LABORATORY MANUAL

DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

JAYPEE UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

WAKNAGHAT, SOLAN, (H.P)-173234

18B17EC271
Electrical Science Lab

Revised
January 2020
 Electrical Science Lab
COURSE CODE: 18B17EC271
COURSE CREDITS: 1
CORE/ELECTIVE: CORE
L-T-P: 0-0-2

Pre-requisite: None
Course Objectives:
1. The primary objective of this course is to provide a thorough understanding of circuit analysis and
measurement of various electrical parameters.

2. Analysis of a given circuit depending on types of elements - DC analysis, Transient analysis and
Frequency analysis.

3. To acquire hands on experience of conducting various experiments on electrical machines .

Course Outcomes:
Level of
S .No. Course Outcomes
Attainment

Understanding basic electrical sources and measuring devices: Power supply, Familiarity
CO1
Multimeter, CRO/DSO and Function Generator.

Understand the basic working principle of a transformer and the operation of Usages
CO2
electrical machines.

Practical implementation of the fundamental electrical theorems and modeling of Usages

CO3
simple electrical systems.

CO4 Accurate measurement of voltage, current, power and impedance of any circuit. Usages

DC analysis, Transient analysis and Frequency analysis of a given circuit depending Assessment
CO5
on types of elements.

Teamwork skills for working effectively in groups and develop analytical skills to Assessment
CO6
compare experimental results with theoretical concepts.

List of Experiments
S. No Description Hours
1 Introduction to Power supply & Multimeter. 2
To determine the equivalent resistance of a circuit using color code and to verify it
2 2
using a multimeter. To verify Voltage divider and Current divider.
3 To verify Delta to Star and Star to Delta conversion. 2
4 Introduction to DSO& Function Generator. 2
5 To verify Kirchoff’s voltage law (KVL) and Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL). 2
6 To verify Superposition Theorem. 2

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

 7 To verify Norton’s Theorem. 2
8 To verify Thevenin’s Theorem and Maximum Power Transfer Theorem. 2
To study the transient response of series RC circuits using different values and R and
9 2
C.
Determination of frequency response of current in RLC circuit with sinusoidal ac
10 2
input.
11 To determine the turns ratio and polarities of transformer windings. 2
To obtain the equivalent circuit parameters from OC and SC tests, and to estimate
12 2
efficiency & regulation at various loads.
Total Lab hours 24

Suggested Resources:
1. W.H. Hayt, J. E. Kemerlay & S.M. Durbin, “Engineering Circuit Analysis”, Eighth Edition, McGraw
Hill, 2012.
2. Van Valkenburg, “Network Analysis”, Prentice-Hall India, 2001.
3. D.C. Kulshreshtha, “Basic Electrical Engineering”, First Edition, McGraw Hill, 2011.

Evaluation Scheme:

1 Mid Sem. Evaluation 20 Marks

2 End Sem. Evaluation 20 Marks

3 Attendance 15 Marks

4 Lab Assessment 45 Marks

Total 100 marks

Course Outcomes (COs) contribution to the Program Outcomes (POs)

PO PO1
CO/PO PO1 PO2 PO3 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO11 PO12 Average
4 0
CO1 3 3 3 2 2 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 1.92
CO2 3 3 3 2 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.83
CO3 3 3 2 3 2 3 2 1 1 1 2 1 2.00
CO4 3 3 3 2 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.83
CO5 3 2 3 3 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.83
C06 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2.42
Averag
3.00 2.83 2.83 2.50 2.50 2.17 1.67 1.33 1.17 1.17 1.33 1.17
e

2
JAYPEE UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, WAKNAGHAT, SOLAN (H.P.)
 EXPERIMENT 1
Aim: Introduction to Power supply & Multimeter.

Theory:

DC Power Supply:

It is easy to use, low power, multi output general purpose laboratory supply (Figure 1.1). It is
suitable for experimental set-ups, circuit development and low voltage applications. The power
supply delivers three dc outputs:

● 0-32V dc output, continuously variable, with 2 Amps

capacity. This section is provided with panel meters
to monitor output voltage and current separately.
● 5V preset dc output with 5Amps capacity. A built-in
over voltage protection circuit offers protection to the
loads against over voltage.
● ±15V preset dc output with 500mA capacity.

All the outputs are floating ( i.e. neither any of + ve or –

ve output terminals nor any point within the regulator
circuitry is connected to ground). The power supply is
designed to operate satisfactorily in ambient temperature
of up to 50°C and full power can be drawn if free air
Figure 1.1: Power Supply
circulation is allowed. The unit works on main supply of 230V ac at 50 Hz.

Regulated Power Supply – Working, Circuit Diagram and Applications

We know that there are different types of electrical & electronic circuits which use a DC power
supply. Universally, we cannot use the DC batteries due to expensive as well as require
replacement when discharged. In this situation, we require a circuit which can change AC
supply to DC supply. A rectifier filter circuit includes a normal DC power supply. The normal
DC power supply o/p remains stable if the load is constant. Although in several electronic
circuits it is extremely significant to maintain the DC power supply constant irrespective of
alternative AC supply. Otherwise, the circuit will get damage. To overcome this problem,
voltage regulating devices can be used. So, the blend of the voltage regulating devices by the
normal dc power supply is named as DC regulated power supply. This is an electrical device,
used to generate the steady DC supply irrespective of alternative AC supply.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

What is Regulated Power Supply?

The IC Regulated power supply (RPS) is one kind of electronic circuit, designed to provide the
stable DC voltage of fixed value across load terminals irrespective of load variations. The main
function of the regulated power supply is to convert an unregulated alternating current (AC) to a
steady direct current (DC). The RPS is used to confirm that if the input changes then the output
will be stable. This power supply is also called a linear power supply, and this will allow an AC
input as well as provides steady DC output. (Figure 1.2)

IC 7805

Output 5V
Figure 1.2: Regulated Power Supply Circuit

Block Diagram of Regulated Power Supply

The block diagram of a regulated power supply mainly includes a step-down transformer, a
rectifier, a DC filter, and a regulator (Figure 1.3). The Construction & working of a regulated
power supply is discussed below.

Figure 1.3: Regulated Power Supply Block Diagram

Transformer and AC Supply

A power supply can be used for providing the necessary amount of power at the precise voltage
from the main source like a battery. A transformer alters the AC mains voltage toward a
necessary value and the main function of this is to step up and step down the voltage. For
instance, a step-down transformer is used in a transistor radio, and a step-up transformer is used
in a CRT. Transformer gives separation from the power-line, and must be used even as any
modify within voltage is not required.

