General Chemistry 2 There are several types of intermolecular

forces of attraction.
1. London dispersion force - Named after the German physicist,
Module 1: Kinetic Molecular Models of Liquids Fritz London, this is the weakest among the intermolecular
and Solids forces. This dispersion is caused by polarization, or the distortion
The Kinetic Molecular Model of the electron cloud brought about by the presence of a highly
 The word “Kinetic” comes from the Greek word charged particle.
kinein, which means “to move” To summarize, the London dispersion force happens when one
 Gas is made up of molecules that move randomly molecule with a temporary dipole exerts a weak attractive force
and are widely separated from one another. on another molecule. And because it is caused by polarization,
 In addition, when the absolute temperature is the strength of this force depends on the number of electrons
increased, the average kinetic energy of the gas present.
molecules also increases.
 The Kinetic molecular model may also be used to
explain the properties of liquid and solid molecules,
as well as the forces of attraction that account for
such properties.
 The Kinetic energy of the particle is the energy
needed to keep the particles moving. This is
dependent on temperature.
 There are attractive forces that holds particles
together. Solids usually have strong forces of
attraction, whereas gases have weak forces of
attraction.
2. Dipole-dipole interaction- Occurs between partially positive
\ and partially negative ends. Dipole-dipole interactions occur
between polar molecules where the positive end of one
molecule is attracted to the negative end of another molecule.
The dipole-dipole interaction is effective over a short distance
only, as it still weak, containing only 1% of the strength of ionic
bonds.

Particle description of each phase of matter:

Criterion Solid Liquid Gas
Molecular Closely Slightly far Freely
arrangement packed from one moving;
together another very far
from one 3. Ion-dipole interaction- This arises from the interaction
another between an ion and a polar molecule. These interactions are
Volume/ Definite Definite Indefinite especially important in solutions where salts dissolve in water.
Shape volume and volume; volume and If the molecule is an anion (negatively charged ion), it will be
shape assumes shape attracted to the partially positive end of the polar molecule;
shape of an however, if the molecule is a cation (positively charged ion), it
occupied will be attracted to the partially negative end of the polar
part of a molecule.
container
Density High High Low
Motion of Vibration in Random Fast random
molecules place

Intermolecular Forces of Attraction

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION pertains to forces
that hold individual particles such as atoms, molecules, or ions
together. These forces are weaker than intramolecular forces but
play a crucial role in determining the physical properties of
substances like boiling point, melting point, and solubility. 4. Hydrogen bond- It is a special kind of dipole-dipole
interaction, which is formed when hydrogen bonds with fluorine,
INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION are those oxygen, or nitrogen. In a hydrogen bond, the partially positive
responsible for interactions within a molecule, such as covalent end of hydrogen atom is attracted to the partially negative end
and ionic bonding. of fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen.

Intramolecular forces involve bonding within the molecule,

while intermolecular forces operate between molecules.
Examples such as water (H₂O) for intramolecular covalent bonds
and intermolecular hydrogen bonds.
Generally, intramolecular forces of attraction are stronger than
intermolecular attractions.
Properties of Liquids When the rate of evaporation is the same as the rate of
Due to the presence of intermolecular forces, liquids exhibit the condensation, equilibrium is achieved.
properties of viscosity, surface tension, vapor pressure, and Equilibrium is the condition at which there is negligible net
boiling point. change.
1. Viscosity- This property refers to the measure of a liquid’s The vapor pressure of a liquid is defined as the pressure of
resistance to flow. The viscosity of a liquid is strongly dependent the vapor present at equilibrium. Liquids with high vapor
on the strength of the intermolecular forces in play. Highly pressure have weak intermolecular forces of attraction. Such
viscous liquids are those exhibiting the strongest intermolecular liquids exhibit volatility.
forces. Volatility is the ability to readily evaporate from an open
vessel.
4. Boiling point- a liquid boils when its vapor pressure is equal
to the prevailing atmospheric pressure. The normal boiling
point of a liquid is the temperature at which its pressure is
equal to the standard pressure of 101 325 Pa.

2. Surface tension- This refers to the amount of resistance

needed to increase the surface area of liquids.
Energy is necessary to overcome surface tension. This energy
requirement must be proportional to the strength of the
intermolecular forces. The greater the intermolecular force, the
higher the surface tension is.
Surface free energy is the work required to increase the surface
area of a liquid by a unit area.

3. Vapor Pressure- Vaporization is the transformation of a

substance from a liquid to a gas. Vaporization is an
endothermic process as it requires absorption of energy to
break the intermolecular forces of attraction in a liquid.
The standard heat of vaporization is the energy required to
vaporize 1 mole (mole) of a liquid at a pressure of 101 325
Pascal (Pa), which is equivalent to 760 millimeters of mercury
(mmHg) or 1 atmosphere (atm).
 General Chemistry 2
Module 2: SOLIDS

TYPES AND PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

Solids have definite shape and volume due to the
compact arrangement of their particles. They can
be broadly classified as crystalline and amorphous.

CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS have a regular, highly

ordered arrangement. Amethyst, Fluorite, and
Pyrite are examples of crystalline solids.

a. Amethyst b. Fluorite c. Pyrite Substances crystallize to give different crystal structure. There
are seven crystal systems: cubic, tetragonal, orthorhombic,
AMORPHOUS SOLIDS have a random, disordered monoclinic, triclinic, hexagonal, and rhombohedral
arrangement. They gradually soften when they are (trigonal).
heated and melt at a wide range of temperature. Different substances that crystallize in the same lattice with
Glass, Charcoal, and Plastic container are examples the same atomic arrangements are called Isomorphous,
of amorphous solids.
Here are some examples of isomorphous materials:

Double sulfates: Tutton's salt, with the formula

MI2MII(SO4)2.6H2O, is an example of an isomorphous
compound.

Alums: KAl(SO4)2.12H2O is an example of an

isomorphous compound.
PARTICLE ARRANGEMENT OF CRYSTALLINE AND
AMORPHOUS SOLIDS
whereas substances that crystallize in several arrangements
are said to be Polymorphous.

Space lattice refers to the three-dimensional pattern formed

by the points representing the location of these particles; it
Polytypes are crystals that are the same in two dimensions
defines the basic structure of the crystal.
but different in the third. Polytypes can be either hexagonal
or cubic close-packed.

A hexagonal close-packed polytype gives am ABAB pattern of

layers, resembling a hexagonal unit cell. The spheres in the
`
third layer are positioned directly above the spheres of the
first layer.

Cubically close-packed polytype gives ABCABC pattern of

Unit cell is the smallest unit of the lattice. Each unit cell is
stacking. The spheres in the third layer are stacked above the
stacked together repeatedly to resemble by spheres.
gaps in the first layer.
 Phase Diagram – represents pressure temperature
relationships at equilibrium, as the pure substance undergoes
phase changes in a closed system.

Close system – is a system in which no exchanges of

matter take place.

Open system – matter goes into the system and goes out
in to the surroundings, or vice versa.

PHASE CHANGE – involves the transition

from one phase to another. A phase change entails
either absorption or release of heat, represented
by a change in the latent heat of fusion.

1. MELTING – A solid turn into liquid if heated. The

temperature at which a solid change to a liquid is
called melting point.

Melting point can also be defined as the

temperature at which the melting rate of a solid is
the same as its freezing rate at a given pressure.

2. VAPORIZATION – continuing the heating the

process will eventually cause the liquid to boil and
eventually vaporize, or turn to gas. The
temperature further increases and the liquid boils
at 373 K (100°C).

3. SUBLIMATION – is the process at which a solid

vaporized at atmospheric pressure without
transforming to a liquid. Solids with high vapor
pressure easily sublime.
 General Chemistry 2
Endothermic – energy absorption is sometimes
Module 3: SOLUTIONS necessary to break down the solute and solvent
particles and overcome the respective
Mixtures are made up of two or more components. intermolecular forces of attraction.
It can be either homogeneous mixture or
heterogeneous mixture. Exothermic – energy is released during interaction
between solute and solvent molecules.
A mixture in which only one phase is visible is said
to be homogeneous mixture, whereas a mixture
having components with different sizes and shapes
and contains two or more visible phases is said to
be a heterogeneous mixture.

Solutions are homogeneous mixtures, which are

composed of a solute and a solvent.

The solute is the substance that is present in small

amounts, and the solvent is the bulk or the
medium in which the solute is dissolved, mixed, or
dispersed. The heat of solution (ΔHsoln) – accounts for the
overall change in the energy associated with the
The following are some examples of solutions: formation of solution.
 Air – mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and other
trace gases
 Seawater – mixture of Na+, Cl-, and other
ions in water
 Jewelry – mixture of gold, copper, or silver

Aqueous solutions – solutions that use water as

the solvent. It can be electrolytes or
nonelectrolytes.

Electrolytes – those that can conduct electricity.

Nonelectrolytes – are solutions that do not

conduct electricity. Examples of nonelectrolyte
solutions include aqueous solutions of glucose or
isopropyl alcohol (rubbing alcohol).

There are several solutions that have become part

of our lives because of their uses. Here are some
of them:

1. Food and drinks, such as fruit juices,

concentrates or purees, coffee or chocolate drinks,
soda, sparkling water, peanut butter, and cheese
spreads
2. Personal effects such as jewelries
3. Construction materials such as steel and
galvanized iron sheets (iron sheets passivated or
coated with zinc)
4. Cleaning materials such as dishwashing
detergents, liquid hand soaps, shampoos,
conditioners, bleaches (active ingredient is
hypochlorite), and muriatic acid (50% hydrochloric
acid solution)
5. Disinfectants such as 70% isopropyl alcohol and
hand sanitizers
4TH QUARTER GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2

MODULE 1: Thermochemistry

Energy
– refers to the capacity to do work to
supply heat.
- Energy, therefore has no concrete System
form, but it can only be detected - Could be reactant, a product, or a
based on its effects. reaction vessel including its
- Energy is a state function that component.
-
depends on the present state of
Surrounding
the system.
- Refers to the system’s immediate
environment or the things found
outside of the system.

