular building component, problems with individual bricks can
be addressed without the need to tear down and rebuild the entire
structure.
• Since clay is available almost everywhere, brick can be fabricated
locally, eliminating the costs associated with their shipment. This can
mean that construction using brick as a material may be less expensive
than with using stone, concrete, or steel.
• Brick is simpler to work with because of its uniformity in size, unlike
stone which needs to be sized and dressed.
• Brick is easy to handle and skilled tradespeople that can construct with
brick are plentiful.

STONE

Stone is an essential and more permanent building material in construction

than other natural building materials. Based on the type, stones can be used

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in buildings for flooring, roofing, masonry, paving roads and also as
aggregates for concrete.

Most of the prehistoric monuments are built with natural stones as they remain
stable with time. Before the advent of concrete, stones were highly preferred for
heavy engineering works like bridge piers, harbour walls, seaside walls, and
for facing works.

Stones for construction purposes are obtained by quarrying from solid massive
rocks. The stones used for masonry construction should be hard, durable, tough,
and should be free from weathered soft patches of material, cracks, and other
defects that are responsible for the reduction of strength and durability

Based on Geology, stones or rocks are classified into three types:

• Igneous Rocks - Basalt, Trap, Andesite, Rhyolite, Diorite, Granite.

• Sedimentary Rocks - Lime stones, Dolomite and Sandstones.

• Metamorphic Rocks - Gneiss, Quartzite, Marble, Slate.

REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD BUILDING STONES

The following are the quality requirements of good building stones:
1. STRENGTH
Generally most of the building stones have high strength to resist the load
coming on it. Therefore it is not of prime concern when it comes to check the
quality of stones. But when the stones are to be used in large structures, it
becomes necessary to check the compressive strength of stones.
Compressive strength of building stones generally fall within the range of 60
to 200N/mm2.
2. DURABILITY

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Building stones should be capable to resist the adverse effects of natural
forces like wind, rain and heat. It must be durable and should not
deteriorate due to the adverse effects of the above natural forces.
3. HARDNESS
When stones are used in floors, pavements or aprons of bridges, they become
subjected to wearing and abrasive forces caused by movement of men or
machine over them. So it is required to test hardness of stone.
Hardness of stone is determined by Mohs scale.
4. TOUGHNESS
Toughness of stones means it ability to resist impact forces. Building stones
should be tough enough to sustain stresses developed due to vibrations. The
vibrations may be due to the machinery mounted over them or due to the loads
moving over them. The stone aggregates used in the road constructions should
be tough.
5. SPECIFIC GRAVITY
The more the specific gravity of stone, the more heavier and stronger the stone
is.
Therefore stones having higher specific gravity values should be used for the
construction of dams, retaining walls, docks and harbors. The specific
gravity of good building stone is between 2.4 and 2.8.
6. POROSITY AND ABSORPTION
Porosity of building stones depend upon the mineral constituent and structural
formation of the parent rock. If stones used in building construction are
porous then rain water can easily enter into the pore spaces and cause
damage to the stones. Therefore building stone should not be porous.

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Water absorption of stone is directly proportional to the porosity of rock. If a
stone is more porous then it will absorb more water and cause more damage to
stone.
In higher altitudes, the freezing of water in pores takes place and it results
into the disintegration of the stone.
Permissible limits of water absorption for some the commonly used building
stones are as follow.

Maximum limit of Water

Type of Stone
Absorption (%)

