Unit 4 Ring Theory

Introduction
As we indicated in previous chapter, there are certain algebraic systems which serve as
the building blocks for the structures comprising the subject which is today called modern
algebra. At this stage of the development we have learned something about one of these, namely
groups. It is our purpose now to introduce and to study a second such, namely rings. The abstract
concept of a group has its origins in the set of mappings, or permutations, of a set onto itself. In
contrast, rings stem from another and more familiar source, the set of integers. We shall see that
they are patterned after, and are generalizations of the algebraic aspects of the ordinary integers.
It will become clear that a ring is quite different from a group in that it is a two-
operational system; these operations are usually called addition and multiplication. Yet, despite
the differences, the analysis of rings will follow the pattern already laid out for groups. We shall
require the appropriate analogs of homomorphism, normal subgroups, factor groups, etc. With
the experience gained in our study of groups we shall be able to make the requisite definitions,
intertwine them with meaningful theorems, and end up proving results which are both interesting
and important about mathematical objects with which we have had long acquaintance.

Definition
A nonempty set R is said to be an associative ring if in R there are defined two operations,
denoted by + and · respectively, such that for all a, b, c in R:
1. a + b is in R.
2. a + b = b + a.
3. (a + b) + c = a + (b + c).
4. There is an element 0 in R such that a + 0 = a (for every a in R).
5. There exists an element -a in R such that a + (-a) = 0.
6. a · b is in R.
7. a· (b ·c) = (a· b)· c.
8. a· (b + c) = a· b + a· c and (b + c) ·a = b ·a + c ·a (the two distributive laws).
Note 1: The operation + is called addition and · is called multiplication,
Note 2 : Axioms 1 to 5 states that R is an abelian group under the operation +
Note 3: Axioms 6 and 7 states that R is closed under an associative operation ·
Note 4: Axiom 8 serves to interrelate the two operations of R.
Definition
In a ring R, if there is an element 1 in R such that a ·1 = 1 ·a = a for every a in R, then R is called
a ring with unit element.
Definition
If the multiplication of R is such that a · b = b · a for every a, b in R, then we call R a
commutative ring.
Examples of Rings
Example 3.1.1 R is the set of integers, positive, negative, and 0; + is the usual addition and · the
usual multiplication of integers. R is a commutative ring with unit element. (R, + , ·)
Example 3.1 .2 R is the set of even integers under the usual operations of addition and
multiplication. R is a commutative ring but has no unit element. (R, + , ·)
Example 3.1 .3 R is the set of rational numbers under the usual addition and multiplication of
rational numbers. R is a commutative ring with unit element. (R, + , ·)
But even more than that, note that the elements of R different from 0 form an abelian
group under multiplication. A ring with this latter property is called a field.

Example 3.1 .4 R is the set of integers mod 7 under the addition and multiplication mod 7. That
is, the elements of R are the seven symbols
(i.e) R= { 0̅, 1̅ , 2̅, 3̅, 4̅, 5̅ , 6̅ } such that
l. 𝑖̅ +𝑗̅ = 𝑘̅ where 𝑘̅ is the remainder of i +j on division by 7
2. 𝑖̅ · 𝑗̅ = 𝑚
̅ where 𝑚
̅ is the remainder of ij on division by 7.
Thus (R, +7 , ·7 ) is a commutative ring with unit element.

+7 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅ 6̅
0̅ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅ 6̅
1̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅ 6̅ 0̅
2̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅ 6̅ 0̅ 1̅
3̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅ 6̅ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅
4̅ 4̅ 5̅ 6̅ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅
5̅ 5̅ 6̅ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅
6̅ 6̅ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅
 ·7 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅ 6̅
1̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅ 6̅
2̅ 2̅ 4̅ 6̅ 1̅ 3̅ 5̅
3̅ 3̅ 6̅ 2̅ 5̅ 1̅ 4̅
4̅ 4̅ 1̅ 5̅ 2̅ 6̅ 3̅
5̅ 5̅ 3̅ 1̅ 6̅ 4̅ 2̅
6̅ 6̅ 5̅ 4̅ 3̅ 2̅ 1̅

Definition: If the nonzero elements of a ring R form an abelian group under multiplication, then
R is called a field. Since it has only a finite number of elements it is called a finite field.
Example 3.1.5 R is the set of integers mod 6 under addition and multiplication mod 6. If we
denote the elements in R by
(i.e) R= { 0̅, 1̅ , 2̅, 3̅, 4̅, 5̅ } such that
l. 𝑖̅ +𝑗̅ = 𝑘̅ where 𝑘̅ is the remainder of i +j on division by 6
2. 𝑖̅ · 𝑗̅ = 𝑚
̅ where 𝑚
̅ is the remainder of ij on division by 6.
Thus (R, +6 , ·6 ) is a commutative ring with unit element.
2̅ · 3̅ = 0, yet 2̅  0 and 3̅  0. Thus it is possible in a ring R that a · b = 0 with neither a = 0 nor
b = 0. This cannot happen in a field. Hence the ring R in this example is certainly not a field.

