UNIT 14 URBANIZATION AND CONSUMER-

ISM
Structure
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Objectives
14.3 Urban Population Growth and Development
14.4 Migration
14.5 Accelerated Urbanization: Growth of Cities and Slums
14.6 Pressures on Urban Resources
14.7 Challenges to Sustainable Urbanization
14.8 Sustainable Buildings
14.9 Let Us Sum Up
14.10 Key Words
14.11 Suggested Further Reading/References
14.12 Answers to Check Your Progress

14.1 INTRODUCTION
Cities or urban areas have been the centre of trade since ancient civilizations.
These are the economic hub that has been the centre of trade and exchange of
goods and services between rural-urban as well as urban-urban trade. In this
context, the growth of cities in a region has always been an indicator of economic
development. However, with the increasing population and unprecedented rate
of urbanization, the land as a resource is becoming scarce to nurture the ever-
rising urban population. As a result, urban areas are extending into the periphery
either along the major roads leading to town- ribbon settlement; or urban sprawl
where suburbs keep growing continuously. This urban sprawl costs agricultural
land as it gets converted into settlements and other land-use types. Not only this,
the development of slums and shantytowns also puts a blot on the development
of cities. This unit emphasizes the pattern and causes of urbanization, issues
about urbanization and challenges to sustainable urbanization.

14.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
•• describe the pattern of urbanization;
•• explain the causes of urbanization;
•• discuss the issues about urbanization;
•• explain the urban sprawl and growth of slums and
•• explain the sustainable cities.
 Urbanization and
14.3 URBAN POPULATION GROWTH AND Consumerism
DEVELOPMENT
All over the world, people prefer living in urban areas or cities for want of a
better lifestyle, better educational facilities, infrastructural support for sanitation,
transportation as well as employment opportunities. As per the UN Report
(2018), the global population residing in urban areas has increased from 30% in
1950 to 55% in 2018 and is expected to increase to 60% by 2030. The annual
Indian urban population growth was reported at 2.3 % in 2020 (World Bank). In
2018, Northern America was the most urbanized region in the world, followed
by Latin America and the Caribbean (81%), Europe (74%) and Oceania (68%)
with the lowest levels of urbanization being in Asia (50%) and Africa (43%).
Also, by 2018, 13% of the world’s urban population lived in 33 megacities,
and this number is projected to increase to 14% of the urban population in 41
megacities by 2030. Further, it is projected that by 2050, Asia will host 52%
and Africa approximately 21% of the world’s urban population.
It is difficult to define the term ‘urban’ as the concept and definition of the term
varies at the regional level; and also, from nation to nation. While in many places,
population structure and density form the basis of urban characterization; others
focus on administrative boundaries or employment in non-agricultural sectors
or availability of health and other infrastructural facilities. However, even to this
day, commonly, the number of people residing in the area forms the basis of the
classification of a place into a rural or urban area. Therefore, a few criteria that
can help in classifying the urban area/ urban settlement or a city are as follows:
Based on boundaries
a. City Proper: When an urban settlement is defined based on the
administrative boundary.
b. Urban Agglomeration: This is larger than that of a city proper; and
includes the extent of the contiguous urban area, or built-up area, to
delineate the city’s boundaries
c. Metropolitan Area: A metropolitan area is defined based on the
interlinkage of a given area with its surrounding areas based on social and
economic scenarios besides the presence of industries, services available
and administrative functions.
Based on population thresholds
a. Small cities have a population of 1 million.
b. Medium-sized cities have a population of 1 to 5 million.
c. Large cities have a population of 5 to 10 million.
d. Megacities have a population of 10 million or more
It is assumed that urban areas or cities contribute about 80% of GDP to modern
economic development. As per the UN report, currently, about 55% of the
world’s population lives in urban areas with these numbers rising alarmingly 301
Security And by 2050. With the ever-increasing urban population, cities often face a variety
Development Issues of social issues such as adequate housing, hygiene and sanitation facilities,
infrastructure and transport facilities, migration of rural to urban population;
as well as environmental problems such as urban heat islands, environmental
pollution-air, water, soil and noise; availability of fresh water and many more.
Once a city is built, its land use land cover is altered significantly leading to the
conversion of pervious vegetated surfaces to impervious built-up surfaces such
as roads, buildings or pavements. As a result, rainwater is unable to percolate,
and issues of urban runoff and stormwater become more severe causing havoc
for drainage facilities of the city. Thus, for the city to sustain its population, the
rate of urban growth or urban sprawl should match the rate of growth of the
urban population. However, it is generally seen that the rate of growth of people
living in urban areas is almost double the expansion of land under urban sprawl;
thus, leading to unsustainable growth of cities in the long run. It also imposes
unnecessary pressure on the land and natural resources of the area. Further, it
also exposes the population to disaster risk since, in developing countries, most
of the urban expansion of built-up urban areas occurs in the hazard-prone areas
in an unplanned manner. Also, cities consume about 67% of global energy and
are responsible for emissions of 70% of greenhouse gases.