Sandstone 10

Limestone 10

Granite 1

Shale 10

Slate 1

Quartzite 3

7. DRESSING
Giving required shape to the stone is called dressing. It should be easy to
dress so that the cost of dressing is reduced. However, the care should be
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taken so that, this is not be at the cost of the required strength and the
durability.
8. APPEARANCE
In case of the stones to be used for face works, where appearance is a
primary requirement, its colour and ability to receive polish is an important
factor.
Light colored stones are more preferred than dark colored stones as the colour
are likely to fade out with time.
9. SEASONING
Good stones should be free from the quarry sap. Lateritic stones should not be
used for 6 to 12 months after quarrying. They are allowed to get rid of
quarry sap by the action of nature. This process of removing quarry sap is
called seasoning.
10. WORKABILITY
Stone should be workable. Stone is said to be workable when the work
involved in stone working (such as cutting, dressing & shaping) is economical
and easy to conduct.
11. COST
Cost is an important consideration in selecting a building material.
Proximity of the quarry to building site brings down the cost of transportation
and hence the cost of stones comes down.
12. FIRE RESISTANCE
Stones should be free from calcium carbonate, oxides of iron, and minerals
having different coefficients of thermal expansion. Igneous rock show marked
disintegration principally because of quartz which disintegrates into small
particles at a temperature of about 575°C. Limestone, however, can
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withstand a little higher temperature; i.e. up to 800°C after which they
disintegrate.
WOOD
Wood is one of the most used natural building materials in the world. A
number of valuable properties such as low heat conductivity, small bulk
density, relatively high strength, amenability to mechanical working etc.
makes wood as famous building material. Timber can be used in most
economical way without wasting any of the derivative of it. Even the saw
dust obtained during wood sawing can also be used to make fiber boards,
paper etc. In this article, we are going to discuss about the Classification
and structure of tree and also about the Processing of timber from felling of
tree to preservation of timber.

Types of Trees for Timber Production

The trees are classified into following types based on their mode of growth.

1. Exogenous
2. Endogenous
1. Exogenous
Exogenous trees are outward growing trees. Horizontal section of such tree
contains several rings which are nothing but annual rings. These rings can be
used to predict the age of tree. Most of the exogenous trees are useful for
many engineering purposes. Exogenous trees are sub classified into following
types.

• Conifers
• Deciduous

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Conifers
Conifers are nothing but soft wood producing trees which are also called as
ever green trees. The timber of these trees is light colored, light in weight,
low dense and poor against fire. Examples: Pine, Fir, redwood, spruce,
deodar, cedar etc.
Deciduous
Deciduous trees are hard wood producing trees. The leaves of this type of
trees are generally broad in size and they fall in autumn and grow in spring.
Deciduous trees are most suitable for constructional purposes. Timber of
deciduous trees is dark colored, dense, heaviest and good against fire.
Examples: Maple, Mahogany, Oak, teak, walnut, babul etc.
2. Endogenous
Endogenous trees are inward growing trees which contains fibrous mass in
their longitudinal section. The timber from these trees is useful in some
limited engineering purposes. Examples: bamboo, palm, cane etc.

ALLUMINIUM

Aluminium is widely used in building because of its intrinsic properties of

lightness and corrosion resistance.

Aluminum is used in external facades, roofs and walls, in windows and

doors, in staircases, railings, shelves, and other several applications.

Aluminium in building construction

Thanks to its features, there are many benefits that aluminum offers to the
construction industry:

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• Alloys

Pure aluminum is a low-strength metal and consequently not suitable for

building applications but thanks to the addition of alloying elements such as
copper, manganese, magnesium, zinc etc. and thanks to specific production
processes, it changes its physical and mechanical properties to meet
requirements of a large number of applications.

• Durability

Aluminum alloys for Building are resistant to water, corrosion and immune
to the harmful effects of UV rays, thus ensuring a lasting endurance

• Low maintenance costs

Aluminum does not require any special kind of maintenance, whether it is

raw or lacquered aluminum

• Finishes

Aluminum can be anodized or lacquered in any color, so it’s possible to get

the most varied effects and thus meet the designer’s decorative needs.
Aluminum treatments can increase the durability of the material and its
corrosion resistance

• Reflective properties

Aluminum is widely used for light management: its reflective properties help
to reduce energy consumption for lighting and heating.

For example, it’s possible to reduce the use of air conditioning in summer
season by using aluminum shielding devices.

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• Aluminum is not combustible

Aluminum does not burn and is therefore it’s classified as non-combustible

material (A1 fire reaction class).

