Waves Notes

Key Definitions and Equations

Equilibrium position- the position of the wave when no energy is being transferred through it

Displacement-the distance and direction of a vibrating particle from its equilibrium position

Wavelength
Amplitude- the maximum displacement of a vibrating particle Peak

Wavelength, 𝜆- the least distance between two vibrating Amplitude

particles with the same displacement and velocity at the same
time Equilibrium position
Time period, T- the time for one complete wave to pass a fixed point

Frequency, f- the number of complete waves passing a point per

second Trough

"
Frequency (Hz)
𝑓=
#
Time period (s)

Wave speed- speed at which the wave propagates

Frequency (Hz) Note:

The wave speed, c, should not be

𝑐 =𝑓 𝜆
confused with the speed of light
through a vacuum (which is also
-1
Wave speed (ms ) represented by the letter c).
However, when dealing with
problems involving an
electromagnetic wave travelling
Wavelength (m) through a vacuum or air, the wave
speed is equal to the speed of light.

The speed of light in a vacuum, c = 3 x 108 ms-1

Phase difference- the fraction of a cycle between the vibrations of two particles

The phase difference is often given in terms of radians, with 2𝜋 radians (360˚) being equal to one complete cycle

Phase of a vibrating particle- fraction of its cycle it has completed since the start of its cycle

In phase- when two points on a wave oscillate with the same displacement and velocity at the same time

When two points of a wave are vibrating in phase, the phase difference is 2𝜋 radians

In antiphase- when two points on a wave oscillate with equal but opposite displacement and velocity at the same time

When two points of a wave are vibrating in antiphase, the phase difference is 𝜋 radians

Path difference- the difference in length between two paths, in terms of wavelengths

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Progressive Waves

Progressive waves- transfer energy but there is no net movement of the medium that carried the wave

The individual particles of the medium oscillate around their equilibrium position

Transverse Waves

Transverse waves- the oscillations of the wave are perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer

Direction of energy transfer

- Water waves, electromagnetic waves, seismic waves and waves on a string
are examples of transverse waves
- Transverse waves can be polarised

Transverse wave
Longitudinal Waves

Longitudinal waves- the oscillations of the wave are parallel to the direction of energy transfer

A longitudinal wave consists of a series of compressions and rarefactions Compression Rarefaction

Compression- region of relatively high density and pressure

Rarefaction- region of relatively low density and pressure

Longitudinal wave

- Sound waves are an example of longitudinal waves

- Longitudinal waves cannot be polarised, since they only oscillate in one plane and therefore cannot be plane-polarised

Polarisation

Polarisation- the restriction of the oscillation of a wave to one plane

- Transverse waves can be polarised, whereas longitudinal waves cannot

- Therefore, if a wave can be polarised it is evidence that the wave is a transverse wave

Polaroid Filter
- A polaroid filter has long molecules in alignment with each other which absorb the oscillations in this place
- This restricts light to oscillate in a certain direction

When two polaroid filters are placed on top of each other and one is rotated, the light intensity passing through the filters varies

Light
intensity

90˚ 180˚ 270˚ 360˚ Angle of rotation

The variation in light intensity one polaroid filter is rotated

- A maximum to minimum every 90˚ rotation

Polaroid sunglasses
- Reduce glare
- Reflected light from the road is polarised so that the intensity is reduced

Aerial transmission
- The aerial transmission is pointed to the transmission source, to absorb the maximum amount of radio waves

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Mechanical Waves

Mechanical waves- waves that require a medium to propagate, but there is no net movement of the medium that carried the wave

Water waves and sound waves are examples of mechanical waves

Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic waves- oscillating electric and magnetic field that propagate through space perpendicular to one another

8 -1
- Electromagnetic (EM) waves propagate at a constant speed (3 x 10 ms ) through a vacuum
- They are transverse waves Look at other notes for
- They oscillate in all directions unless polarised electromagnetic waves
[particles and radiation]

Superposition

The Principle of Superposition- whenever two waves meet the total instantaneous displacement is equal to the vector sum of
the individual amplitudes

- Waves superpose when they meet

- Either constructive or destructive interference occurs

Constructive interference- when two waves meet in phase, the resultant amplitude is equal to the sum of the individual amplitudes
Constructive interference occurs when a crest meets crest or a trough meets a trough