14.4 MIGRATION
As per UN Report, 2018, Urbanization or “urban transition” refers to “a shift in
a population from one that is dispersed across small rural settlements, in which
agriculture is the dominant economic activity, towards one that is concentrated
in larger and denser urban settlements characterized by a dominance of industrial
and service activities”.
However, it becomes pertinent to distinguish between urbanization and urban
population growth. Urban growth is the increase in the proportion of the
absolute number of people living within defined urban areas (IOM, 2015);
while urbanization refers to not only the migration of people from rural to urban
areas, or an increase in urban population; but also, the process of creation of
new urban centres or when administrative boundaries of urban settlements are
extended giving rise to larger urban areas.
Further, IOM, 2015 iterates that “very often, urbanization is primarily the
result of migration”. Thus, there exists a very close-knit relationship between
urbanization and migration. This migration of people could be rural-to-rural,
rural-to-urban, urban-to-urban and urban-to-rural migration. Also, this migration
could be within national borders or across the borders in the international
domain. It is estimated that around 20% of the total population of international
migrants live in about 20 cities in the world. Not only this, the proportion of
foreign-born persons in some cities exceeds the global average of 3.5% (IOM,
2015).
302 Further, this migration plays a very important role in maintaining urban diversity
and growth. It is generally seen that international migration is more common in Urbanization and
developed countries; while in developing countries, internal migration is more Consumerism
common. However, people from developing countries also migrate to developed
countries in search of better opportunities.
With a greater influx of people into urban areas from rural areas in search of
better amenities and employment opportunities; urban areas or cities are facing
the pressure of a greater population load concerning the resources available. As
a result, it becomes essential to manage data on urbanization and migration at
the municipal or urban level for better management of urban resources.

14.5 ACCELERATED URBANIZATION: GROWTH

OF CITIES AND SLUMS
The rapid pace of urbanization, as well as urban growth, exerts a lot of pressure
on the natural resources of the region. The most affected under this sector is
the housing facility. Due to the lack of adequate housing facilities as a result of
unprecedented urban growth; there has been a rise in slums or squatter settlements
or shantytowns in urban areas. Generally speaking, ‘slums’ are described as
areas with multi-family dwelling houses of inadequate proportions. Another
term used commonly is ‘shantytown’ which describes illegal settlements as a
result of people moving into unoccupied lands and constructing their dwelling
place. Shantytowns are synonymously called ‘squatter settlements’ to depict
low-quality housing on the periphery of the city. A common difference between
slums and squatter settlements is that slums are located in inner and older parts
of cities compared to squatter settlements which are temporary and scattered
in the outer periphery of cities. Shanty towns are mainly developed from rural-
urban migration and the inability of city authorities to provide sufficient housing
facilities and employment. The presence of these slums, shantytowns and
squatter settlements has become a common feature of urban cities; especially
the metropolitan cities in India and globally in regions such as Latin America,
urban Africa and South Asian regions. In India, these slums have different names
such as bustees in Kolkata, jhuggi- jhoparies in Delhi, Jhoparpattis or Chawl in
Mumbai and Cheri in Chennai. The largest slum in Asia is the Dharavi slum in
Central Mumbai of India.