+6 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅
0̅ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅
1̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅ 0̅
2̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅ 0̅ 1̅
3̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅
4̅ 4̅ 5̅ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅
5̅ 5̅ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅
 ·6 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅
1̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅
2̅ 2̅ 4̅ 0̅ 2̅ 4̅
3̅ 3̅ 0̅ 3̅ 0̅ 3̅
4̅ 4̅ 2̅ 0̅ 4̅ 2̅
5̅ 5̅ 4̅ 3̅ 2̅ 1̅

Example 3.1.6 Non commutative ring

R will be the set of all symbols
2

11 e11+ 12 e12 +21 e21 +22 e22 = ∑α ei , j=1

ij ij

(i.e) R ={ ∑ α ije ij / α ij are rational numbers}

i , j=1

Consider x, y R
2

∑β e
2

Then x= ∑α e
i , j=1
ij ij and y =
i , j=1
ij ij

Define x=y
2

∑α e = ∑β e
2

ij ij ij ij if and only if for all i, j = 1,2, α ij = β ij

i , j=1 i , j=1

Define the operations + and · in R as follows

2 2

∑α e + ∑β e ∑ (α
2

x+y = ij ij ij ij = ij
+ β ij )eij
i , j=1 i , j=1 i , j=1

2 2

∑β e ∑γ e
2

x· y = ∑α e
i , j=1
ij ij ·
i , j=1
ij ij =
i , j=1
ij ij

where γ ij = ∑α β
t =1
it tj
(i.e) eij ·ekl =0 if jk : eij ·ekl =eil if j= k.

Then (R,+, · ) is a non commutative ring.

It is not commutative because if a= e11 b= e12
then a·b= e11 · e12 = e12
but b·a= e12 · e11 = 0
therefore a·b  b·a
Example 3.1.7 Let C be the set of all symbols (, ) where  and  are real numbers.
Consider x, y C where x=(, ) and y =(, ).
Define x=y
(i.e) (, ) =(,) if and only if  =  and =
Define the operations + and · in C as follows
x + y = (, ) + (, ) = (+, +)
x · y = (, ) · (, ) = ( - , (+ ).
Then (C, +, · ) is a commutative ring with unit element. Also it is a field.
Where (0, 0) is the identity element for addition,
(-, -) is the additive inverse of (, ).
(1, 0) is the unit element for C.
α β
( , 2 ) is the multiplicative inverse of (, ).
α + β α + β2
2 2

Example 3.1.7a Let C be the complex numbers.

(i.e) C= { +i /  and  are real numbers}
Consider x, y C where x=+i  and y =+i .
Define x=y
(i.e) (+i) =(+i) if and only if  =  and =
Define the operations + and · in C as follows
x + y = (+i) + (+i) = (+)+i( +)
x · y = (+i)·(+i) = ( - )+i (+ ).
Then (C,+, · ) is a commutative ring with unit element. Also it is a field.
Where (0+i 0) is the identity element for addition,
(- -i) is the additive inverse of (+i ).
(1+i. 0) is the unit element for C.
 α iβ
( - ) is the multiplicative inverse of (+i ).
α +β
2 2
α + β2
2

1.2 Some Special Classes of Rings

DEFINITION: If R is a commutative ring, then a  0  R is said to be a zero-divisor if there

exists a b R, b  0, such that ab = 0.

DEFINITION : A commutative ring is an integral domain if it has no zero divisors.

Example : The ring of integers is an example of an integral domain.

DEFINITION: A ring is said to be a division ring if its nonzero elements form a group under
multiplication.

Note: The unit element under multiplication will be written as 1, and the inverse of an element a
under multiplication will be denoted by a-1

DEFINITION A field is a commutative division ring.

Example : The rational numbers, complex numbers and the integers mod 7 are examples of field.