+
Constructive Interference

Destructive interference- when two waves meet in antiphase, there is zero resultant amplitude
Destructive interference occurs when a crest meets trough
- The concept of destructive interference is used in noise cancelling headphones

+
Destructive Interference

Stationary Waves

Stationary waves- when two waves of the same frequency and amplitude travelling in opposite directions
meet
Node
Antinode

The dotted lines show the position of

` "
the stationary wave a cycle later
(

Stationary Wave Boundary

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 Nodes- stationary point on a stationary wave where two waves meet in antiphase

- Nodes are the point on a stationary wave where the two progressive waves meet in antiphase
- Destructive interference occurs
- There is zero resultant displacement

Antinodes- the point on a stationary wave where the two nodes meet in phase

- Antinodes are the points where the two progressive waves meet in phase
- Constructive interference occurs
- The displacement varies from zero to maximum to zero to minimum to zero

The wavelength of a stationary wave is twice the distance between two successive nodes

- The energy of stationary wave is contained within its boundaries

A stationary wave can be formed

Explanation:
on a string (occurs on musical
-Progressive wave produced by a source and is reflected at the boundary
instruments such as violins) They
- Crest reverses its phase when it reflects at the boundary
can also be formed when
- Reflected wave superposes with another transmitted wave
microwaves from a microwave
- A stationary wave formed
source is transmitted normally at
a metal plate
Graphical Explanation:

"
2) Reinforcement 1) Cancellation [ a cycle later]
)

- The blue and orange

line represent two
progressive waves
travelling in
opposite directions
- The black line
" *
3) Reinforcement [ a cycle later] 4) Cancellation [ a cycle later] represents the
( )
resulting wave

Harmonics

Harmonics- certain frequencies where stationary waves can be formed The number of antinodes on a
stationary wave is the number of
the harmonic e.g. the third
harmonic has three antinodes
First Harmonic

First harmonic- the lowest frequency a standing wave can be formed

on a string
Antinode
s

The first harmonic has one

antinode and its wavelength
is twice the distance
between the two boundaries

Nodes
First Harmonic the a level physicist
 -1
Wave speed (ms )

,
Frequency of first harmonic (Hz)
𝑓1 =
(- 𝑙 represents the distance
between the two nodes in metres
(the wavelength of the wave is
Note:
therefore 2 𝑙)
- This is a rearrangement of c = f 𝜆 specifically for the first harmonic

Tension (N)

/
Wave speed (ms )
-1
𝑐 =√
0 -1
Mass per unit length (kg m )

Note:
- This equation can be used for harmonics other
than the first harmonic
- The tension of the string is equal to the weight
- Increasing the tension, increases the wave speed
of the mass hung from the string (W = mg)
- Increasing the mass per unit length, decreases the
- Mass per unit length equals the total mass of the
wave speed
string (in kilograms) divided by the total length
of the string (in metres)
Combining the above equation and c = f 𝜆 gives:
" /
𝑓= 2√ 0
Vibration Tension
generator in wire

All harmonics have frequencies which are integral multiples of the first harmonic
- The second harmonic has twice the frequency of the first harmonic Masses

Comparing stationary and progressive waves`

Amplitude
- On a progressive wave, all the points have the same amplitude
- On a stationary wave, adjacent points have different amplitudes (zero at nodes and maximum at antinodes)

Phase difference
- On a progressive wave, adjacent points are out of phase
- On a stationary wave, all the points between two successive nodes are in phase

Energy
- A progressive wave transfers energy in the direction of the wave
- A stationary wave does not transfer energy

Wavelength
- The wavelength of a progressive wave is the least distance between two points on a wave in phase
- The wavelength of a stationary wave is twice the distance between two successive nodes

Waveform
- The waveform of a progressive wave moves forward
- The waveform of a stationary wave does not move forward

Frequency
- All parts of both a stationary wave and a progressive wave have the same frequency

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Diffraction
Diffraction- the spreading of light as it passes through a gap or by an edge

- The greatest diffraction when size of gap is equal to the wavelength

- Make the gap narrower or increase wavelength of the wave to increase the diffraction which occurs

