CHAPTER 1 a) Simplex - It is a transmission mode that transmits data in only one direction.

The sender can only send, and the receiver can only receive the data. The receiver
NETWORKING AND TELECOMMUNICATION cannot reply to the sender. The transmission of data through television and radio
are the examples of simplex mode.

Data Communication
The process of exchanging data and information between devices through
different medium is called data communication. Data can be transmitted through b) Half Duplex - It is a transmission mode that transmits data in both directions,
the cables or waves. but only in one direction at a time. A half-duplex device can alternately send and
receive data. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice
versa. The transmission of data through Walkie-Talkie is the example of half
Components of Data Communication
duplex mode.

1. Message - Message is the data/information that to be communicated.

2. Sender - Sender is the computer/computing device that generates and sends c) Full Duplex - It is a transmission mode that transmits data in both directions at
the message. a time simultaneously. It improves the efficiency as it can transmit data in both
3. Receiver - Receiver is the computer/computing device that receives the directions at a time. The transmission of data through telephone, mobile and
message computer is Full duplex.
4. Medium - Medium is the channel or physical path through which the message
is transferred from the sender to the receiver.
5. Protocol - Protocol is a set of rules and guidelines that allow electronic
devices to communicate with each other.

Bandwidth
Data Transmission Mode
Bandwidth is the maximum amount of data transmitted per second over a
There are three modes for transmitting data from one device to another. There are: communication media. Bandwidth is measured in bps (bits per second).
a) Simplex b) Half Duplex c) Full Duplex
Wider the bandwidth of a communication system the more data it can transmit.
 Transmission Media / Communication Media
A transmission media or communication media is the path through which data,
information and files transfer from one device to other device in the form of
electric signals.

Baseband is a transmission technology that transmits a single data signal at a

time. It uses digital signals in data transmission. The bandwidth of digital signals
is measured in bps (bits per second). Baseband technology is mainly used in
Ethernet networks. Guided Media
A transmission media where data signals are transferred through the cables is
called guided media. It is also known as bounded or wired media. Basically, three
types of cables are used for wired network. They are:
Broadband is the transmission technology that can transmit multiple data signals
1. Twisted pair cable 2. Coaxial cable 3. Fiber optic cable
simultaneously at a time. It uses analog signals in data transmission. The
bandwidth of analog signal is measured in Hertz or cycle per second. It is typically
used in Cable TV networks, Radio stations and Telephone companies. Twisted Pair Cable
A twisted pair cable is cable made of copper and consists of a pair of wire twisted
together. Each cable is surrounded with insulator. It may contain one pair, two
pair, four pairs or more pairs of wires.

Advantages:
 It is inexpensive and easy to install and maintain.

Disadvantages:
 Unsuitable for long distance.
 Speed is less than coaxial cable or fiber optics.
Coaxial Cable
It is cable made of copper or aluminum wire with an inner conductor surrounded
by an insulating layer and again surrounded by conducting shield.
It has high bandwidth and noise immunity. It is widely used in long distance
telephone lines. BNC and T-connectors are the most popular connector used in
co-axial cable.

Fiber optic cable

It is a powerful cable made of plastic or glass fiber through which data signals are
travelled at the speed of light.
ST (Straight Tip) connector, SMA (Screw Mounted Adaptors), SC (Subscriber
Connector) etc. are the common connectors used in fiber optic cable.
Unguided Media Communication Satellite (COMSAT)
A transmission media where data signals are transferred through the air is called It is an artificial satellite stationed in space for the purposes of transmission of
guided media. It is also known as unbounded or wireless media. It is used to data, voice and video from one place to another.
connect computers where cabling is not possible. The first commercial communication satellite was Early Bird launched in 1965
The commonly used unguided media are: by INTELSTAT (International Telecommunication Satellite Consortium.
1. Radio wave 2. Infrared 3. Microwave 4. Satellite 5. Bluetooth
6. Wi-Fi 7. WiMAX

Radio Wave
It is a wireless transmission in which data signals are sent via radio frequency
(RF) waves. It has radio frequency of 10 KHz to 100GHz.

Infrared
It is a wireless transmission which uses infrared light to transfer data signals and
is limited to a small area. Infrared signals cannot pass through walls, so they are
generally contained inside a single room.

Micro wave
It is a wireless transmission in which data signals are
sent over a microwave link. Microwave signals travel
in straight line and cannot pass through obstacles like
buildings, hills etc.
Computer Network Components of Computer Network
The interconnection of computers through transmission media in order to In a computer network, communication between two computers is possible
communicate and share resources like hardware, data and software is called through hardware and software.
computer network. The computers on the network may be connected through The hardware components required for a computer network are as follows:
cables, radio waves, micro waves or satellites.
1. Computer System 2. Network Interface Card 3. Communication channel
4. Network connectors 5. Network device

Server: A server is a powerful computer on the network which controls and

manages other computers on the network. It provides facilities of the sharing of
data, software and hardware resources. Server can be dedicated and non-dedicated
server.