Section 3 of Slum Areas (Improvement and Clearance) Act 1956 defines slums
as areas or buildings unfit for human habitation and lacking basic amenities such
as drinking water and sanitation facilities, adequate lighting and ventilation,
faulty engineering design or dilapidated houses. Thus, the following criteria aid
in classifying an area as a slum:
(i) All areas notified as “Slum” by the state government under any Act.
(ii) All areas recognised as a slum by the state government have not been
formally notified as slums under any Act.
(iii) A compact area of at least 300 individuals or about 60-70 households
of poorly built congested tenements such as mud or brick houses, in an 303
Security And unhygienic environment with no ventilation, no proper lavatories; usually
Development Issues with inadequate infrastructure and lacking proper sanitary and drinking
water facilities.
(iv) Social isolation from urban society with the prevalence of crime, drug
abuse, alcoholism and socially aberrant behaviour.
(v) Prevalence of water-borne diseases such as diarrhoea, blood dysentery,
malaria, typhoid as well as jaundice due to contaminated groundwater,
The causes of urbanisation are manifold, the chief being:

•• Rapid urbanisation and industrialisation

•• Shortage of land for housing facilities
•• Exorbitant prices of land
•• The influx of rural migrants to the cities in search of employment

The first-ever detailed report on the slum population of India was given by

the Census of India in 2001 in which it was reported that 26 states/union

territories have a large proportion of the slum population. Of these, the largest

slum population exists in Maharashtra; followed by Andhra Pradesh, Uttar

Pradesh, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and Delhi. Further,

the largest concentration of slum population is found in four major cities of

Greater Mumbai, Delhi Municipal Corporation (Urban), Kolkata and Chennai.

Surprisingly, Patna has reported only 0.25 per cent as a slum population. Figure

14.1 describes the geographical population of slums in India and Mumbai,

Maharashtra.

Fig. 14.1. Geographic distribution of slum population of (a) India (b)

Mumbai (Mahabir et. al., 2018)

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Describe the classification of urban areas.
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304
2. Discuss the causes of rural to urban migration. Urbanization and
Consumerism
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14.6 PRESSURES ON URBAN RESOURCES