Young’s Double Slit

Double slit Screen

Single slit

Interference pattern
observed on screen
Source of light

Young’s Double Slit Experiment Set-Up

- Lamp emits light which passes through a colour filter

- Light passes through narrow single slit, which acts as a point source and is narrow enough to diffract the light over the double
slits
- The double slits are coherent light sources
- An interference pattern of alternate bright and dark fringes is formed Coherent sources- sources which produce light
the same frequency and a constant phase

If the sources of light were not coherent, the points of cancellation and reinforcement move about at random, so no
interference pattern would be formed

- A bright fringe is formed when constructive interference occurs as the light from one slit reinforces the light from the other slit
- The light arrives in phase
- There is 0 or an integral multiple of wavelength path difference

- A dark fringe is formed when destructive interference occurs as the light from one slit cancels the light from the other slit
- The light waves arrive in antiphase
- The path difference is (n+0.5) wavelengths, where n is an integer

This experiment can be repeated without using a single slit, if a laser emitting monochromatic light is shone over both slits as
the slits are coherent sources of light

- Never look along or into a laser

Monochromatic light- light of a single wavelength
as it can destroy your retina
Fringe separation
- Wear laser safety goggles to
protect your eyes
Fringe separation- the distance between two successive bright
fringes

Wavelength of light (m)

Distance between screen and

24
double slits (m)

Fringe separation (m)

𝑤=
5 Slit separation (m)
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- Measure fringe separation using vernier callipers, over multiple fringes measured and calculate an average
- Increase distance from screen to increase the fringe width and so decrease the percentage uncertainty

Double slit interference Pattern

Note: there is actually a slight decrease in

peak intensity due to the effects of single slit
diffraction, but this can be ignored

- All fringes have same width

- All fringes have the same peak intensity

Difference with white light

- The central maximum is white light
- Peaks are less intense
- The subsidiary maxima are spectrum of light with red at the outside of the fringe, since red is a larger wavelength than blue and
so diffracts more

Single slit interference Pattern

- Central fringe is twice the width of outer fringes

- Outer fringes have the same width as each other
- Peak intensity decreases from the centre
- Outer fringes are much less intense than the central maxima

Diffraction Grating

Diffraction grating- a plate with many closely spaced parallel slits rules on it

- Monochromatic light passes through the diffraction grating and is diffracted

- Diffracted light rays only reinforce each other in certain directions

Zero order beam- central beam in the same direction as the incident beam

First order beam- wave front emerging from slit reinforces with wave
emerging from the adjacent slit one cycle earlier
Second order beam- wave front emerging from slit reinforces with wave
emerging from the adjacent slit two cycles earlier

Light source

Zero order beam

Diffraction First order beam

grating
Second order beam
Diffraction grating diffraction pattern
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 Wavelength of light (m)
Slit separation (m)

Angle between beam and

zero order beam

Order of beam
𝑛 𝜆 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃
The highest order beam observed can be found by allowing sin 𝜃 to equal 1 and rounding the value of n down to the nearest whole
number:

Slit spacing (m)

N
Highest order beam observed 𝑛max =
2
Wavelength of light (m)
Not in formula booklet
Slit spacing of the diffraction grating can be found
as the reciprocal of the number of slits per metre
The number of observed maxima equals 2 x nmax + 1

Refraction
Refraction- the change in direction of a wave due to the change in wave
speed as the wave travels from one medium to another
The frequency of the wave is determined by the source
- If the frequency of a source is constant, the frequency of the waves in each medium is constant
- Since c = f 𝜆, Wave speed is proportional to wavelength
- If the wave speed increases in the second medium, the wavelength decreases

Absolute refractive index- the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light through the medium

8 -1
Speed of light in a vacuum, 3 x 10 ms

Absolute refractive index

𝑛s = O, P Speed of light through the substance

Not in formula booklet Absolute refractive

index is a ratio and
- The absolute refractive index of air and a vacuum are 1 therefore has no units
- Light travels fastest through a vacuum
- Absolute magnitude of a medium can therefore never be less than 1

An optically dense material has a high refractive index, so light travels slowly through it

Angle of incidence- angle between the incidence ray and the normal at the point of incidence

Angle of refraction- angle between the refracted light ray and the normal at the point of refraction