4
JAYPEE UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, WAKNAGHAT, SOLAN (H.P.)
Rectifier

A rectifier is a device that converts an oscillating two-directional alternating current (AC) into a
single-directional direct current (DC).

Filter

The purpose of power supply filters is to smooth out the ripple contained in the pulses of DC
obtained from the rectifier circuit while increasing the average output voltage or current.

Voltage Regulator

A voltage regulator in the regulated power supply is essential for keeping a steady DC output
voltage by supplying load regulation as well as line regulation. For this reason, we can employ
regulators like a Zener, transistorized, otherwise 3-terminal integrated regulators. An SMPS-
switched mode power supply can be used for supplying huge load current by small power
dissipation within the series pass transistor.

Applications of Regulated Power Supply

The applications of the regulated power supply include the following.

A regulated power supply (RPS) is an embedded circuit, used to convert unregulated alternating
current into a stable direct current by using a rectifier. The main function of this is to supply a
constant voltage to a circuit that should be functioned in a particular power supply limit.

● Mobile phone chargers

● Regulated power supplies in different appliances
● Various oscillators & amplifiers

Thus, this is all about a regulated power supply (RPS). From the above information, finally, we
can conclude that an RPS changes unregulated alternating current to a stable direct current. A
regulated DC power supply is also named as a linear power supply. This supply will allow an
AC input as well as provides a stable DC o/p.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Digital Multi-Meter:

The digital multi-meter measures voltage, current and

resistance. There are separate settings for measuring AC
and DC values. If you examine the soft-key pad on the
lower left of the multi-meter, you will find primary
functions in black and alternate functions in blue. The
alternate functions are accessed by pressing the shift soft-
key and then the function soft-key. For example, to
measure DC voltage, you press the DC V soft-key. To
measure DC current, press the shift soft-key followed by
DC, which is the same soft-key used for DC voltage.
(Figure 1.4)

The multi-meter also has the capability of measuring other quantities such as the frequency of
periodic waveforms. There are three vertically aligned holes (banana jacks) in the multi-meter
Figure
located at the top right of the meter front panel. To measure voltage, 1.4:the
place Digital Multi-Meter
positive terminal
in the top hole, with the negative terminal in the center hole. The top hole is labeled Hi in red
and V in black. To measure current, place the positive terminal (the terminal at which current
enters the multi-meter) in the bottom hole (labeled in red as I), and the other terminal in the
enter hole. Other than that, the operation of the digital multi-meter is almost entirely automatic,
simply set the multi-meter to the type of measurement you wish to make by pressing the button
labeled voltage, current, etc. and read the value from the display.

Precautions:

1. Be careful with the DC power supply leads.

2. Avoid letting them touch at all times. When they touch, a short circuit is formed.
3. Consider what would happen if you shorted the wall socket, or a car battery!
4. Short circuits can be dangerous; care should be taken to avoid them.

Project Board (Bread Board):

Product Description: This project board has unique features; the bread boards are mounted on a
laminated bakelite sheet fixed on a wooden frame for convenient working. In the following
configuration.

1. 384, Groups of 5, connected terminals.

2. 24, Bus of 5, connected terminals.

6
JAYPEE UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, WAKNAGHAT, SOLAN (H.P.)
 These project boards are specially designed for assembly experimental circuit in the
laboratories,during practicals. These are proved excellent device for solderless assembly of
Electronics circuit.(Figure 1.5)

Bread board: Figure 1.5: Project Board

The breadboard, used for circuit assembly, appears as a symmetrical arrangement of holes (see
Figure 1.6). Unseen are metal strips located beneath the proto-board holes, which connect rows
or columns of these holes.

Figure 1.6: Breadboard

Electrical components are mounted on the proto-board. Wires are used to connect sources
and decade boxes with the internal wiring of the proto-board to make a complete circuit.
Only no. 22 wires may be inserted into the bread-board. Wires should be stripped no more
than ¼" before insertion into the board to avoid the possibility of short circuits during
circuit construction. Likewise, resistors should be inserted no more than ¼" into the bread-
board. Since resistors will be used again, the ends of resistors should not be cut off.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

 EXPERIMENT 2

Aim: To determine the equivalent resistance of a circuit using colour code and to verify it
using a multi-meter. To verify Voltage divider and Current divider rule.

Components Required: Resistors, Multi-meter, Bread Board, DC Power Supply,

Connecting Wires.

Activity-1: To determine the equivalent resistance of a circuit using colour code and to
verify it using a multi-meter.

Resistors: Resistors are cylindrical shaped components with leads at either end. The
resistance in ohms (Ω) associated with the resistor is specified by a colour code (see Figure 2.1)
in the form of bands painted on the body of the resistor.

1. The first band is located nearest the end of the resistor, and specifies the first significant
digit of the resistance.
2. The second band specifies the second significant digit.
3. The third band tells the power of the ten by which the two-digit number is multiplied to
obtain the resistor value.
4. The fourth band indicates the tolerance.

8
JAYPEE UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, WAKNAGHAT, SOLAN (H.P.)
 Figure 2.1: Resistance Colour Code

Circuit Diagram:

R1 R4

R3
A B

R2 R5
Figure 2.2: Parallel-Series Resistance Circuit

Procedure:

1. Take 5 different resistances. Note down the colours of the bands on these resistances.
2. Using Figure 2.1, determine the values of these resistances.
3. Measure the values of these resistances using a multi-meter.
4. Mount the circuit as shown in figure 2.2on the bread board.
5. Determine the equivalent resistance of the circuit between terminals A and B
theoretically and verify using a multi-meter.

Observation:
Value as per colour Value measured
Resistance Colour code
code using Multi-meter

R1

R2

R3

R4

R5

Results& Discussion:

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Activity-2: To verify Voltage divider and Current divider rule.

Voltage divider Rule: In a series circuit, in which the same current flows through all of the
components, the total resistance is equal to the sum of the resistance of each of the resistors. In
addition, the sum of individual voltage drops across each resistor is equal to the total voltage
applied to the circuit. This is often referred to as Kirchoff’s Voltage Law.

According to Ohm’s law, if the voltage is constant and the resistance is changed, the current
must change as well.

To derive the Voltage Divider Rule for, series circuit, we begin with Ohm’s law:

V =IR (1)

V =IR According to Kirchoff’s Voltage Law-in accordance with Ohm’s Law-there are two
distinct voltages that vary according to two distinct resistances in series. Equations 2 and 3
show this relationship.