Workstation: A computer on the network that uses the resources of the network
is known as workstation. It is personal computer also known as client computer.
Network Interface Card: A network adapter through which a computer is Differences between hub and switch:
connected on the network is called NIC. It is also known as LAN card or Ethernet Hub Switch
card. It can be both wired or wireless.
1. It transmits data packets to all the 1. It transmits data packets only to
The manufacturer of NICs assigns a unique permanent address to a NIC which devices connected with it. the intended computers.
is known as Media Access Control (MAC) address.
2. It cannot read MAC address of the 2. It can read the MAC address of
computer. the computer.
3. It is cheap in cost. 3. It is expensive in cost.
4. It creates unnecessary network 4. It reduces unnecessary network
traffic which wastes bandwidth. traffic and improves the network
performance.
Network devices: The network devices used for setting up a network are:
a. Hub b. Switch c. Bridge d. Gateway e. Router Router: A router is a network device that routes or forwards data from one
f. Repeater g. Modem network to other based on their IP address. A router can determine the best path
for forwarding the data packets.

Hub: A hub is a network device that connects computers through its ports. When
a hub receives data packets at one of its ports, it transmits the data packets to all
computers on the network which creates unnecessary traffic on the network which
waste bandwidth.

Bridge: A bridge is a networking device that connects the segments of the same
network or different network having same protocol.
Switch: A switch is a network device that connects computers through its ports
like a hub. As compared to hub, switch is an intelligent device which can
determine source and destination of the data packets.
When a switch receives data packets at one of its ports, it transmits the data
packets to the destination computer. It does not transmit the data packets to all
the computers on the network like a hub does. Thus, it reduces unnecessary
network traffic and improves the network performance.
Gateway: A gateway is a networking device that connects different network Types of Computer Network
having different protocol. A gateway accepts the packet formatted for one On the basis of size of networks computer network is classified into three groups.
protocol and converts the formatted packet into another protocol. They are:
 LAN
 MAN
 WAN

MODEM (Modulator-Demodulator): Modem is a device used to transfer the

data of one computer to another using telephone lines. It can convert analog
signals into digital signals and vice-versa.
The conversion of digital signals into analog signals is known as modulation. The
conversion of analog signals into digital signals is known as demodulation.

Network Architecture
Network architecture defines how the computer communicates and interacts with
each other on network.
There are three types of network architecture. They are:
1. Client-Server Network Model 2. Peer to peer Network Model
3. Centralized Network Model
1. Client-Server Network Model: any computer on the model which controls and manages other computers on
Client server network model is a network model where there is at least one the network. Thus, all the computers have equal rights on the network.
server and one or more clients. It is also called Domain model. The server
computer on this model controls and manages the resources on the network.

Peer-to-peer Network Model

Advantages
Client-Server Network Model  It is easy to set up than client-server network model.
 Each computer on the network has equal rights.
Advantages
Disadvantages
 Only the authorized person can access the resources of network.
 It is secured networking system where unauthorized person cannot  It has low level security.
access.  The expansion of network is limited.
 All the clients/workstations can be controlled and managed from a single  The network performance degrades as the expansion of the network.
server. The network can be expanded to any size.
 The expansion of the network doesn’t degrade the performance of the
Differences between client-server and peer-to-peer:
network.
Client-Server Peer-to-Peer
Disadvantages
1. There is one powerful computer 1. No server is needed.
 It is difficult to set up client-server model than peer-to-peer network
acting as server.
model.
 Workstation has to depend upon the server computer. 2. It provides better data security. 2. It provides less data security.
 A trained network administrator is required to handle the model. 3. It is easy to manage. 3. It is hard to manage.
4. It is used in small and large 4. It is normally used in small
networks. networks.
2. Peer-to-Peer Network Model:
Peer-to-Peer network model is a network model where there are two or more 5. Cabling cost is higher. 5. Cabling cost is cheaper.
client computers but no server. It is also called workgroup model. There is no
3. Centralized Computer Network: Types of Network Topology
There are several types of network topologies, each with its own advantages and
disadvantages. The main types include
a) Bus topology
b) Ring topology
c) Star topology
d) Mesh topology
e) Hybrid topology