Nevertheless, aluminum alloys melt at about 650 ° C, but without releasing

any harmful gases. And so, more and more often, the outer covers and
external surfaces of industrial structures (and not) are made with thin
aluminum panel finishes which are destined to merge only in case of fierce
fire, thus allowing heat and smoke to escape and reducing damage Caused by
the fire.

• Aluminum is eco-friendly

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CEMENT
A cement is a binder substance used for construction that sets, hardens, and
adheres to other materials to bind them together. Cement is one of the most
widely used materials in existence and is only behind water as the planet’s
most-consumed resource. Cement materials can be classified into two distinct
categories: non-hydraulic cement and hydraulic cement according to their
respective setting and hardening mechanisms.

This article discusses the basic functions of the cement, is market potential
and few popular types of cement in use at construction site.

Few of the basic functions of cement are given below.

1. Usage in mortar for plastering and masonry work

2. Used for making joints for drains and pipes.
3. Used for the water tightness of a structure.
4. Used in concrete for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels,
beams, stairs, pillars etc.
5. Used where a hard surface is required for the protection of exposed
surfaces of structures
6. Used for precast pipes manufacturing, piles, fencing posts etc.
7. Used in the construction of important engineering structures such as
bridges, culverts, dams, tunnels, lighthouses etc.
8. Used in the preparation of foundations, watertight floors, footpaths
etc.

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Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
OPCconsists of argillaceous or silicates of alumina (clay and shale) and
Calcareous or calcium carbonate (limestone, chalk, and marl). It is used for
general construction purposes. And masonry works.

Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)

PPC consists of OPC clinker, Gypsum and Pozzolanic Materials. It has
got a varied range of applications such as hydraulic structures, marine
structures, construction near the seashore, dam construction etc. It is also
used in prestressed and post-tensioned concrete members.

Rapid Hardening Cement

When there is a presence of finely grounded Tri-calcium silicate (C3S) in
OPC with higher content, it gains strength more quickly and is called Rapid
Hardening Cement. It’s initial Setting Time 30 minutes and Final Setting
Time 600 minutes. Its application is needed like the construction of
pavement.

Quick Setting Cement

Quick setting cement is composed of Clinker and Aluminium sulphate [in
required proportion]. This kind of cement sets in a very short time. The
initial setting time is 5 minutes and the final setting time is 30 minutes. It
application ranges to various works such as underwater construction,
anchoring or rock bolt mining and tunneling. It is also used in rainy & cold
weather conditions.

Low Heat Cement

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Low Heat Cement composes of tricalcium illuminate and declaim silicate in
[required proportion]. It is a spatial type of cement which produce low heat
of hydration during setting. Some chemical composition of Ordinary
Portland Cement is modified to reduce the heat of hydration. Its application
ranges from construction of dam’s large footing to large raft slabs, and wind
turbine plinths. It is also used for the construction of chemical plants.

AGGREGATES

Aggregates Definition:

Aggregates are coarse particulate rock-like material consisting of a collection

of particles ranging in size from < 0.1 mm to > 50 mm. It includes gravel,
crushed rock, sand, recycled concrete, slag, and synthetic aggregate.

Types of Aggregates

Coarse Aggregate

Coarse-grained aggregates will not pass through a sieve with 4.75 mm

openings

Those particles that are predominantly retained on the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve
and will pass through 3-inch screen, are called coarse aggregate. The coarser
the aggregate, the more economical the mix. Larger pieces offer less surface
area of the particles than an equivalent volume of small pieces. Use of the
largest permissible maximum size of coarse aggregate permits a reduction in
cement and water requirements. Using aggregates larger than the maximum
size of coarse aggregates permitted can result in interlock and form arches or
obstructions within a concrete form. That allows the area below to become a
void, or at best, to become filled with finer particles of sand and cement only
and results in a weakened area.

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For Coarse Aggregates in Roads following properties are desirable:

1. Strength
2. Hardness
3. Toughness
4. Durability
5. Shape of aggregates
6. Adhesion with bitumen

Fine Aggregate

The other type of aggregates are those particles passing the 9.5 mm (3/8 in.)
sieve, almost entirely passing the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve, and predominantly
retained on the 75 µm (No. 200) sieve are called fine aggregate. For
increased workability and for economy as reflected by use of less cement, the
fine aggregate should have a rounded shape. The purpose of the fine aggregate
is to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate and to act as a workability agent.