V R 1=I R1 (2)

VS +

+
R1
VR1

I -
VO

+
R2
VR2
I
-
-

Figure 2.3: Voltage Divider

V R 2=I R2 (3)

From Kirchoff’s Voltage Law, we can know that the sum of each individual voltage is
equivalent to the total voltage of the circuit (Equation 4). From these three equations, we can
then make a series of algebraic calculations to determine the Voltage divider rule.

10
JAYPEE UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, WAKNAGHAT, SOLAN (H.P.)
 V S ¿ V R 1 +V R 2 (4)

V S =( R1 + R2 ) I (5)

VS
I= (6)
R 1+ R 2

Thus,

VS
V out =V R 2=R 2 (7)
R1 + R2

Similarly,

VS
V out =V R 1=R 1 (8)
R1 + R2

By taking the suitable values of R1 and R2, voltage divider rule can be easily verified.VR1

Observation Table:
S. R1 R2 VR1,(using VR2(using VR1(Theoretically VR2(Theoretically
No. Multi-meter) Multi-meter) using voltage divider using voltage divider
rule) rule)
1
2
3
4

Current Divider Rule:

When current flows through more than one parallel path, each of the paths shares a definite
portion of the total current depending upon the impedance of that path. The definite portion of
total current shared by any of the parallel paths can easily be calculated if the impedance of
that path and the equivalent resistance of the parallel system are known to us. The rule or
formula derived from these known impedances to know the portion of total current through any
parallel path is known as current division rule.

This rule finds application when we have to find the current passing through each impedance
when these are connected in parallel. Let us say, two impedances Z1 and Z2 are connected in
parallel as shown in figure 2.4.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

 Z1

IAI I1
I2

Z2
Figure 2.4: Current Divider

A current I pass and is being divided into I1 and I2 at the junction of these two impedances as
shown. I1 and I2 pass through Z1 and Z2 respectively. Our aim is to determine I1 and I2 in terms
of I, Z1 and Z2. As Z1 and Z2 are connected in parallel, voltage drop across each will be same.

Hence, we can write

I 1 Z 1=Z 2 I 2 (9)

Also applying Kirchoff’s current law at junction, we get

I =I 1+ I 2 (10)
We have two equations and can determine I1 and I2.
From (9), we have

I 1 Z1
I 2= (11)
Z2

Putting this in (10), we get

[ ]
I =I 1 1+
Z1
Z2
(12)

Or,
I
I 1=
Z1 (13)
1+
Z2
Or,
I Z2
I 1= (14)
Z 1+ Z 2
We have,

12
JAYPEE UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, WAKNAGHAT, SOLAN (H.P.)
 I 1 Z1
I 2= (15)
Z2
Putting value of I1, we get

I Z2 Z1 I Z1
I 2= × = (16)
Z 1 +Z 2 Z 2 Z1 + Z 2

Thus, we can determine I1 and I2 in terms of I, Z1, Z2. Therefore, the current division rule can be
stated as follows: Suppose, we have to determine the current I1.

The rule is:

Total Current
I 1= × Impedance through which current is not determind
∑ of impedances
Applying this rule, we get

I Z2 I Z1
I 1= ∧I 2=
Z 1+ Z 2 Z 1+ Z 2

By taking the suitable values of Z1 and Z2, current divider rule can be easily verified.

Observation Table:
S. No. Z1 Z2 I1(Z1), I2(Z2), (using Multi- I1(Z1), I2(Z2) (practically using
meter) current divider rule)

1
2
3
4

Procedure:

1. Take resistances. Note down the colours of the bands on these resistances.
2. Using figure 2.1, determine the values of these resistances.
3. Measure the values of these resistances using a multi-meter.
4. Mount the circuit as shown in figure 2.4on the bread board.

Precautions:

1. Care should be taken that low value resistances are not connected across the circuit.
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
 2. Ammeter should be connected in series and voltmeter should be connected in parallel.
3. Take care to use the proper polarity when measuring voltage and current.

Results& Discussion:

14
JAYPEE UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, WAKNAGHAT, SOLAN (H.P.)
 EXPERIMENT 3

Aim: To verify Delta to Star and Star to Delta conversion.

Components Required: Resistor, Digital Multi-meter, Regulated DC Power Supply (0-

32V), Bread Board.

Theory: Star-Delta Transformations and Delta-Star Transformations allow us to convert

impedances connected together in a 3-phase configuration from one type of connection to
another. We can now solve simple series, parallel or bridge type resistive networks using
Kirchhoff´s Circuit Laws, mesh current analysis or nodal voltage analysis techniques, however
in a balanced 3-phase circuit we can use different mathematical techniques to simplify the
analysis of the circuit and thereby reduce the amount of math’s involved. Standard 3-phase
circuits or networks take on two major forms with names that represent the way in which the
resistances are connected, a Star connected network which has the symbol of the letter, Υ (wye)
and a Delta connected network which has the symbol of a triangle, Δ (delta).

If a 3-phase, 3-wire supply or even a 3-phase load is connected in one type of configuration, it
can be easily transformed or changed it into an equivalent configuration of the other type by
using either the Star Delta Transformation or Delta Star Transformation process. A resistive
network consisting of three impedances can be connected together to form a T or “Tee”
configuration but the network can also be redrawn to form a Star or Υ type network as shown
below.

Delta Star Transformation:

To convert a delta network to an equivalent star network, we need to derive a transformation

formula for equating the various resistors to each other between the various terminals.

Delta to Star Network:

Figure3.1: Delta to Star Conversion

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Compare the resistances between terminals1 and 2.
P+Q = A in Parallel with (B+C)
A( B+C )
P+Q=
A + B+C
(1)
Resistance between the terminals 2 and 3.
Q+R = C in parallel with (A+B)
C ( A + B)
Q+ R=
A+ B+C
(2)
Resistance between the terminals 1 and 3
P+R =B in parallel with (A+C)
B( A+C )
P+ R=
A+ B+C
(3)
Now, subtracting equation 2 from equation 3 and represented as follows:

BA+CB CA+CB
P−Q= −
A +B+ C A + B+C

BA−CA
P−Q=
A +B+ C
(4)
With the help of equation (1) and equation (4)
AB+ AC BA−CA
( P+Q)+( P−Q )= +
A +B+ C A+ B+C

Final equation for resistor P is given as:

AB
P=
A+ B+C

Then to summarize a little about the above maths, we can now say that resistor P in a Star
network can be found as Equation 1 plus (Equation 3 minus Equation 2). Similarly, to find
resistor Qin a star network, is equation 2 plus the result of (equation 1 minus equation 3) and
this gives us the transformation of Q as:

AC
Q=
A+ B+C

16
JAYPEE UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, WAKNAGHAT, SOLAN (H.P.)
and again, to find resistor R in a Star network, is equation 3 plus the result of equation 2 minus
equation 1 and this gives us the transformation of R as:

BC
R=
A+ B+C

When converting a delta network into a star network the denominators of all of the
transformation formulas are the same: A + B + C, and which is the sum of all the delta
resistances. Then to convert any delta connected network to an equivalent star network we can
summarize the above transformation equations as:

AB AC BC
P= Q= R=
A+ B+C A+ B+C A+ B+C
, ,

Star to Delta Transformation:

Figure 3.2: Star to Delta Conversion

The value of the resistor on any one side of the delta, Δ network is the sum of all the two-
product combinations of resistors in the star network divide by the star resistor located “directly
opposite” the delta resistor being found. For example, resistor A is given as:

PQ +QR + RP B= PQ+QR +RP PQ +QR + RP

A= C=
R , Q , P

Procedure:

1. Take three resistances and determine their value using colour code and verify using
Multi-meter
2. Connect the circuit on the bread board as shown in the figure 3.1 and 3.2.
3. Name the nodes and find the corresponding output values of resistance of the circuit.
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
 18
JAYPEE UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, WAKNAGHAT, SOLAN (H.P.)
Observations:

Delta to Star Conversion:

S. No. Practical Resistance In Delta Network In Star Network

value b/w the Node

1. Resistance b/w 1-2

2. Resistance b/w 2-3

3. Resistance b/w 3-1

Star to Delta Conversion:

S. No. Practical Resistance In Star Network In Delta Network

value b/w the Node

1. Resistance b/w 1-2

2. Resistance b/w 2-3

3. Resistance b/w 3-1

Examples: Delta – Star

Q.1 Convert the following Delta Resistive Network into an equivalent Star Network.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Answer:

AB
P=
A+ B+C = 4.61 Ω

AC
Q=
A+ B+C = 12.31 Ω

BC
R=
A+ B+C = 18.46 Ω

Star – Delta:

Q.1 Convert the following Star Network into an equivalent Delta Resistive Network.

Answer:

PQ +QR + RP
A=
R = 780Ω

PQ+QR +RP
B=
Q = 260 Ω
PQ +QR + RP
C=
P = 312 Ω

20
JAYPEE UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, WAKNAGHAT, SOLAN (H.P.)
 EXPERIMENT4

Aim: Introduction to DSO & Function Generator.

Apparatus Required: DSO, Function Generator.

Theory: A digital storage oscilloscope (often abbreviated DSO) is an oscilloscope which

stores and analyses the signal digitally rather than using analog techniques. It is now the most
common type of oscilloscope in use because of the advanced trigger, storage, display and
measurement features which it typically provides.

Digital Storage Oscilloscope:

Front Pane:

Figure 4.1: Front panel view of DSO

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

The functioning of various switches in the front panel of Figure 4.1 is as following:-
Table 4.1

Switch Name Function of switch

LCD display TFT colour, 320 x234 resolution, wide angle view
Display
LCD display
Function keys:F1 (top) to Activates the functions which appear in the left side of the LCD
F5 (bottom) display
Increases or decreases values and moves to the next or previous
Variable knob
parameter
Display key Configures the display settings
Acquire key Configures the acquisition mode
Cursor key Runs cursor measurements
Configures the Hardcopy function, shows the system status,
Utility key selects the menu language, runs the self-calibration, configures
the probe compensation signal, and selects the USB host type
Help key Shows the Help contents on the display
Automatically configures the horizontal, vertical, and trigger
Auto-set key
settings according to the input signal
Measure key Configures and runs automatic measurements
Save/Recall key Saves and recalls images, waveforms, or panel settings
Hardcopy key Stores images, waveforms, or panel settings to USB
Run/Stop key Runs or stops triggering
Trigger level knob Sets the trigger level

Trigger menu key Configures the trigger settings

SINGLE TRIGGRING
Selects the single triggering mode
key
Acquires the input signal once regardless of the trigger
Trigger force key
conditional the time
Horizontal menu Configures the horizontal view Key
Horizontal position knob Moves the waveform horizontally
TIME/DIV knob Selects the horizontal scale
Vertical position knob Moves the waveform vertically
Configures the vertical scale and coupling mode for each
CH1/CH2 key
channel
22
JAYPEE UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, WAKNAGHAT, SOLAN (H.P.)
 VOLTS/DIV knob Selects the vertical scale
Accepts input signals: 1MΩ±2% input impedance, BNC
Input terminal
terminal.
Ground terminal Accepts the DUT ground lead to achieve a common ground
MATH key Performs math operations
Facilitates transferring waveform data, display images, and
USB port
panel settings
Probe Compensation Outputs a 2Vp-p, square signal for compensating the probe or
output demonstration
External trigger input Accepts an external trigger signal
Power switch Powers the oscilloscope on or off

Function Generator:

A function generator is usually a piece of electronic test equipment or software used to generate
different types of electrical wave forms over a wide range of frequencies. Some of the most
common waveforms produced by the function generator are the sine wave, square wave,
triangular wave and saw-tooth shapes. These waveforms can be either repetitive or single-shot
(which requires an internal or external trigger source).Integrated circuits used to generate
waveforms may also be described as function generator ICs.

In addition to producing sine waves, function generators may typically produce other repetitive
waveforms including saw-tooth and triangular waveforms, square waves, and pulses. Another
feature included on many function generators is the ability to add a DC offset.

Although function generators cover both audio and RF frequencies, they are usually not suitable
for applications that need low distortion or stable frequency signals. When those traits are
required, other signal generators would be more appropriate.

Some function generators can be phase-locked to an external signal source (which may be a
frequency reference) or another function generator.

Function generators are used in the development, test and repair of electronic equipment. For
example, they may be used as a signal source to test amplifiers or to introduce an error signal
into a control loop. Function generators are primarily used for working with analog circuits,
related pulse generators are primarily used for working with digital circuits. The view of
function generator is shown in figure 2.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Front panel of Function Generator:

Figure 4.2: Front panel view of Function Generator

The functioning of various switches in the front panel of Figure 4.2 is as following:

Table 4.2

Switch Name Function of switch

7 segment LED Main Display Shows frequency and voltage

TTL indicator Indicates that the TTL output is enabled.

Waveform indicator Indicates the waveform shape: Sine, Square, and Triangle

Frequency indicator Indicates the output frequency: MHz, kHz, or Hz

Voltage indicator Indicates Voltage unit: mV, or V. For voltage Measurement detail.