LEMMA 3.2.1 If R is a ring, then for all a, b  R

1. a0 = 0a = 0.
2. a (-b) = (-a) b = -( ab).
3. (-a)(-b) = ab.
If, in addition, R has a unit element 1, then
4. (-l)a = -a.
5. (-1) (-1) = 1.
Proof. (1)
If a  R, then a0 = a(0 + 0) = a0 + a0 (using the right distributive law)
a0 +0 = a0 + a0
0 = a0 (by left cancellation law)
Similarly, 0a = (0 + 0)a = 0a + 0a ( using the left distributive law)
0a +0 = 0a + 0a
0 = 0a (by left cancellation law)
(2). In order to show that a(-b) = - (ab)
 we must prove that ab + a( -b) = 0.

Consider ab + a( -b) = a(b + (-b)) = a0 = 0 [by distributive law and the result of part 1]

(i.e) ab + a( -b) = 0 (i.e) a(-b) = - (ab)

Similarly,
In order to show that (-a) b = - ( ab)
we must prove that (-a) b + ( ab) = 0.

Consider (-a)b + ( ab) = ((-a) + a)b = 0b =0 [by distributive law and the result of part 1]
(i.e) (-a)b + ( ab) =0 (- a) b = - (ab)
(3). (-a)(-b) = ab
Consider (-a)(-b) = -(a(-b)) [by (2) result]
= - (- (ab)) [by (2) result]
= ab
(4). Suppose that R has a unit element 1;
then a + ( -l)a = 1a + ( -1)a = (1+(-1))a=0a=0
 ( -l)a = -a
Put a=- 1 in (4) we get
( -1)( -1) = - ( -1) = 1.
THE PIGEONHOLE PRINCIPLE: If n objects are distributed over m places, and if n > m,
then some place receives at least two objects.
An equivalent formulation , and one which we shall often use is: If n objects are distributed over
n places in such a way that no place receives more than one object, then each place receives
exactly one object.
LEMMA 3.2.2 A finite integral domain is a field.
Proof: We know that an integral domain is a commutative ring such that ab = 0 if and only if at
least one of a or b is itself 0.
A field is a commutative ring with unit element in which every nonzero element has a
multiplicative inverse in the ring.
Let D be a finite integral domain. In order to prove that D is a field we
must
1. Produce an element 1 D such that a.1 = a for every a D.
2. For every element a  0  D produce an element b  D such that ab = 1.
Let x1, x2 , … , xn be all the elements of D, and suppose that a  0  D .
Consider the elements x1a, x2a, ... , xna; they are all in D.
Claim:The elements x1a, x2a, ... , xna in D are all distinct.
Proof :
For suppose that xia = xja for ij; then (xi- xj)a = 0.
Since D is an integral domain and a 0, this forces xi- xj = 0, and so xi = xj, contradicting i j.
Hence x1a, x2a, ... , xna are n distinct elements lying in D. Hence the claim.
x1a, x2a, ... , xna are n distinct elements lying in D which has exactly n elements.
By the pigeonhole principle these must account for all the elements of D; stated otherwise,
every element y D can be written as xia for some xi.
In particular, since a D, a = xi0a for some xi0 D.
Since D is commutative, a = xi0a = axi0
We show that xi0 acts as a unit element for every element of D.
For, if y  D, as we have seen, y = xia for some xi  D, and so
yxi0 = (xia) xi0 = xi(axi0) = xia = y. Thus xi0 is a unit element for D and
we write it as 1. (i.e) xi0 =1  1 D.
Since 1 D, 1= axj for some xj D. Take b=xj
 1=ab=ba (D is commutative)
 ab=ba=1
 D is a field
COROLLARY If p is a prime number then Jp, the ring of integers mod p, is a field.
𝑝 − 1}  Jp has p elements.  Jp is finite.
Proof: Jp ={ 0̅, 1̅ , 2̅, 3̅, 4̅, 5̅ ,… ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
We know that Any finite integral domain is a field.
To prove Jp is a field it is enough to prove that Jp is an integral domain.
Jp is a commutative ring for any integer mod p. It is enough to prove Jp has no zero divisors.
(i.e) to prove If a, b  Jp and ab = 0, then either a = 0 or b = 0.
ab = 0  ab ≡ 0 mod p.
p|ab. Since p is a prime number, p|a or p|b
a ≡ 0 mod p or b ≡ 0 mod p, hence a=0 or b=0
 Jp has no zero divisors.  Jp is an integral domain.  by lemma 3.2.2 we have Jp is a field.
