HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION TO HYDROLOGY

BY
DR.M.N.HIREMATH
PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
KOLHAPUR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
KOLHAPUR
 CONTENTS OF UNIT -1
1. INTRODUCTION OF HYDROLOGY
2. APPLICATION OF HYDROLOGY
3. HYDROLOGICA CYCLE
4. PRECIPITATION FORMS, TYPES AND MEASUREMENTS
5. ANALYSIS OF PRECIPITATION DATA AND
6. RAIN FALL CURVES AND INTENSITY DURATION CURVES
7. ELEMENTARY CONCEPTS OF EVAPORATION, TRANSPIRATION AND
INFILTERATION
TERMINOLOGY
TERMINOLOGY
APPLICATIONS OF HYDROLOGY
FORMS OF PRECIPITATION
FORMS OF PRECIPITATION
TYPES OF PRECIPITATION
CYCLONIC PRECIPITATION
CYCLONIC PRECIPITATION
CONVECTIVE PRECIPITATION
FORMS OF PRECIPITATION
OROGRAPHIC PRECIPITATION
OROGRAPHIC PRECIPITATION
MEASUREMENT OF RAINFALL
MEASUREMENT OF RAINFALL
MEASUREMENT OF RAINFALL
SYMON’S RAIN GAUGE
MEASUREMENT OF RAINFALL
MEASUREMENT OF RAINFALL
MEASUREMENT OF RAINFALL
FLOATING TYPE RAIN GAUGE
MEASUREMENT OF RAINFALL
TIPPING BUCKET TYPE RAIN GAUGE
ANALYSIS OF RAINFALL DATA
PRECIPITATION DATA ANALYSIS
 PROBLEM-1
• Find out missing storm precipitation data of station ‘X ‘ given in the following table
using Simple Arithmetical Average Method

Station 1 2 X 3 4
Storm Precipitation
3.8 3.25 X 4.6 3.15
in mm
Annual Precipitation
39.5 43.1 36.8 49.5 46.2
in mm

• PX=1/4 ( 3.8+3.25+4.6+3.15) =3.7 mm

 PROBLEM-2
• The normal annual rainfall at stations A, B, C and D in a basin are 80.97, 67.59, 76.28, and 92.01 cm,
respectively. In the year 1975, the station D was inoperative and the stations A, B, and C recorded annual
rainfall of 91.11, 72.23, and 79.89 cm, respectively. Estimate the rainfall at station D in that year.
• Solution: As the normal rainfall values vary by more than 10%, the Normal Ratio Method is

adopted .
THIESSEN POLYGON METHOD
THIESSEN POLYGON METHOD
THIESSEN POLYGON
PROBLEM ON THIESSEN POLYGON
PROBLEM
SOLUTION TO PROBLEM ON THIESSEN POLYGON
ISOHYTAL METHOD
ISOHYTES
PROBLEM ON ISOHYTEL METHOD
SOLUTION TO PROBLEM ON ISOHYTEL METHOD
 MASS CURVE OF RAINFALL

Mass Curve of Rainfall

The mass curve of rainfall is a plot of the

accumulated precipitation against time, plotted
in chronological order. Records of float type and
weighing bucket type gauges are of this form.
A typical mass curve of rainfall at a station
during a storm is shown in the following Fig
 MASS CURVE OF RAINFALL
• The mass curve of rainfall is a plot of the accumulated precipitation against time, plotted in
chronological order. Records of float type and weighing bucket type gauges are of this form. A
typical mass curve of rainfall at a station during a storm is shown in the figure
 DOUBLE MASS CURVE OF RAINFALL

• The double mass curve technique, as illustrated in Fig. , is a

reliable procedure for checking the consistency of a
precipitation record. The technique compares long term
annual or seasonal precipitation of a group of stations being
evaluated. Some seasons of the year may have more
inconsistencies than others. Therefore, seasonal analysis may
provide better results than using total annual values. The
accumulated annual or seasonal values for the comparison
stations are plotted against the accumulated annual value for
the evaluation station.
DOUBLE MASS CURVE OF RAINFALL
 HYETOGRAPH
• Hyetograph is a plot of the intensity of rainfall against the time interval, as illustrated in Fig. 8.4. The Hyetograph is derived
from the mass curve and is usually represented as a bar chart. It is a very convenient way of representing the characterstics
of a storm and is particularly important in the development of design storms to predict extreme floods. The area under a
hyetograph represents the total precipitation received in the period. The time interval used depends upon the purpose. In
urban-drainage problems small durations are used while in flood-flow computations in larger catchments the intervals are of
about 6 h.
 HYDROGRAPH
• The term "Hydrograph" stands for the graphical representation of the instantaneous rate of discharge of a stream plotted
with respect to time, as illustrated in Fig. 8.5. This is as a result of the physiographic and hydrometerological effect of the
watershed. Hydrographs are graphs which show river discharge over a given period of time and show the response of a
drainage basin and its river to a period of rainfall. A storm hydrograph shows how a river's discharge responds following a
period of heavy rainfall. On a hydrograph, the flood is shown as a peak above the base (normal) flow of the river.
 LOSSES FROM PRECIPITATION

1. Evaporation
2. Evapotranspiration
3. Infiltration
4. Interception
5. Watershed leakage
The first three contribute to the major amount
of losses.
 EVAPORATION
It is the process by which a liquid changes to
gaseous state at the free surface through
transfer of heat energy.
From the above explanation for evaporation to
occur it is necessary to have:
(1) A supply of water
(2) A source of heat
(3) Vapour pressure difference.
 FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPORATION

1. Vapour pressure difference

2. Temperature of air and water
3. Wind Velocity
4. Quality of water
5. Atmospheric pressure and Altitude
6. Depth of water body
7. Surface area
8. Shape & size of water body
Methods to Control Evaporation loss from Soil:-
1) Vegetation cover
2) Slope of ground surface
3) Artificial cover

