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Practical op-amps cannot achieve ideal characteristics but can approximate them, with key features including very large finite gain, large input impedance, and small output resistance. They exhibit limited bandwidth and output saturation, with non-linear distortions such as slew rate limiting and offset voltages affecting performance. Additionally, input bias and offset currents can lead to non-zero output voltages in closed-loop operations.

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3 views4 pages

new

Practical op-amps cannot achieve ideal characteristics but can approximate them, with key features including very large finite gain, large input impedance, and small output resistance. They exhibit limited bandwidth and output saturation, with non-linear distortions such as slew rate limiting and offset voltages affecting performance. Additionally, input bias and offset currents can lead to non-zero output voltages in closed-loop operations.

Uploaded by

Wami Mahammad
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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3.3.

2 PRACTICAL OP-AMP

In practice, the ideal characteristics cannot be achieved. However, in many practical situations, op-amps
can approximate these characteristics. Some of the important characteristics of op-amp are viewed briefly
in the upcoming sessions. Since this information is important for electronic designers, they are normally
available in data sheet.

Very Large Finite Gain

While the gain of an op amp can never be infinite, most op amps provide open loop gain figures
which are of the order of 100,000 when used alone without the addition of feedback paths.
Large Input Impedance and Small Output Resistance

Practical op amps provide input impedance usually above 100 KΩ. By using Darlington
transistor the impedance becomes about 1 MΩ. In case of FET it approaches to several MΩ. The
output resistance for a typical op-amp may be 50Ω.

Very Large CMRR

Compared to the conventional differential amplifiers, op-amps exhibit very good ability of
rejecting common mode signals.

Output Voltage and Current Saturation

In practice, op amps will operate linearly over a limited range of output voltage and current. For a typical
op-amp (741) the range for voltage and current are around ±(10-15) V and ±(10-20) mA. Beyond this
range, the output will be nonlinearly distorted (e.g. cut-off). In normal applications input amplitude
should never exceed the dc supply values, remaining below the positive supply value and above
the negative supply value at all times.

Vo

Positive
saturation
VCC1

Vd

-VCC2
negative
saturation

Figure: Transfer characteristics of practical operational amplifier

Limited Bandwidth

Practical op amps offer frequency response characteristics from zero hertz to upper limits of
approximately 100 KHz or more. The typical frequency response (open-loop) is single-time-constant
(STC) low-pass response shown below.
Figure: Frequency response of open-loop op amp

Most op-amps have very small band width and very large gain which is unacceptable for
practical use. Consequently, we can use closed loop operation to trade off gain to bandwidth. As
long as the gain band width product is not changed, we will have the new cut-off frequency
given by

Where

• or is the 3-dB corner frequency of the op-amp without feedback

• or is the unity-gain frequency of the op-amp without feedback

• is the gain of the closed loop system

Slew rate

Another nonlinear distortion for large output signals are so-called slew-rate limiting. This refers to
the maximum allow rate of change of signal, defined as:

Non-linear SR limiting can be illustrated using a sine wave output:

The changing rate is given by

So the maximum changing rate is given by , which depends on both the maximum output voltage and
frequency. If exceeds maximum SR, distortion happens as shown below.
Offset Voltages

Practical open-loop op-amps have non-zero output even when there is no applied input voltage
called output offset voltage. This voltage is mainly caused by the mismatch of amplifier the
internal circuit parameters. The corresponding input voltage required to produce zero output is
defined as input offset voltage (Vos). The input offset voltage can be modeled as the dc voltage
in series with a hypothetical offset free op-amp. Many op amps provide external terminals
specifically for offset adjustment. This adjustment is a potentiometer which changes the biasing
of the two transistors of the diff amp which makes the output voltage as close to zero as possible.

Actual Op-amp

Vos
Offset-free op-amp

Offset and Bias Currents

In a practical op-amp, both input terminal are supplied with dc currents to function. Generally, the bias
current of the inverting terminal is different from that of the non-inverting terminal. When the op-amp is
operated in a closed loop the bias currents will start to circulate in the external circuit elements producing
none-zero output voltage. These two currents are modeled with two current sources as shown in the figure
below. The average of these two currents is referred as input bias current. The different between these two
currents is referred as input offset current.

IB1

IB2

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