Properties of Aggregates also has effect on resulting concrete. e.g. variation

in size, grading, texture, shape and strength of aggregates means variation in
the properties of resulting concrete.

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CONCRETE

The Types of Concrete

There are many different types of concrete, some of which can be used for the
same purpose. It depends on the goal you wish to achieve. You can choose the
appropriate form of concrete to accomplish the task.

1. Normal Strength Concrete

This concrete combines all the basic ingredients — concrete, sand and
aggregate — using the 1:2:4 ratio. This produces normal strength concrete.
It takes about 30 to 90 minutes to set, but this is dependent on the weather
conditions at the concrete site and the cement’s properties.
It’s normally used for pavements or buildings that don’t need high tensile
strength. It is not very good for many other structures since it doesn’t
withstand the stresses created by wind loading or vibrations very well.

2. Plain or Ordinary Concrete

This is another concrete that uses the common mix design of 1:2:4 with its
components of cement, sand and aggregates. You can employ it to make
pavement or buildings where there is not a high demand for tensile strength.
It faces the same challenges as normal strength concrete — it doesn’t stand
up very well to vibrations or wind loading. Plain or ordinary concrete is also
used in dam construction. The durability rating of this kind of concrete is
very satisfactory.

Prof. Sumam S B, Department of Civil Engineering, John Institute of Technology 26 | P a g e

3. Reinforced Concrete
This form of concrete is widely used in industry and modern
construction. The strength of reinforced concrete is aided by placing wires,
steel rods or cables in the concrete before it sets. A more familiar name for
these items is rebar. Lately, people have used fibers to reinforce this concrete.
These reinforcements resist tensile forces while the concrete itself helps resist
compressive forces. They create a strong bond and, as a result, the two
materials resist a variety of applied forces. In essence, they become a single
structural element.
Invented in the 19th century, it dramatically changed the construction
industry. Buildings, bridges and roadways rely on reinforced concrete. When
you travel near a construction site, you’re likely to see reinforced concrete with
rebar.

4. Prestressed Concrete
Many large concrete projects use prestressed concrete units. Prestressed
concrete is created using a special technique. Like reinforced concrete, it
includes bars or tendons. But these bars or tendons are stressed before the
actual application of the concrete.
When the concrete is mixed and placed, these bars are placed at each end of
the structural unit where they are used. When the concrete sets, this unit is
put into compression.
This process makes the lower section of the unit stronger against tensile
forces. It requires heavy equipment, however, and skilled labor. Normally,
prestressed units are created and assembled on-site. Prestressed concrete is
used to build bridges, heavy loaded structures or roofs that have long spans.

Prof. Sumam S B, Department of Civil Engineering, John Institute of Technology 27 | P a g e

 5. Precast Concrete
This concrete is created and cast in a factory according to exact
specifications. Precast concrete units are then transported to the site and
assembled.
You frequently see these units transported to worksites as you drive on
highways. Precast concrete is used for:
• Concrete blocks
• Precast walls
• Staircase units
• Poles
The advantage of using precast concrete is its speedy assembly. Since the
units are manufactured in a factory, they are of very high quality.

6. Lightweight Concrete
Lightweight concrete is any kind of concrete that has a density of less
than 1920kg/m3. Lightweight concrete is created by using lightweight
aggregates. Aggregates are ingredients that add to the density of the style of
concrete. These lightweight aggregates include natural materials like scoria or
pumice, artificial materials like clays and expanded shales or processed
materials like vermiculite and perlite. Its most important property is that it
has very low thermal conductivity.
Common uses for lightweight concrete include creating long spanning bridge
decks and building blocks. It can also be used to protect steel structures.

7. High-Density Concrete
High-density concrete has a very specific purpose. It is frequently used in
the construction of atomic power plants. The heavyweight aggregates used in
the creation of high-density concrete help the structure resist radiation.