-40dB indicator Indicates −40dB attenuation is activated

24
JAYPEE UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, WAKNAGHAT, SOLAN (H.P.)
Waveform key Selects the waveform: sine, square, and triangle. For details,

TTL activation Activates TTL output. For details

Numerical keys Specifies frequency

Frequency unit selection Specifies the frequency unit: MHz, kHz, or Hz.

Cursor selection Moves the cursor (frequency editing point) left or right

−40dB attenuation Attenuates amplitude by −40dB. For details

Frequency /Voltage display
Switches the display between frequency and voltage
selection
Selects the 2nd function associated to the entry keys. The LED
Shift key
lights when Shift is activated.

Output On/Off Key Turns the output On/Off. The LED lights when the output is On.

Frequency editing knob Increases (right turn) or decreases (left turn) the frequency
Outputs sine, square, and triangle waveform. BNC, 50Ω output
Main output
impedance
TTL output Outputs TTL output waveform, BNC terminal. For TTL mode

Sets the sine/square/triangle waveform amplitude. Turn left

Amplitude Control
(decrease) or right (increase)
When pulled out, sets the DC offset level for sine/square/triangle
DC offset Control waveform. Turn left (decrease) or right (increase). The range is
−5V ~ +5V, in 50Ω load
Duty Cycle Control When pulled out, sets the square / TTL wave Duty Cycle

Power Switch Turn the main power ON/OFF

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

 EXPERIMENT 5

Aim: To Verify Kirchoff’s Voltage Law and Verification of the Kirchoff’s Current Law.

Acitvity-1: To Verify Kirchoff’s Voltage Law.

Components Required: Resistor,Digital Multi-meter,DC Power Supply (0-32V),Bread

board, Connecting Wires.

Theory: In any closed loop of an electric network, the algebraic sum of all EMF and the entire
voltage drop is zero i.e. in the closed loop of any electrical circuit the algebraic sum of total
voltage source present in the circuit and the voltage drop across various resistances is zero.It
can be given by the equation

❑ ❑
∑ EMF +∑ IR=0
❑ ❑

This theorem is applicable to linear circuits only.

Circuit diagram:

A R1 B R2 C R3 D

20V R4 R5 R6

E F G H
Figure5.1: Kirchoff’s Voltage Law

Procedure:

1. Take six resistances and determine their value using colour code and verify using
Multi-meter.
2. Connect the circuit on the bread board as shown in the figure 5.1
3. Power supply of 20 volts should be applied across the circuit.
4. Name the nodes and select one loop, say ABEF.
5. Calculate the voltage across the resistances in this loop with the help of multi-meter.

26
JAYPEE UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, WAKNAGHAT, SOLAN (H.P.)
 6. Find the algebraic sum of the voltages in this loop.
7. Repeat for other loops in the circuit.
8. If the algebraic sum of EMFs in the loops equals zero, the theory is verified.

Precautions:

1. Care should be taken that low value resistances are not connected across the circuit.
2. Ammeter should be connected in series and voltmeter should be connected in
parallel.
3. Take care to use the proper polarity when measuring voltage and current.

Observations: Resistance Values

R1 = R2 = R3 =

R4= R5 = R6 =

Loop ABFE: Loop ADHE:

Voltage across R1 = Voltage across R1 =
Voltage across R4 = Voltage across R2 =
Voltage across EA = Voltage across R3 =
Algebraic sum = Voltage across R6 =
Voltage across EA =
Algebraic sum =
Loop BCGF: Loop CDHG:
Voltage across R2 = Voltage across R3 =
Voltage across R4 = Voltage across R5 =
Voltage across R5 = Voltage across R6 =
Algebraic sum = Algebraic sum =
Loop BDHF: Loop ACGE:
Voltage across R2 = Voltage across R1 =
Voltage across R3 = Voltage across R2 =
Voltage across R4 = Voltage across R5 =
Voltage across R6 = Voltage across EA =
Algebraic sum = Algebraic sum =

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Results& Discussion:

Acitvity-2: To Verify Kirchoff’s Current Law.

Components Required: Resistors, Digital Multi-meter, Regulated DC Power Supply(0-

32V), Bread Board, Connecting Wires.

Theory: In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of currents meeting at any node or
junction is zero i.e. the total value of electric current entering the node and the total current
leaving the node is equal.

It is given by the equation

❑
∑
❑
I =0

This theorem is restricted to linear elements only.

Circuit diagram:
R11

R2 B R3 C R4 D
A

R1 R5 R6 R7 18V

12V

E F R9 G H
R8 R10

Figure 5.2: Kirchoff’s Current Law

Procedure:

28
JAYPEE UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, WAKNAGHAT, SOLAN (H.P.)
 1. Take eleven resistances and determine their value using colour code and verify using
Multi-meter.
2. Connect the circuit on the bread board as shown in the figure 5.2.
3. Name the nodes and select one node, say A.
4. Measure the current flowing through the branches connected at this node with the help
of multi-meter.
5. Find the algebraic sum of the currents at this node.
6. Repeat for other nodes in the circuit.

Observations: Resistance Values

R1 = R2 = R3 =
R4= R5 = R6 =
R7 = R8 = R9 =
R10= R11=

Node A: Node B:
Current through R1 = Current through R2 =
Current through R2 = Current through R3 =
Current through R11 = Current through R5 =
Algebraic sum = Current through R6 =
Algebraic sum =
Node C: Node F:
Current through R3 = Current through R5 =
Current through R4 = Current through R8 =
Current through R11 = Current through R9 =
Current through R7 = Algebraic sum =
Algebraic sum =
Node G:
Current through R6 =
Current through R7 =
Current through R9 =
Current through R10 =
Algebraic sum =

Precautions:
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
 1. Care should be taken that low value resistances are not connected across the circuit.
2. Ammeter should be connected in series and voltmeter should be connected in parallel.
3. Take care to use the proper polarity when measuring voltage and current.

Results& Discussion:

30
JAYPEE UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, WAKNAGHAT, SOLAN (H.P.)
 EXPERIMENT 6

Aim: To verify superposition theorem.

Components Required: Resistor, Digital Multi-meter, DC Power Supply (0-32V), Bread

Board.

Theory: According to superposition theorem for an electrical circuit, the total current
flowing in part of electrical circuit is equal to algebraic sum of currents produced by each
source acting separately. To measure the current due to an individual source, all other sources
are removed in the following manner -

1. All other voltage sources are replaced by short circuit.

2. All other current sources are replaced by open circuit.

i.e. voltage across the resistance R3 due to the presence of two sources V1 and V2 is equal to the
algebraic sum of voltage present due to voltage source V1and V2 when present alone.