DEFINITION An integral domain D is said to be of characteristic 0 if the relation ma = 0, where
a 0 is in D, and where m is an integer, can hold only if m = 0.
Example: The ring of integers is of characteristic 0.
DEFINITION An integral domain D is said to be of finite characteristic if there exists a positive
integer m such that ma = 0 for all a D.
Example: The ring of integers is of finite characteristic.
1.3 Homomorphisms
In studying groups we have seen that the concept of a homomorphism turned out to be a fruitful
one. This suggests that the appropriate analog for rings could also lead to important ideas. To
recall, for groups a homomorphism was defined as a mapping such that (ab) = (a)(b). Since
a ring has two operations, what could be a more natural extension of this type of formula than the
DEFINITION A mapping  from the ring R into the ring R' is said to be a homomorphism if
1. (a + b) = (a) + (b),
2. (ab) = (a)(b), for all a, b  R.
Note: + and · occurring on the left-hand sides of the relations in 1 and 2 are those of R, whereas
the + and · occurring on the right-hand sides are those of R'.
Example: Let R be any ring and let R= R' . Define : R→ R' such that (x)=x for every x  R.
Then  is a ring homomorphism.
LEMMA 3.3.1 lf  is a homomorphism of R into R', then
I. (0) = 0.
2. (-a) = -(a) for every a  R.
Proof: (1) Consider (0)= (0)+0
(0+0)= (0)+0
(0) +(0) = (0)+0 [Since  is a homomorphism]
(0) = 0 [by left cancellation law]
(2) To prove  (-a) = - (a) it is enough to prove (-a) is the additive inverse of (a)
Consider  (-a) + (a)
= (-a+a)=  (0) =0
 (-a) + (a)=0
Hence  (-a) = -(a)
Note: If both R and R' have the respective unit elements 1 and 1' for their multiplications it need
not follow that (1) = 1'. However, if R' is an integral domain, or if R' is arbitrary but  is onto,
then (1) = 1' is indeed true
DEFINITION If  is a homomorphism of R into R' then the kernel of , I(), is the set of all
elements a  R such that (a) = 0, the zero-element of R'.
(i.e) I() ={ a  R/ (a) = 0, the zero-element of R'}
LEMMA 3.3.2 If  is a homomorphism of R into R' with kernel I(), then
1. I () is a subgroup of R under addition.
2. If a  I() and r R then both ar and ra are in I()
Proof: (1)
(a) Closure
Consider a, b  I()
(a) = 0 and (b) = 0
Consider (a+b) = (a) +(b) 0+0
 a+ b  I()
(b)Existence of inverse
Consider a  I()
(a) = 0
Consider (-a)=- (a) =-0=0
 -a  I()
I () is a subgroup of R under addition.
(2)Consider a  I() and r R
(a) = 0
Consider (ar) = (a) (r) [Since  is a homomorphism]
= 0(r) =0
(ar) = 0
 ar  I()
Consider (ra) = (r) (a) [Since  is a homomorphism]
= (r)0 =0
(ra) = 0
 ra  I()
Hence both ar and ra are in I()
Example 3.3.1 Let Rand R' be two arbitrary rings and define (a) = 0 for all a  R. Trivially  is
a homomorphism and I () = R.  is called the zero-homomorphism.
Example 3.3.2 Let R be a ring, R' = R and define (x) = x for every x  R. Clearly  is a
homomorphism and I () consists only of 0.
Example 3.3.3 Let J(√2) be all real numbers of the form m + n√2 where m, n are integers;
Then J(√2) forms a ring under the usual addition and multiplication of real numbers. Define
: J(√2) →J(√2) by (m + n √2) = m - n√2. Then  is a homomorphism of J(√2)) onto J(√2)
and its kernel I(), consists only of 0.
Example 3.3.4 Let J be the ring of integers, Jn, the ring of integers modulo n.
Define : J →Jn by (a) = remainder of a on division by n. Then  is a homomorphism of J
onto Jn and that the kernel, I(), of  consists of all multiples of n.
DEFINITION A homomorphism of R into R' is said to be an isomorphism if it is a one-to-one
mapping.
DEFINITION Two rings are said to be isomorphic if there is an isomorphism of one onto the
other.
LEMMA 3.3.3 The homomorphism  of R into R' is an isomorphism if and only if I() = (0).