Normal- an imaginary line perpendicular to a boundary between two mediums

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When a light ray passes into a medium with a higher refractive index
- The light ray travels slower
- The light ray moves towards the normal 𝜃"
- The angle of refraction is less than the angle of incidence 𝑛"
𝑛(
𝜃(

Refraction when n 1 < n2

When a light ray passes into a medium with a lower refractive index
- The light ray travels faster 𝜃"
- The light ray moves away the normal
𝑛"
- The angle of refraction is greater than the angle of incidence 𝑛(
𝜃(

Refraction when n 1 > n2

Light travelling from air to glass

The absolute refractive

index of glass is around 1.5

- Glass has a higher refractive index than air

- The light ray therefore moves slower through glass and so moves towards the normal as it enters
the glass
- As the light ray leaves the glass, it enters a medium with a lower refractive index so the light ray
moves away from the normal
Light travelling through a
rectangular block of glass

- Light rays are refracted towards the normal as they enter the glass block
- Light rays are refracted away from the normal as they leave the glass block

Light travelling through a

triangular block of glass

- Due to its curvature, light rays are refracted towards the normal as they enter the lens
- Light rays are refracted away from the normal as they leave the lens
- This means parallel rays of light will converge to a focus

Light travelling through a

glass lens

- The incident ray refracts towards the normal

- The light ray leaves the block perpendicular to the boundary, and therefore does not change direction

Light travelling through a

semi-circular glass block

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Snell’s Law
Absolute refractive index
of medium the light ray
Absolute refractive index enters
of medium the light ray
leaves

𝑛1 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃2
Angle of incidence Angle of refraction

You must be able to

rearrange this formula to
find the value you want
𝜃" 𝜃"
𝑛"
𝑛(

𝜃( 𝜃(

Refraction of two parallel beams of light

If the medium the refractive index leaves air, let n1 = 1

- The formula rearranges to give:

STU VW Angle of incidence

Absolute refractive index of

𝑛=
STU VX
medium the light ray enters

Angle of refraction
Not in formula booklet

Critical Angle

Critical angle- the angle at which the incident light ray is refracted perpendicular to the boundary
The angle of refraction is 90˚

When 𝜃2 equals 90˚, Snell’s Law rearranges to:

Critical Angle Absolute refractive index of

UX
medium the light ray would

sin 𝜃c =
enter

UW Absolute refractive index of

medium the light ray leaves

for 𝑛1 > 𝑛2 The absolute refractive index of the medium the light ray enters
must be less than the absolute refractive index of the medium the
light ray leaves (the light ray moves away from the normal)

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Total Internal Resistance

Total internal reflection- when the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, all the light is reflected at the boundary
For total internal refraction to occur:
- the absolute refractive index of medium the light ray is in is greater than the surrounding medium, 𝑛1 > 𝑛2
- the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle

Total internal reflection occurring in a diamond causes it appear to Refraction occurs in the medium with a higher
sparkle. The high refractive index of the diamond means it has a refractive index. Think about how TIR occurs
relatively small critical angle, so the ray of light is totally internally within a glass optical fibre, with a higher absolute
reflected within the diamond multiple times. refractive index than the air surrounding the glass

Optical fibres

Optical fibres are used in communication (data transmission) and medicine (endoscopes)

Core

Cladding

Step Index Optical Fibre

The core has a higher refractive index than the cladding, to enable the light ray to stay within the core

Purpose of the cladding:

- Prevents scratching of the core which can cause light leakage
- Provides strength to prevent breakage

Modal Dispersion

Modal dispersion- the spreading out of light as rays take different paths along the core and so the rays have different journey times
through the optical fibre

Light travelling via different paths through a step index optical fibre

- Reduce the pulse broadening caused by modal dispersion, using a single mode cable (this optical fibre, with a thin core, allows
the light to only take one path through the core)

Material Dispersion

Material dispersion- the spreading out of light as different wavelengths of light have different refractive indices and so travel
through the optical fibre at different speeds

- Using a single wavelength of light can prevent material dispersion

- Reduce the pulse broadening using a signal regenerator to boost the signal

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The Refraction of White Light

- Different wavelengths of light have different refractive indices (in the same medium) and so travel at different speeds through a
medium
- This causes dispersion and a colour spectrum is produced
Remember:
Blue bends best
(blue has the highest refractive
index of visible in a given material)

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