Prof. Sumam S B, Department of Civil Engineering, John Institute of Technology 28 | P a g e

Crushed rocks are normally used. Barytes, a colorless or white material that
consists of barium sulfate and is the principal ingredient in barium, is the
crushed rock most often employed.

8. Air-Entrained Concrete
Some types of concrete hold billions of microscopic air cells in every cubic
foot. These tiny air pockets relieve the internal pressure on the concrete. They
provide tiny chambers where water can expand when it freezes.
The air is entrained in the concrete by adding various foaming agents such as
alcohols, resins or fatty acids during the mixing process. This must be done
under careful engineering supervision since the concrete is mixed on the job
site. The entrained air adds up to about 3% to 6% of the volume of the
concrete. Almost all concrete used in a freezing environment or where there are
freeze-thaw cycles is air-entrained.

9. Ready-Mix Concrete

Concrete prepared and bathed in a centrally located plant is known as

ready-mix concrete. This concrete is mixed as it is transported to the site in
the familiar cement trucks seen often on roads and highways. Once the trucks
reach the worksite, the cement can be used immediately because it does not
need further treatment. Ready-mix concrete is a specialty concrete that is
mixed based on specifications developed with great precision.
Creating ready-mix concrete requires a centralized location where the concrete
can be prepared. These locations need to be placed at an adjustable distance
from the worksite. If the concrete takes too long to reach the worksite, it will
be of no use. In most cases, the worksite to far from the preparation plant.
Retarding agents are sometimes used to delay how long the concrete takes to
set.

Prof. Sumam S B, Department of Civil Engineering, John Institute of Technology 29 | P a g e

GLASS
PROPERTIES OF GLASS
Transparency: This property allows visual connection with the outside world.
Its transparency can be permanently altered by adding admixtures to the
initial batch mix. By the advent of technology clear glass panels used in
buildings can be made opaque. (Electro chromatic glazing)

U value: The U-value is the measure of how much heat is transferred

through the window. The lower the U-value the better the insulation
properties of the glass– the better it is at keeping the heat or cold out.

Strength: Glass is a brittle material but with the advent of science and
technology, certain laminates and admixtures can increase its modulus of
rupture( ability to resist deformation under load).

Greenhouse effect: The greenhouse effect refers to circumstances where the

short wavelengths of visible light from the sun pass through glass and are
absorbed, but the longer infrared re-radiation from the heated objects are
unable to pass through the glass. This trapping leads to more heating and a
higher resultant temperature.

Workability: It is capable of being worked in many ways. It can be blown,

drawn or pressed. It is possible to obtain glass with diversified properties-
clear, colorless, diffused and stained. Glass can also bewelded by fusion.

Recyclable: Glass is 100% recyclable, cullets (Scraps of broken or waste

glass gathered for re-melting) are used as raw materials in glass
Prof. Sumam S B, Department of Civil Engineering, John Institute of Technology 30 | P a g e
manufacture, as aggregates in concrete construction etc.

Solar heat gain coefficient: It is the fraction of incident solar radiation that
actually enters a building through the entire window assembly as heat gain.

Visible transmittance: Visible transmittance is the fraction of visible light that

comes through the glass.

Energy efficiency and acoustic control: Energy-efficient glazing is the term

used to describe the double glazing or triple glazing use in modern windows in
homes. Unlike the original single glazing or old double glazing, energy-
efficient glazing incorporates coated (low-emissivity) glass to prevent heat
escaping through the windows. The air barrier also enhances acoustic control.

REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE (R.C.C)

RCC is the combination of ordinary concrete with the reinforcement to

increase its compressive and tensile strength to a great extent.

Concrete is a versatile material for modern construction which is prepared by

mixing well-proportioned quantities of cement (even lime in some
cases), sand, crushed rock or gravel, and water.
It has been used from foundations to the rooftops of buildings, in the
construction of highways roads traffic, and hydro-power tunnels, irrigation
canals, drains, and all other conceivable structures.