Circuit diagram:
R1 R2 R3

5V R4 R5 12V

R6
Figure 6.1: Superposition Theorem

Procedure:

1. Connect the components on the bread current as shown in the figure 6.1.
2. Connect the two-power supply V1 & V2 as shown in the circuit and apply voltage of
value 5V & 12V respectively through the supply.
3. Measure the voltage across the resistances.
4. Now replace the voltage source V1 with a short and measure the voltage across the
resistances.
5. Now repeat the above procedure using V2.
6. If the sum of voltages appearing across the resistance is equal to the voltage appearing
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
 across it when both the sources are in the circuit, the theorem stands verified.

Precautions:

1. Care should be taken that low value resistances are not connected across the circuit.
2. Ammeter should be connected in series and voltmeter should Be connected in parallel.
3. Take care to use the proper polarity when measuring voltage and current.
4. The positive side of V1 and V2 must have at least one resistance.

Observations: Resistance Values:

R1= R2= R3=

R4= R5= R6=

Measured Potentials:

Active Vs VR1 VR2 VR3 VR4 VR5 VR6

V1 Only
V2Only
Both

%Error

Precautions:

1. Care should be taken that low value resistances are not connected across the circuit.
2. Ammeter should be connected in series and voltmeter should be connected in parallel.
3. Take care to use the proper polarity when measuring voltage and current.

Results& Discussion:

32
JAYPEE UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, WAKNAGHAT, SOLAN (H.P.)
 EXPERIMENT 7

Aim: To verify Norton’s theorem.

Components required: Resistors, Digital Multi-Meter, DC Power Supply (0-32V), Current

Source, Bread Board, Connecting Wires.

Theory: Norton theorem states that any combination of voltage sources, current sources and
resistors with two terminals is electrically equivalent to a single current source I and a single
series resistor R i.e. consider a circuit with a large number of components like resistances,
inductances, capacitances, voltage source &current sources. All the components can be replaced
by a current source and resistor.

Circuit diagram:
R1 R2 R3

20V R4 R5 R6

Figure7.1: Norton’s theorem

ISC RTH RL

Figure7.2: Norton’s Equivalent Circuit

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit on the bread board as shown in the figure 7.1.
2. Replace the voltage sources in the circuit with their internal resistances.
3. Remove load resistance and measure equivalent resistance RTH looking into the circuit
from these terminals.
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
 4. Remove load resistance and measure short circuit current, ISC flowing through these
terminals
5. Replace load resistance in the circuit and measure the voltage VL1 across RL due to the
presence of the voltage source VS1.
6. Mount the Norton’s equivalent circuit using current ISC and resistance RTH in parallel
across the load resistance as shown in Fig .7.2.
7. Measure the voltage drop VL2 across the load resistance in this circuit. If both
theseVL1&VL2are equal, the theorem stands verified.

Observations: Resistance Values

R1= R2= R3=

R4= R5= R6=
RTh= Isc=

Observation Table:

VL2 in Norton’s Equivalent

Value Determination VL1 in original circuit
circuit

Calculated

Measured

Precautions:

1. Care should be taken that low value resistances are not connected across the circuit.
2. Ammeter should be connected in series and voltmeter should be connected in parallel.
3. Take care to use the proper polarity when measuring voltage and current.

Results& Discussion:

34
JAYPEE UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, WAKNAGHAT, SOLAN (H.P.)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
 EXPERIMENT 8

Aim: To verify Thevenin’s Theorem and Maximum Power Transfer Theorem.

Activity-1: To verify Thevenin’s Theorem.

Components required: Resistors, Digital Multi-Meter, DC Power Supply (0-32V), Bread

Board, Connecting Wires.

Theory: Thevenin’s theorem states that any combination of voltage sources, current sources
and resistor with two terminals is electrically equivalent to a single voltage source V and a
single series resistor R i.e. consider a circuit with a large number of components like
resistances, inductances, capacitances, voltage source &current sources. All the components can
be replaced by a voltage sources and resistor.

Circuit diagram:
A R1 B R2 C R3 D

20V R4 R5 RL

E F G H
Figure8.1: Thevenin’s Theorem

RTH

VOC RL

Figure 8.2: Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit on the bread board as shown in the figure 8.1.
36
JAYPEE UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, WAKNAGHAT, SOLAN (H.P.)
 2. Replace the voltage sources in the circuit with their internal resistances.
3. Remove load resistance and measure equivalent resistance RTH looking into the circuit
from these terminals.
4. Remove load resistance and measure open circuit voltage, VOC at these terminals
5. Replace load resistance in the circuit and now measure the voltage VL1 across RL due to
the presence of the voltage source V1.
6. Mount the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit using voltage VOC and resistance RTH in series
across the load resistance as shown in Fig 8.2
7. Measure the voltage dropVL2across the load resistance in this circuit.
8. If both these VL1&VL2are equal, the theorem stands verified.

Observations: Resistance Values

R1= R2 = R3 =
R4= R5= R6 =
RTH = VOC =

Observation Table:

VL2in Thevenin’sEquivalent
Value Determination VL1 in original circuit
circuit
Calculated

Measured

Activity-2: To verify maximum power transfer theorem.

Components required: Resistors, Digital Multi-meter, DC Power Supply (0-32V), Bread

board, Connecting Wires.

Theory: The maximum power (transfer) theorem states that, to obtain maximum external
power from a source with a finite internal resistance, the resistance of the load must be made the
same as that of the source. The theorem applies to maximum power. Again, if the resistance of
the load is made larger than the resistance of the source, then efficiency is higher, since most of
the power is generated in the load. But the overall power is lower since the total circuit
resistance goes up.
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Circuit diagram:
A R1 B R2 C R3 D

20V R4 R5 RL

E F G H
Figure8.3: Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown by Figure 8.3 on the bread board.

2. Replace the voltage sources in the circuit with their internal resistances.
3. Remove load resistance and measure equivalent resistance RTH looking into the circuit
from these terminals.
4. Replace the load resistance and the voltage source in the circuit.
5. Measure the voltage drop VL across the load resistance in this circuit.
6. Find the power consumed by RL.
7. Now select different values of R Land measure the voltage drop VL and the power
consumed by RL.
8. Determine the value at which maximum power is consumed by RL.
9. If this value of RL is equal to RTH, the theorem is verified.

Observation Table: RTH=________________

S. No. Value of RL VL across RL Power P=(VL)2/RL

Precautions:

1. Care should be taken that low value resistances are not connected across the circuit.
2. Ammeter should be connected in series and voltmeter should be connected in parallel.
3. Take care to use the proper polarity when measuring voltage and current.