Some of the problems that arise due to pressure on urban resources are the
following:
1. Lack of Adequate Housing: It was estimated in 2011 that about 100
million people around the world have become homeless. Thus, the lack of
adequate housing is a glaring problem in urban cities. With rising rural to
urban migration, the housing problem has further aggravated.
2. Inadequate Sewage System: Insufficient sewage system is another major
problem faced by growing cities as the population size far exceeds the
sewage systems in most unplanned urban cities. Currently, not a single
city in India is fully sewered. It is believed that only 35-40% of the urban
population has access to an adequate sewage system. Most of the cities do
not have proper arrangements for treating the sewerage waste and thus it
gets drained into a nearby river (for example, Delhi) or into the sea (for
example - Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai); thereby, polluting the water
bodies. Further, in most Indian cities, water pipes run close to sewer lines.
Any leakage leads to contamination of water that has repercussions for
water pollution which would eventually lead to an outbreak of water-
borne diseases such as cholera, dysentery and typhoid.
3. Overcrowding: With the rising population in urban cities due to growth
in the service sector and migration of people from rural to urban areas
as well as across the borders, the overcrowding of urban cities is a
common phenomenon. If we look at the example of Mumbai, the Master
Plan of Greater Mumbai suggests four acres of open space per thousand
population; while in reality, it has one-sixth of an acre of open space per
thousands of people. Delhi has the highest population density of 9,340
persons per square kilometre as per Census 2001.
4. Decline in Agricultural Productivity: Rural to urban migration leads
to lesser availability of people in the agricultural sector which causes
a reduction in agricultural production and poses a major threat to food
security. As per UN World Migration Report, 2020, 3.5% of the world’s
population, i.e., close to 272 million people have migrated globally in
2019; with 52% of international migrants being males and 48% being
females. Out of these, 74% of migrants are in the working-age group
lying between a band of 20-64 years. Further, in terms of international
migrants, India continues to be the number one nation with 17.5 million
migrants living abroad followed by Mexico and China. Also, there has
been observed a pattern that varies from region to region. While most
international migrants born in Africa, Asia and Europe reside within their
regions of birth, the majority of migrants from Latin America and the
305
Caribbean and Northern America reside outside their regions of birth.
Security And 5. Rise of Slums and Squatter Settlements: With rising urban sprawl and
Development Issues the inability of urban cities in nurturing the huge population load, the
migrants and lower-income groups are forced to settle in slums or squatter
settlements to carry on with their employment and support their families
either living with them or sending money to the ancestral villages.
It is imperative to mention that the central districts of the city bear the
greatest pressure from the immigrating population as the immigrants
throng their relatives’ and friends’ places before searching for their housing.
This situation has been described by Brush (1968) as “urban impulsion”
which results from the concentration of people in the centre of the city
close to their friends/relatives and workplace. The four metropolitan cities
of India-Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai and a few other cities such
as Bangalore and Hyderabad act as magnets for migration and present
a very good example of urban sprawl. Besides, another glaring problem
is the unemployment of urban youth. It is estimated that about half of
all educated urban unemployed are concentrated in the four metropolitan
cities. Also, although urban incomes are higher than rural incomes, the
high cost of living compensates for the comparatively higher income of
the urban population.
6. Traffic Congestion: Another issue of increasing urbanization is the rise in
the automobile sector which has led to increased traffic congestion. These
transportation-related problems increase and become more complex as
the town grows in size. As a result, tremendous pressure is exerted on
public transport and causes much longer journey periods with buses and
trains crammed to capacity, overcrowded roads and very slow movement
of traffic. This leads to increased commuting time by people as well as
increased fuel consumption. This has a bearing on air pollution as well
as respiratory issues. In the Indian scenario, Mumbai has the best city
transport system besides Chennai, Ahmedabad and Pune having well
established local transport systems. Delhi despite having a well-developed
road network and metro rail systems, still has congested and slow-moving
traffic which is believed to worsen by the guidelines for Delhi Master
Plan 2021, which would allow mixed land use, multi-storeyed structures
and regularisation of 24 industrial estates.
7. Water Scarcity: The problem of water scarcity in urban areas is a common
phenomenon. No urban city in India is self-sufficient in providing
drinking water to its dwellers. In many Indian cities, the municipal supply
of drinking water ranges from half an hour to two hours daily which is
not sufficient to meet the family requirements. This scarcity aggravates
during the summer months. The gap in demand and supply of water in four
metropolitan cities in India varies from 10 to 20 % which widens further
in smaller towns and cities. As a result of increased demand, Central
Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organisation (CPHEEO)
fixed 125-200 litres of water per head per day for cities with a population
of more than 50,000, 100-125 litres for the population between 10,000
and 50,000 and 70-100 litres for towns with a population below 10,000.
However, the target achieved is uncertain.
To tackle the issue of water scarcity, a programme known as the
306 Accelerated Urban Water Supply Programme (AUWSP) was launched
 to provide water to towns with a population of less than 20,000. Also, the Urbanization and
Zakaria Committee recommended the water requirement per head per day Consumerism
204 litres for cities with a population between 5 lakh and 2 million and
272 litres for cities with a population of more than 2 million.
8. Urban Pollution: With the growth of Indian cities, managing solid and
liquid waste dumping is a crucial issue. Most Indian cities lack adequate
garbage disposal facilities and the capacity of existing landfills far
outweighs the incoming solid waste. Thus, wastes are scattered in the
open, forming leachate, attracting rodents and flies, and presenting a scary
picture of urban cities. Besides leachate contaminating the groundwater,
the open water bodies and rivers face the brunt of urbanization in the form
of stormwater runoff; defaecation, discharge of sewage and industrial
effluents in water bodies as well as inadequate management practices.
9. Urban Crimes: The social fabric of urban cities is very diverse due to
people with different cultural backgrounds co-existing together. However,
the problem of urban crimes is rampant that disturbs the peace of the cities
and makes it unsafe for the inhabitants; particularly the women and children
being most vulnerable. Increasing consumerism, materialistic lifestyle,
socio-economic disparities, unemployment and growing loneliness lead
to increased crime in urban cities. In India, the two metropolitan cities of
Delhi and Mumbai have a high crime rate in terms of theft, robbery, sexual
assault, rape and kidnappings to list a few.