Prof. Sumam S B, Department of Civil Engineering, John Institute of Technology 31 | P a g e

Purpose of Reinforcement in Concrete.
As you know that, Concrete has a very high compressive strength, but it is
low in tensile strength.
Thus, when only the compressive loads are acting on the concrete surface,
then there is no need of using reinforcement in it.

But where tensile forces are also involved, as in, beams and slabs, there is a
very high risk of its failure when plain concrete is used.

Steel, however, as we know, has a very high tensile strength (and also have
good compressive strength).

Hence, when these two (concrete and steel) are combined together,

a material of construction is obtained that is capable of withstanding all the

three types of forces likely to act upon a structure, i.e., compressive loads,
tensile stresses, and shear forces.

Such a material is known as Reinforced Cement Concrete.

PRESTRESED CONCRETE
Prestressed concrete is a system into which internal stresses are deliberately
induced without any form of external loads to improve its performance. The
internal stresses induced in the concrete structure is used to counteract the
stresses coming from the external load application. Here the concept and
methods in the prestressed concrete system are briefly described.

Need for Prestressing Concrete

The need for prestressing in concrete can be justified by the following issue:

1. Concrete is weak in tension and strong in compression. This is a weak

point of concrete that results in early flexural cracks mainly in flexural
Prof. Sumam S B, Department of Civil Engineering, John Institute of Technology 32 | P a g e
 members like beams and slabs. To prevent this, the concrete is induced
with compressive stress deliberately (prestressing) and this stress
counteracts with the tensile stress the structure is subjected to during
service condition. Hence the chances of flexural cracks are reduced.
2. The pre-compression that is induced as a part of prestressing helps to
enhance the bending capacity, the shear capacity and the torsional
capacity of the flexural members.
3. A compressive prestressing force can be applied concentrically or
eccentrically in the longitudinal direction of the member. This prevents
cracks at critical midspan and supports at service load.
4. A prestressed concrete section behaves elastically.
5. The full capacity of the concrete in compression can be used over entire
depth under full loading in the case of prestressed concrete.

Disadvantages of Prestressed Concrete

1. Higher material costs

2. Prestressing is an added cost
3. Formwork is more complex than for RC (flanged sections, thin webs) –
thus, precast not as ductile as RC

SMART MATERIALS
Smart materials have different properties that can be changed according to
the conditions in a controlled way by external factors, such as temperature,
light, stress, moisture, electric or magnetic fields, pH or chemical
compounds. These are also known as intelligent or responsive materials.

Prof. Sumam S B, Department of Civil Engineering, John Institute of Technology 33 | P a g e

Types of Smart Materials
Electrochromic Materials
These are the materials which alter their light transmission properties when
the voltage is applied to them. They affect the optical colour or opacity of a
surface when a voltage is applied to them and also known as chromophores.

Electrorheological Fluids
These are the materials which are having colloidal suspension that undergoes
changes in the viscosity when they are subjected to an electric field. These are
Fluids which are highly sensitive and respond instantaneously to any change
in the applied electric field. They are used in shock absorbers.

Piezoelectric Materials
These are the materials which possess capability to produce voltage when
surface strain is introduced. These are the materials which undergo
deformation when an electric field is applied across it. When it is integrated
into a structural member, these materials generate an electric field in response
to magnetic forces.

Magnetostrictive Materials
These are the materials which undergo mechanical deformation is proportional
to the square of the electric field, which refers to the material quality of
changing size in response to either magnetic field, and conversely, producing
a voltage when they are stretched. These have been widely used in pumps,
valves and aerospace wind tunnel.

Shape Memory Alloys

These are the materials which possess the ability to regain to some previously
defined shape or size when they are subjected to the suitable thermal changes.
Shape memory alloys have their applications in new civil engineering projects
in the seismic protection of buildings. These are used in civil engineering
projects for repeated absorption of strain energy without permanent
Prof. Sumam S B, Department of Civil Engineering, John Institute of Technology 34 | P a g e
deformation, for obtaining a wide range of the cyclic behaviour and to resist
the fatigue resistance and they are used due to their great durability and
reliability in the long run.

Prof. Sumam S B, Department of Civil Engineering, John Institute of Technology 35 | P a g e