38
JAYPEE UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, WAKNAGHAT, SOLAN (H.P.)
Results& Discussion:

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

 EXPERIMENT 9

Aim: To study the transient response of series RC circuits using different values of R
and C.

Apparatus Required: DSO, Multi-meter, Breadboard, Function Generator, Connecting

Wires.

Component Required: Resistors 2.2kΩ, 100kΩ, Capacitors 0.1μF, 0.01μF

Theory: A capacitor has the ability to store an electrical charge and energy. The voltage
across the capacitor is related to the charge by the equation V=Q/C for steady state values, or
expressed as an instantaneous value dv=dq/C we will study the transient response of the RC
circuit, which is the response to a sudden change in voltage.

In this experiment, we apply a pulse waveform to the RC circuit to analyze the transient response
of the circuit. The pulse-width relative to a circuit’s time constant determines how it is affected
by an RC circuit.

Time Constant (τ): A measure of time required for certain changes in voltages and currents in
RC and RL circuits. Generally, when the elapsed time exceeds five-time constants (5τ) after
switching has occurred, the currents and voltages have reached their final value, which is also
called steady-state response.

The time constant of an RC circuit is the product of equivalent capacitance and the Thevenin’s
resistance as viewed from the terminals of the equivalent capacitor.

τ =RC (1)

A Pulse is a voltage or current that changes from one level to the other and back again. If a
waveform’s high time equals its low time, it is called a square wave. The length of each cycle of
a pulse train is termed its period (T).

The pulse width (tp) of an ideal square wave is equal to half the time period. The relation
between pulse width and frequency is then given by,

1
f= (2)
2t p

A series RC circuit is shown in Figure1. From Kirchoff’s laws, it can be shown that the
charging voltage VC (t) across the capacitor is given by:
40
JAYPEE UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, WAKNAGHAT, SOLAN (H.P.)
 ( )
−t
V c ( t ) =V 1−e RC ,t ≥ 0 (3)

Where, V is the applied source voltage to the circuit for t ≥ 0. τ =RC is the time constant. The
response curve, showing capacitor charging for Series RC circuit to a step input with time axis
normalized by τ is shown in Figure 9.1.

+ VR - VC
+
R
+ V
Vin C VC(t) 0.63V4τ
-
-
τ 2τ 3τ 4τ t
Figure 9.1: RC Circuit

The discharge voltage for the capacitor is given by:

−t
V C ( t ) =V o e RC ,t ≥ 0 (4)

Where Vo is the initial voltage stored in capacitor at t = 0, and τ=RC is time constant. The
response curve is a decaying exponential as shown in Figure 9.2.

VC

VO
−1
t τ
e

τ 0.37

2τ 0.14
0.37 VO
7V 3τ 0.05
0.14 VO 4τ 0.02
t
0.05 VO
t 5τ 0.01
τ 2τ 3τ 4τ 5τ t

Figure 9.2: RC response curve

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Procedure:

1. Set up the circuit shown in Figure9.1 with the component values R=2.2 kΩ and
C=0.1μF.
2. Set the Function Generator to generate a 4Vp-p square wave and apply as input voltage
to the circuit.
3. Observe the input square wave on channel 1 and output, across the capacitor, on channel
2 of the CRO. Set the volt/div same for both the channels, as shown in Figure.
4. Observe the response of the circuit for the following three cases and record the results.

a). tp>> 5τ : Set the frequency of the function generator output such that the capacitor
has enough time to fully charge and discharge during each cycle of the square wave. So,
let tp = 15τand accordingly set the function generator frequency using equation (2). The
value you have found should be approximately 150 Hz. Determine the time constant
from the waveforms obtained on the CRO. (At t= τ, Vc (t) =0.63V from equation (3)).

b). tp = 5τ : Set the frequency such that tp = 5τ (this should be 450 Hz). Since the
pulse width is exactly 5τ, the capacitor should just be able to fully charge and
discharge during each pulse cycle. From the figure determine τ.

42
JAYPEE UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, WAKNAGHAT, SOLAN (H.P.)
 c).tp<< 5τ : In this case the capacitor does not have time to charge significantly before
it is switched to discharge, and vice versa. Let tp = 0.5τ in this case and set the
frequency accordingly.

5. Repeat the procedure using R = 100 kΩ and C = 0.01 μF and record the measurements.

Precaution:

1. Care should be taken that low value resistances are not connected across the circuit.
2. Capacitors should be connected in same polarity.
3. Voltmeter should be connected in parallel.
4. Take care to use the proper polarity when measuring voltage.

Results& Discussion:

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

 EXPERIMENT 10

Aim: Determination of frequency response of current in RLC circuit with sinusoidal ac

input.

Apparatus Required: DSO, Multi-meter, Breadboard, Function Generator.

Component Required: Resistors - 2.2kΩ, 100kΩ, Capacitors - 0.1μF, 0.01μF, Inductor.

Theory: The voltage through an RLC series circuit will be measured as a function of
frequency for a fixed applied voltage. The frequency for which the rms voltage attains a
maximum value is the resonance frequency. The expected resonance frequency is given by
equation

1 1
f 0= ∙
2π ❑ √

Circuit diagram:

C1 L1
+
V1 R1
sine 100Ω
-

Figure 10.1: RLC circuit

Procedure:

1. Before you connect the circuit to the function generator set the frequency to 60 Hz. Then,
using the voltmeter set the generator’s output to 5 volts (rms).
2. Using the proto-board and wire leads connect the resistor, capacitor, and inductor along
with the output of the function generator to construct the circuit shown in Figure 1. Here
we are measuring the peak to peak voltage across the resistor using the oscilloscope. The
three components are connected in series with the function generator acting as the power
supply. Connect the black leads together at the end of the resistor as noted in Figure 1.
3. Record the values of R, L, and C for this circuit in the space provided in the data section.

44
JAYPEE UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, WAKNAGHAT, SOLAN (H.P.)
 4. Use equation 1 to compute the expected resonance frequency and record your result in
data table 1.
5. Change the function generator frequency to 50Hz and record the peak to peak voltage
from the oscilloscope in data table 2. Then, adjust the output frequency to 100 Hz and
record the voltage. Adjust the output frequency to 200 Hz and record the voltage.
Continue adjusting the output frequency to each value below the expected resonance
frequency computed in step 4. Record the voltage for each of these values.
6. Determine an experimental value for resonance frequency by finding the frequency that
produces the largest voltage on the oscilloscope. Record this frequency and voltage.
7. Record the voltage for frequency values that are above the resonance frequency
determined in step 6.
8. Turn all equipment off and disconnect the circuit.

