CCE 2214

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

TOPIC-1
INTRODUCTION
 Introduction to Geology

• Introduction to Geology and its relevance to Civil

Engineering
• Formation, nature and Types of rocks
• Minerology
• Structural Geology
• Weathering
 Geology and its relevance to Civil Engineering
 Geology is the science of rock, minerals, soils, and subsurface water, including the
study of their formation and behavior.
 Engineering geology is the branch that deals with the application of geology principal
to engineering works.
 Unlike geotechnical engineers, whose training is in civil engineering,
engineering geologists have a background in geology (work include mapping,
describing and characterizing rocks and soils at a construction site, accessing stability
issues such as land slides and appraising local seismicity and earthquake potential).
 In other words, engineering geologists provide crucial information about the
site that geotechnical engineer will use in analysis and design.
 Its important that geologist have some understanding of engineering and
engineer have some understanding of geology
 Composition of earth
 Our planet Earth has an average radius of 6378 km and a mean
mass density of 5.527 g/cm3 compared with a mean mass density
of soil particles of 2.7 g/cm3 and water of 1 g/cm3.
 Studies from elastic waves generated by earthquakes have shown
that the earth has a core of heavy metals, mostly iron and nickel, of
mass density 8 g/cm3 surrounded by a mantle. The mantle consists
of two parts, upper mantle and lower mantle. The upper mantle
lies between (35-650) km depth and made of solid rock while the
lower mantle lies between (650-2890) km depths and made of
molten rock. Above the upper mantle is the crust, which may be as
much as 50 km thick in the continental areas and as little as 7 km
thick in oceanic areas.
 it is possible to distinguish two layers in the crust. The upper layer
which is less dense (specific gravity=2.65), and granitic in character
is known as the “sial"; while the lower layer which is basaltic in
character (specific gravity=3.0) is known as" sima". The term sial
represents rocks rich in silica and alumina and term sima represents
rocks containing silica and magnesia. Under oceans only sima layer
is found and sial layer appears to be absent.
 Composition of earth
 Our planet Earth has an average radius of 6378 km and
a mean mass density of 5.527 g/cm3 compared with a
mean mass density of soil particles of 2.7 g/cm3 and
water of 1 g/cm3.
 Studies from elastic waves generated by earthquakes
have shown that the earth has a core of heavy metals,
mostly iron and nickel, of mass density 8 g/cm3
surrounded by a mantle. The mantle consists of two
parts, upper mantle and lower mantle. The upper
mantle lies between (35-650) km depth and made of
solid rock while the lower mantle lies between (650-
2890) km depths and made of molten rock. Above the
upper mantle is the crust, which may be as much as 50
km thick in the continental areas and as little as 7 km
thick in oceanic areas.
 it is possible to distinguish two layers in the crust. The
upper layer which is less dense (specific gravity=2.65),
and granitic in character is known as the “sial"; while
the lower layer which is basaltic in character (specific
gravity=3.0) is known as" sima". The term sial
represents rocks rich in silica and alumina and term
sima represents rocks containing silica and magnesia.
Under oceans only sima layer is found and sial layer
appears to be absent.
 Geological Cycle
 The earth is an active plane in a constant state of change
 Constant state of change is Geological Process (Cycle of
Geology)
 Geological Process continually :
 Modifies the earth surface ,
 Destroy old rocks (Weathering of rock to form
soil)
 create new rocks (Petrology)
 Add complexity to ground conditions (Ground
Movements

Geological CYCLE
 The geological cycle includes many  Land: erosion and destruction of
processed acting simultaneously rocks
 The most important begins with molten (Weathering)
magma from within earth crystallizing  Sea: Deposition and forming new
into rock, the continue with rock being sediments
broken down into soil and then soil  Underground: New rock
being converted back into rock formation and deformation
(Petrology )
 Geology and its relevance to Civil Engineering
Where does Geological Cycle occur
 Land: erosion and destruction of rocks
(Weathering)
 Sea: Deposition and forming new
sediments
 Underground: New rock formation
and deformation (Petrology ), earth
movement (Seismology)