Methods to Control Evaporation loss from

Reservoir:-
1) Reduction in surface area
2) Mechanical cover ( floating block, box, rafts, etc.)
3) Use of evaporation films ( chemicals-acetyl alcohol, etc.)
EVAPORATION MEASUREMENT:
• The amount of water evaporated from a water surface is estimated by the
following methods:-
1. Using Evaporimeter data
2. Using Empirical Evaporation Equation
3. Analytical Methods
 Evaporimeter are water containing pans which are exposed to the atmosphere
and the loss of water by evaporation in them is measured at regular interval.
• Types of Evaporimeter:-
• Class ‘A’ Evaporation Pan (US Weather Bureau)
• ISI Standard Pan (Used in India)
• Colorado Sunken Pan ( Pan is sunk below ground such that water level in Pan
is at Ground level)
• US Geological Survey Floating Pan.(Evaporimeter is kept floating in lake)
 ISI STANDARD PAN (USED IN INDIA)

• This pan, specified by IS 5973, is commonly used

in India.
• It has a diameter of 1 m and a depth of 255 mm.
• The pan is made of copper sheet (0.9 mm
thickness), tinned inside, and painted white
outside.
• A fixed point gauge indicates the water level, and
a calibrated cylindrical measure adjusts water to a
fixed mark.
• The top of the pan is covered with hexagonal wire
netting to protect against birds.
ISI STANDARD PAN (USED IN INDIA)
 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

Evapotranspiration: In
agricultural fields apart from
transpiration, water is also lost
due to evaporation from
adjacent soil. The sum of these
two losses is often termed as
evapotranspiration (Et)
• Potential evapotranspiration(PE): When
sufficient moisture is freely available to
completely meet the needs of the vegetation fully
covering an area, the resulting evapotranspiration
is called potential evapotranspiration.
• Actual evapotranspiration(AE): The real
evapotranspiration occurring in a specific
situation in the field is called actual
evapotranspiration.
 FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

Temperature
Percentage sunshine hours
 Wind speed
Type of crop
Season
Moisture holding capacity of soil
Irrigation Methods
Cropping patterns
 INFILTRATION

1) Infiltration is the process by which precipitation (water) moves downward

through the surface of the earth & replenish soil moisture, recharge aquifer
& ultimately support stream flow during dry season.
2) Rainfall – Infiltration – Interception – Evaporation – Depression Storage =
Runoff
3) During major storm, losses are negligible Hence we can say, Rainfall =
Runoff
4) Infiltration is refers to the process by which water on the ground surface
enters the soil.
5) Percolation is the movement of water though the soil, and it's layers, by
gravity and capillary forces. (from one layer to other layer of soil)
 FACTORS AFFECTING INFILTRATION

1) Moisture content of soil: if the soil moisture contained in the soil is greater, the
rate of infiltration is less.
2) Resistance to flow is proportional to the thickness of saturated layer, as thickness of
saturated layer increases, resistances also increase & thereby infiltration decreases.
3) As rainfall intensity increase, infiltration is also increases till infiltration capacity
but If rainfall intensity is more than infiltration capacity then infiltration reduces due
to compaction of soil by drops.
4) Soil Porosity:- Infiltration rate increases with porosity.
5) Temperature:- at high temp., viscosity is low, therefore infiltration rate is high.
6) Entrapped air:- presence of entrapped air in the soil pores increases the resistance
to flow, therefore reduces the infiltration rate.
7) Characteristics of Soil or types of soil.
 MEASUREMENT OF INFILTRATION

1) Infiltration characteristics of a soil, at a given location, can be obtained by

conducting controlled experiments on small areas.
2) The experimental setup is called as infiltrometer & they are two types (Flooding
Type Infiltrometer & Rainfall Infiltrometer)
3) Infiltrometer is a device by which rate of infiltration into soil is determined.
Flooding Type Infiltrometer:-
1) Water is applied by flooding the soil surface without disturbing the soil structure.
2) It gives comparatively higher infiltration rate.
3) Metal cylinder is driven into the ground to a depth of 50 cm in single & 15-25cm in
Double ring.
4) Water is poured into the top part to a depth of 5 cm & pointer is set to mark the water
level.
5) As infiltration proceeds, the volume is made up by adding water from a burette to
keep the water level at the tip of pointer.
6) Knowing the water volume added at different time intervals, the plot of infiltration
 INFILTRATION INDICES
• Infiltration index is the average rate of loss such that the volume of
rainfall in excess of that rate will be equal to direct runoff.
• Estimates of runoff volume from large areas, having heterogeneous
infiltration and rainfall characteristics, are made by use of
infiltration indexes.
• Infiltration indexes assume that infiltration rate is constant
throughout the storm duration. This assumption tends to
underestimate the higher initial rate of infiltration while
overestimating the lower final rate.
• Infiltration indexes are best suited for applications involving either
long-duration storms or a catchment with high initial moisture
content. Under such conditions, the neglect of the variation of
infiltration rate with time generally justified on practical grounds.
• Two types of indexes: Phi-index and W-index are used.
 W-INDEX AND W-INDEX
• What is the W-index of rainfall?
• It is a rate of infiltration in which, the rate of infiltration
exceeds the value at which the volume of runoff becomes
equal to the volume of rainfall. W-Index: This is the average
infiltration rate during the entire period of rainfall.
• What is Phi-index?
• The φ index of a catchment is defined as the constant
infiltration capacity that would yield the actual total runoff for
a given rainfall amount. In principle, the magnitude of the φ
index is bounded between the maximum and minimum
average infiltration capacities of the catchment during a
rainfall event.
INFILTERATION INDICES
THANK YOU