Analysis:

1. Use Excel to produce a plot of frequency vs. voltage. Set the frequency axis to a
logarithmic scale. To do this right click on the axis; chose ‘format axis’ and check the
box for ‘logarithmic scale’.
2. Draw a smooth curve through all the data points. This curve should be similar to
figure 1.
3. Use the graph to determine the resonance frequency.
4. Compare the experimental resonance frequency to the expected value obtained from
equation 1.

Vmax
Voltage(V)

Figure 10.2: Frequency Response Curve

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Observations: Table1

Circuit Parameters: Calculated Resonant Frequency

R=
Experimental Resonant
L= Frequency
%Difference
C=

Table2

S No Frequency Peak to Peak Voltage(Vo)

1 50Hz

2 100Hz

3 400Hz

4 800Hz

5 1KHz

6 5 KHz

7 10 KHz

8 50 KHz

9 100 KHz

10 200 KHz

11 300 KHz

12 400 KHz

13 500 KHz

14 600 KHz

15 700 KHz

16 800 KHz

17 900 KHz

18 1 MHz

Resonant Frequency

46
JAYPEE UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, WAKNAGHAT, SOLAN (H.P.)
 EXPERIMENT 11

Aim: To determine the turns ratio and polarities of transformer windings.

Apparatus Required: Single Phase Transformer

Wattmeter - 1 : Ammeter - 1 MI

(0-5/10A) : (0-10A)

(0-150/300V) :

Voltmeters - 2 MI

(0-150V)

(0-300V)

Theory: Transformer is a device, which has two windings -Primary and Secondary, and with
the help of which an ac voltage can be step up or step down. It consists of a Magnetic circuit
linked with two windings When any one winding is connected to the supply, an alternating
flux will be set up in the core and this flux linking with the secondary induces an emf in it.
Depending upon the number of turns in Primary and Secondary, the voltage can be step up or
step down.

Voltage Transformation Ratio k =

Secondary Voltage E2 V 2 N 2
= = =
Primary Voltage E1 V 1 N 1

Procedure:

(i) Ratio Test

1. Connect the Voltmeter as shown in the figure.

2. Note the rating of the winding and then apply 220V across it.
3. Note the Voltmeter reading at 100% Tap and then at 50% Tap.
4. Calculate the ratio for the two readings.

(ii) Polarity Test

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

 1. Connect as shown in Figure (a)
2. A Voltage of 220V is now applied across the Primary. If the Voltmeter reading is equal
to E1 - E2, then the Secondary terminal connected to C1 is positive and is marked c1, the
other terminal connected to C2 through voltmeter is negative and is marked c2. Polarity
is subtractive.
3. If the Voltmeter reading is equal to E1 + E2 as shown in fig. (b), then the terminals
connected to C1 and C2 are negative and positive and are marked c1 and c2. Polarity is
additive.

(iii) Load Test

1. Connect various instruments as shown in the circuit diagram for load test.
2. Note down the KVA rating and voltage rating of the Transformer and hence calculate
the maximum current carrying capacity of the Primary and Secondary.
3. Apply rated voltage to the Primary and put Load on the Secondary.
4. Take readings for various Loads and calculate efficiency at various Loads.
5. Take readings only upto the maximum current rating of the windings.
6. Also calculate Voltage Regulation of the Transformer.

Observations:

(i) Ratio Test

At 100% Tap : V1 = Volts

V2 = Volts

At 50% Tap : V1 = Volts

V2 = Volts

(ii) Polarity Test

V1 = Volts

V2 = Volts

V1 + V2 = Volts

V1 - V2 = Volts
48
JAYPEE UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, WAKNAGHAT, SOLAN (H.P.)
 (iii) Load Test

Output Efficiency VI/W

S. No. Input SL.
V W I V VxI

Calculations: Calculate efficiency at various Loads and Plot efficiency curve.

Output Power = VI watts
Input Power = W watts
VI
So % efficiency (η) = × 100
W
V at no load −V at full load
Voltage Regulation of (VR) = × 100 %
V at no load

Results& Discussion:

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

 EXPERIMENT 12

Aim: To obtain the equivalent circuit parameters from OC and SC tests, and to estimate
efficiency & regulation at various loads.

Apparatus Required: Single Phase Transformer,

Wattmeter - 2 : Ammeter - 2 MI

(0-2.5A) : (0-5A) : (0-1/2.5A), (0-5A)

(0-300V): (0-150V)

Voltmeters - 2 MI : Single phase

(0-300V), (0-150V) : Variac

Theory: The open circuit test and the short circuit test determine core loss and copper loss
of the transformer. The shunt branch parameters can be calculated by open circuit Test and
other series parameters can be calculated by Short Circuit Test.

Procedure:

(i) Open Circuit Test

(1) Connect as shown in the circuit diagram for open circuit test.
(2) The high voltage winding is kept open circuited and full rated voltage of the low voltage
winding is applied across the low voltage winding through variac.
(3) Note down the Ammeter, Voltmeter and Wattmeter reading. The Wattmeter reading
directly gives coreless.

(ii) Short Circuit Test

(1) Connect various instruments as shown in the circuit diagram for short circuit test.
(2) In short circuit test usually the low voltage side is short circuited and instruments are
placed on the high voltage side.
(3) Apply some voltage through variac and vary it such that rated current flows in the
winding.
(4) Note down the Ammeter, Voltmeter and Wattmeter reading. Wattmeter reading here
directly gives copper loss.
50
JAYPEE UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, WAKNAGHAT, SOLAN (H.P.)
Observations:
OC Test

V0 = Voltmeter reading = Volts

I0 = Ammeter reading = Amps

Wattmeter reading =

Multiplying Factor of Wattmeter =

W0 = Actual Power Loss = Watts

SC Test

V = Voltmeter reading = Volts

I = Ammeter reading = Amps

Wattmeter reading =

Multiplying Factor of Wattmeter =

W = Actual Power Loss = Watts

Calculations:

From OC Test
W0
No load Power factor cosθ=
V 0 I0

I C =I 0 cos θ0

I M =I 0 sin θ0

V0 V0
RC = ∧ Xμ=
IC Iμ
From SC Test
V
Z eH =
I
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
 W
r eH = ∧X eH =√ ❑
I

Determine the equivalent circuit parameters refer to hv and lv sides.

Figure 12.1:
Open
Circuit Test

Figure 12.1:
Short
Circuit Test

Results& Discussion:

52
JAYPEE UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, WAKNAGHAT, SOLAN (H.P.)