14.7 CHALLENGES TO SUSTAINABLE

URBANIZATION
It is pertinent to mention that all the above factors listed in the above section
such as adequate housing and sanitation facilities, availability of drinking water,
urban sprawl, urban slums as well as pollution pose a significant challenge to
sustainable urbanization. The pace of urbanization is also causing changes in
land use landcover of urban areas where pervious vegetated surfaces are being
converted to impervious concrete surfaces for housing, roads, and flyovers as
well as commercial centres. The influx of people from rural to peri-urban and
urban areas and the emergence of new activities-be commercial or labour-
driven occupational activities, is continuously changing the urban landscape
with lesser and lesser availability of land as a resource in megacities.
Besides these issues, another aspect of urbanization is the role played by cities
in tackling climate change. The LULC conversion has a bearing on the local
micro-climate of the region with the formation of urban heat islands that exhibit
elevated temperatures in the city centre compared to peri-urban and rural areas.
Also, the exposure of cities increases the risk of climate change and disaster risk
as the city grows in size. The coastal cities are particularly vulnerable to storm
surges, tsunamis, cyclones as well as coastal floods besides the rise of sea level.
Not only this, but cities have also played a crucial role in combating epidemics as
the recent example of the COVID-19 pandemic that has hampered public health
as well as the economic and social structure of urban areas. The preparedness of
cities in tackling the pandemic world over has been an eye-opener, as it required
a massive overhaul in the structure of the health sector with the involvement
of all the components of the urban governance and the public at large. Thus, 307
Security And building healthy and resilient cities is the need of the hour that provides a
Development Issues haven for its citizens against epidemics, pandemics and other challenges
such as migration. The FAO Framework for Migration proposes to minimise
the causes of migration and offer lucrative alternatives in rural areas to curb
migration besides promoting the well-being of migrants. Not only this, but the
Government of India has also launched major development programmes such
as Urban Basic Services for the Poor (UBSP), Environmental Improvement of
Urban Slums (EIUS), Integrated Development of Small and Medium Towns
(IDSMT), Housing and Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO), Mega-
Cities Project, and Integrated Urban Poverty Eradication Programme (IUPEP).

14.8 SUSTAINABLE BUILDINGS

The growth of sustainable cities is dependent on sustainable buildings. India
is among the fastest-growing economies of the world with projections that
seventeen of the twenty fastest-growing cities of the world between 2019 and
2030 will be from India (Oxford Economics’ Global cities report). This poses
challenges to urban governance, livelihood, water supply, sanitation as well as
liveability conditions for urban citizens. Most of the urban cities in India have
grown in an unplanned manner with larger clusters of urban agglomerations
in the centre of the city and less congested in the outskirts. Hence, Jawaharlal
Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) was launched in 2005 to
reform the cities through planned development initiatives. It was later replaced
by Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT). Later,
many other schemes such as Smart Cities Mission, Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana
– Housing for All (Urban) (PMAY-U), and Swachh Bharat Mission (Urban)
(SBM-U) were launched to improve the quality of life in urban cities.
Sustainable buildings are also known as ‘Green Buildings’ that focus on
environmental conservation besides construction safety. This is achieved by
focussing on energy-efficient architectural design, recycling of grey wastewater,
using solar and other renewable sources of energy, reducing the burden on
fossil fuels and cutting down on the demand of electricity. GRIHA norms
help in ratifying or certifying the housing settlements for a better quality of
living. In India, various government and corporate housing are increasingly
implementing the concept of “Green Buildings” and trying to increase the green
cover of urban settlements. This also has a bearing on climate change as there
has been a shift in mindset from excessive consumerism and lifestyle demands
to climate-conscious green consumerism.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Enlist the major challenges of urbanisation.
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308
 ………………………………….………………………………………… Urbanization and
………….…………….…………..…….…………….…………............... Consumerism
2. What policies have been launched by the government of India to combat
the issue of housing facilities in urban areas?
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14.9 LET US SUM UP

In the present unit, urbanisation and its impacts, the challenges posed have been
discussed in great detail. Thus, at the end of this chapter, the students would be
well-versed with the following concepts:
•• Pattern of urbanization
•• Causes of urbanization
•• Issues about urbanization
•• Urban sprawl and growth of slums
•• How to develop sustainable cities and sustainable buildings.