Centralized Computer Network 1 a) Bus Topology: A Linear Network Arrangement

It is a network model where the computers are connected to the main computer Bus topology is a type of network topology in which all devices are connected to
which is known as host or server computer. Workstation is just used for a single cable called a bus/backbone/trunk. It is commonly used in small sized
input/output operations, which has no processing capabilities. local area networks (LANs), such as small offices or home setups. Coaxial cable
and twisted-pair cable are some common cables used in bus topology.
The processing is done by the host computer on behalf of the workstation. Linux
or UNIX operating system is used in centralized network. How does data transmission work in bus topology?
Advantages In bus topology, when a device sends a signal, it is broadcast to all other devices
on the network. If two devices try to send data at the same time, a collision occurs,
 It saves cost of installation of network system.
and the signals are corrupted. The devices must then wait a random amount of
 Host Computer gives facilities like Disk storage and software to
time before trying to re-transmit the data.
workstation.
Disadvantages
 The malfunctioning of host computer affects other workstation.
 It takes long time for data processing.
 It is difficult to add more workstation

Network Topology
A network topology is the physical and logical arrangement of the devices in a Advantages
network. It is the structure of the network that defines how all the components are 1. It is cheap and easy to both install and maintain.
interconnected to each other. 2. The use of single cable means limited hardware is required.
3. New devices can be added easily.
Disadvantages c) Star Topology: A Centralized Network Design
1. It rely on a single cable, so if that cable fails, the whole network will be Star topology is the most common network topology where all the devices are
unusable. connected to a central hub or switch. It offers improved performance and
2. Network performance degrades as the number of devices are added. reliability compared to bus and ring topologies.
3. Difficult to troubleshoot and prone to network failures.
How Does Star Topology Works in Computer Networks?
4. The use of a single cable also drastically increases the risk of data
collision, particularly in large networks. Whenever any device wants to send data to another device, it has to first send the
information to the central device, and then the central device transmits that data
to the required device.
b) Ring Topology: A Circular Network Configuration
Ring topology is a type of network topology in which devices are connected in a
circular pathway, forming a closed loop. In ring topology, data travels in one
direction, passing through each device until it reaches its destination.

Star Topology Diagram

Advantages
1. It is easy to install and troubleshoot.
Ring Topology Diagram Real-world Example 2. Failure of one device doesn’t affect others.
3. Easy to add devices
Advantages 4. Network performance doesn’t degrade as the number of devices
1. It is easy to install. increased.
2. It is cheaper to install and expand. Disadvantages
3. Network performance doesn’t degrade as the number of devices are 1. If the central device fails, the entire network goes down.
added. 2. More expensive due to additional hardware.
Disadvantages
1. Failure of one device can affect the entire network.
2. Adding or removing nodes is difficult.
3. Troubleshooting the ring network is challenging.
Network Protocols FTP is a standard network protocol used for transferring files between a client and
A network consists of two or more connected devices that communicate with each a server on a computer network. It allows users to upload, download, and manage
other. files over a network.
Client Server
To communicate, these devices use protocols.
Network protocols are the rules and formats that defines how devices will
communicate with each other over a network.

Why Network Protocol?

1. Communication Guidelines: Network protocols establish the common
language and procedures for networked devices to communicate effectively. Email Protocols: SMTP and POP

2. Data Formatting: Protocols define how data should be structured, packaged, SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
and transmitted to ensure compatibility. SMTP is a protocol used for sending emails across networks. It is the standard for
3. Identification and Addressing: Protocols assign unique identifiers to email communication and helps in transferring mail from the sender's mail server
networked devices, enabling them to locate and connect with each other. to the recipient's mail server.

Some essential protocols:

TCP/IP: The Foundation of Internet Communication
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
TCP/IP is the basic communication language or protocol of the internet. It is used
for connecting network devices on the internet. TCP ensures reliable data
transmission, while IP handles the addressing and routing of data packets to their POP (Post Office Protocol)
destination. POP is used by email clients to retrieve emails from a server. The current version,
POP3, downloads the emails from the server to the local device, allowing the user
to read them offline.

FTP: File Transfer Protocol

HTTP and HTTPS: The Protocols of the Web AppleTalk: Apple's Proprietary Networking Protocol
 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) AppleTalk is a proprietary network protocol developed by Apple for their Mac
This is the protocol used by a web browser to make requests to a web server computers and devices to communicate over a network.
for a webpage. If there is an error with the request, it will return a code (e.g.
404).
 HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure)
This protocol works in the same way as HTTP but data transfers are encrypted
to prevent interception from hackers.

-- O --

NetBEUI: A Protocol for Local Area Networks

NetBEUI (NetBIOS Extended User Interface) is a network protocol developed by
IBM, often used in local area networks (LANs).
It is an extension of NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output System) and is
designed for small, simple networks.

IPX/SPX (Internet Packet Exchange/Sequence Packet Exchange)

IPX/SPX was widely used in the 1980s and 1990s for Novell Netware- based local
area networks, but has largely been replaced by TCP/IP.