Heat
- Is defined as the energy that is
Thermochemistry released or absorbed due to
- the study of energy changes during differences in temperature
a chemical reaction and/or a conditions.
change in phase.
Exothermic process
Energy can be classified as potential - A process or reaction involving the
energy and kinetic energy. release of heat.
- Favors decrease in temperature
Potential energy - If the system has a higher
- is energy at rest. temperature that its surrounding,
then heat flows from the system
into the surrounding.
- It is due to the position or
composition of an object. Endothermic process
Kinetic energy - Those that involve the absorption
- Is energy in motion. of heat
- It is dependent on the mass and - Increase in temperature.
velocity of an object. - Energy flow from the surrounding
into the system if the surrounding
1 has a higher temperature.
KE= mv ²
2

Thus, the total energy is the summation

of potential and kinetic energies.

“Energy is created, nor destroyed”

- This principle is in accordance with
the law of conservation of energy.
This implies that the energy of the Endothermic Processes
universe does not change in - Melting ice cubes.
amount but only transformed. - Melting solid salts.
- Evaporating liquid water.
 - Converting frost to water vapor
(melting, boiling, and evaporation, in
general, are endothermic processes.
- Forming a cation from an atom in the
gas phase.
- Splitting a gas molecule.
Exothermic reactions: First Law of Thermodynamics Equation

- Making of an Ice Cube. The equation for the first law of

- Snow Formation in Clouds thermodynamics is given as
- Burning of a Candle ΔE = q - W
- Rusting of Iron
- Burning of Sugar Where,
- Water and Calcium Chloride
ΔE = Change in internal energy of the system
The First Law of Thermodynamics
q = Algebraic sum of heat transfer between
Thermodynamics is the study of energy system and surroundings
and its transformations. There are three laws
W = Work interaction of the system with its
associated with thermodynamics.
surroundings
The first law of thermodynamics states
that the energy of the universe is constant.
This is also referred to as the law of
conservation of energy, which states that
energy is neither created nor destroyed.
A thermodynamic system in an equilibrium
state possesses a state variable known as
internal energy(E). Between the two
systems, the change in the internal energy is
equal to the difference of the heat transfer
into the system and the work done by the
system. Some Examples:
Q. A gas has constant pressure in a system.
There is a loss of 45 J of heat in the
surroundings around the system. 450 J of
work is done on the system. Find the
system’s internal energy.
Solution:

ΔE = q+w

ΔE = 45J + 450J

ΔE = 495J
In a heat engine, the thermal energy is
converted into mechanical energy, and the
process also is vice versa. Heat engines are
mostly categorized as open systems.
The basic working principle of a heat engine
is that it makes use of the different
relationships between heat, pressure and
volume of a working fluid which is usually a
gas. Sometimes phase changes might also
occur involving a gas to liquid and back to
gas.
 Rate of Reaction
The rate of reaction is the speed at which
a chemical reaction occurs. It measures
how quickly reactants are converted into
products over time.
Factors Affecting the Rate of a Chemical
Reaction
The rate of a chemical reaction depends on
several factors that influence how often and
What is the change in the internal how effectively reactant molecules collide.
energy of the system if 2000 J of heat Here are the key factors:
leaves the system and 2500 J of work is
done on the system?
Solution: 1. Temperature

ΔU = Q-W Increase in Temperature → Faster

Reaction
Substituting the values in the following
equation, we get • Higher temperature increases
the kinetic energy of particles.
ΔU = -2000-(-2500)
• More particles collide with
ΔU = -2000+2500 sufficient energy to overcome
ΔU = 500 Joule the activation energy
barrier.
Internal energy increases by 500 Joules.
• This results in more effective
Calculate the change in the system’s collisions per second.
internal energy if 3000 J of heat is
added to a system and a work of 2500 J • Example: Cooking food at
is done. high temperatures speeds
up the reaction of breaking
down food molecules.
Solution:
The following sign conventions are followed 2. Concentration of Reactants
in the numerical: Higher Concentration → Faster Reaction
Q is positive as heat is added to the system • More reactant particles in a
W is positive if work is done on the system given volume increase
collision frequency.
Hence, the change in internal energy is given
as: • More collisions lead to a higher
chance of successful
ΔU=3000−2500 reactions.
ΔU=500 • Example: Increasing the
concentration of acid in a
The internal energy of the system is 500
reaction with metal
J.
increases the reaction rate.
First law of Thermodynamics for a
3. Surface Area of Reactants
Closed System
Greater Surface Area → Faster Reaction
Work done for a closed system is the product
of pressure applied and the change in • Smaller particles (powders,
volume that occurs due to applied pressure. finely divided solids) provide
more exposed surface for
w = − P ΔV collisions.
Where P is the constant external pressure on • More frequent collisions occur,
the system, and ΔV is the change in the increasing reaction rate.
volume of the system. This is specifically
called “pressure-volume” work. • Example: Powdered sugar
dissolves faster than sugar
cubes in water.
4. Presence of a Catalyst
Catalysts Increase Reaction Rate
Without Being Consumed
• A catalyst lowers the
activation energy, allowing
more reactant molecules to
react.
• Does not get used up in the
reaction.
• Example: Enzymes speed up
biochemical reactions in the
body.