14.10 KEY WORDS

Migration: Environmental migration refers to human migration where
environmental risks or environmental change plays a significant role in
influencing the migration decision and destination. Migration may involve
distinct categories such as direct, involuntary, and temporary displacement due
to weather-related disasters; voluntary relocation as settlements and economies
become less viable; or planned resettlement encouraged by government actions
or incentives. All migration decisions are multi-causal, and hence it is not meant
to describe any migrant flow as being solely for environmental reasons.
Green Building: A green building is “designed”, “constructed” and “operated/
maintained” to reduce greatly the environmental impacts and augment the
resource use efficiency and at the same time factor in the “cultural and community
sensitivity”. Use of energy-efficient equipment aid in attaining higher efficiency
in performance. The green buildings are constructed in such a way that it uses
less electrical energy, but use more natural sunlight for operation.
Acronyms:

•• GDP: Gross Domestic Product

•• IOM: International Organization for Migration
•• UBSP: Urban Basic Services for the Poor
•• EIUS: Environmental Improvement of Urban Slums 309
Water-Related •• IDSMT: Integrated Development of Small and Medium Towns
Issues •• HUDCO: Housing and Urban Development Corporation
•• IUPEP: Integrated Urban Poverty Eradication Programme
•• JNNURM: Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission
•• AMRUT: Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation
•• PMAY-U: Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana – Housing for All (Urban)
•• SBM-U: Swachh Bharat Mission (Urban)

14.11 SUGGESTED FURTHER READING/

REFERENCES
•• Duncan, H. and Popp I. 2018   World Migration Report 2018, Chapter 10:
Migrants and Cities: Stepping Beyond World Migration Report 2015, IOM,
Geneva.
•• United Nations 2018   Sustainable cities, human mobility and international
migration: Report of the Secretary-General, UN, New York.
•• Charles,A., Galal H., and Guna D. 2018   Preparing Cities to Manage Migration,
A policy brief from the Think20 Migration Task Force, CARI and CIPPEC,
Buenos Aires.  
•• Jansen, K. et al. 2018   Economic Migration and the Role of Cities –
Ensuring Social Cohesion,  A policy brief from the Think20 Migration Task
Force, CARI and CIPPEC, Buenos Aires.
•• United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA)
2018   World Urbanization Prospects:  The 2018 Revision, UN DESA,
Population Division.
•• World Migration Report, 2020; IOM UN Migration, Published by
International Organization for Migration (IOM), Switzerland. ISSN 1561-
5502; e-ISBN 978-92-9068-789-4.
•• Mahabir, Ron & Crooks, Andrew & Stefanidis, Anthony & Croitoru, Arie
& Agouris, Peggy (2018). A Critical Review of High and Very High-
Resolution Remote Sensing Approaches for Detecting and Mapping Slums:
Trends, Challenges and Emerging Opportunities. Urban Science. 2. 10.3390/
urbansci2010008.
WEB LINKS
•• https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/urbandevelopment/overview
(Accessed on 23 December 2021)
•• https://mohua.gov.in › cms › urban-growth (Accessed on 23 December 2021)
•• https://www.migrationdataportal.org/themes/urbanisation-et-migration
(Accessed on 23 December 2021)
•• https://www.migrationdataportal.org/themes/urbanisation-et-migration
(Accessed on 23 December 2021)
310 •• https://rosanjose.iom.int/site/es/blog/el-complejo-punto-de-encuentro-
 entre-la-migracion-ambiental-y-la-covid-19 (Accessed on 23 December Urbanization and
2021) Consumerism
•• https://habitat3.org/the-new-urban-agenda/
•• https://www.iom.int/
•• https://worldmigrationreport.iom.int/2015
•• https://www.weforum.org/reports/migration-and-its-impact-on-cities
•• https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/rural-to-urban-
migration-in-india-why-labour-mobility-bucks-global-trend/ (Accessed on
23 December 2021)
•• https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/policy/view-indias-
urbanisation-challenges-and-the-way-forward/articleshow/79443872.
cms?utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_
campaign=cppst

14.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1
1. Please refer to section 14.3
2. Please refer to sections 14.4 and 14.5
Check Your Progress 2
1. Please refer to section 14.7
2. Please refer to section 14.8

311