Significance to Civil
Engineering
 All civil engineering
works are caried out
on the ground.
Properties of rock and
soils are significant
 Unstable ground does
exist
 Unforeseen ground
condition
 (a) ROCK FORMATION AND TYPES

Engineering definition of rock

 Engineering definition of rock differ from that used
in geology
 From excavation point of vie rock is material that
cannot be excavated without blasting
 In geology, rocks are classified by how they are
formed
 All other materials would be termed as soil

Types of rock
Depending on the Origin rock
can be divided into three
groups
 Igneous rocks
 Metamorphic rocks
 Sedimentary rocks
.
 Igneous rocks

Formation
 Formation by cooling of molted rock
materials (lava or magma)
 Magma is generated by local heating
and meting of rocks within the
earth’s crust
 Melting occurs at depths of 10-100 Extrusive Igneous rocks (volcanic)
km  Formed when magma is extruded onto
 Most composition of rock melt at earth surface to form volcano.
temperatures of 800-1200° C  Generally finer grained and have
 When magma cools it solidifies by smoother surface
crystallizing into mosaic of minerals
to form ingenious rocks Intrusive Igneous rocks (plutonic)
 Igneous rocks can be classified as  Formed when magma solidifies below
 Extrusive igneous rocks surface of earth.
 Intrusive igneous rocks  They may be exposed to the surface
 Igneous rocks are composed mainly when cover rock are eroded away
of silicate minerals.  Batholith are large blob-shaped
intrusions
 Dykes are smaller sheet intrusions
 Igneous rocks

Formation
 Formation by cooling of molted
rock materials (lava or magma)
 Magma is generated by local
heating and meting of rocks
within the earth’s crust
 Melting occurs at depths of 10-
100 km
 Most composition of rock melt at
temperatures of 800-1200° C
 Unweather igneous rocks generally have excellent
 When magma cools it solidifies
engineering properties and good materials to build on
by crystallizing into mosaic of Intrusive rocks are especially good (slow cooling).
minerals to form ingenious rocks  Cooling process, along with various tectonic forces within
 Igneous rocks can be classified as the earth produce fracturs especially in extrusive rocks
 Extrusive igneous rocks  Intact rocks between the cracks can be very strong, but
 Intrusive igneous rocks fractures form plane of weakness
 Igneous rocks are composed  The rock can slide along these weak planes, potentially
mainly of silicate minerals. causing instability of rock mass
 Engineering properties of weathered igneous rock are less
desirable because the rock is changing into a more soil like
materials.
Example of Identification of igneous rocks and types
 Sedimentary Rocks

Formation
 Are created from sediments
 Sediments form from outer skin
of earth crusts
 Most sedimentary rocks are of
secondary origin, the contain
detrital materials derived by
breakdown of existing rocks
 Some sedimentary rocks are a
product of chemical or biological
precipitation whereas others are
organic origin.
 Since sedimentary rocks are
formed from deposits, they are
mostly bedded or stratified.
 Sedimentary Rocks
 Soil deposits can be transformed back into rocks through the hardening process called induration or
lithification, thus forming sedimentary rocks.
 There re two types of such rocks
Clastic rocks and
Carbonate rocks
 Sedimentary Rocks
Clastic Rocks:
• Form when deep soil deposits become hardened as a result of pressure
from overlying strata and cementation though precipitation of water-soluble
minerals such as calcium carbonate or ion oxide.
• These rocks are layered or stratified ,which makes the them
different from massive formation. The interface between these
layers are called bedding planes. Most clastic rocks are interbedded
such as conglomerates, breccia and sandstone. Those cemented
with silica or iron oxides are generally durable but may be
difficult to excavate. However, some are weakly indurated, often
only cemented only with clay and other water-soluble minerals. Slaking of clay bearing sedimentary
These may behave much like a soil and may be much easier to rocks
excavate.
• Fine grained and very fine-grained clastic rocks are more
common and much more problematic. Sometimes mudstone is
used to collectively described these rocks (siltstone ( derived from
silt) , claystone (derived from clay)or shale (derived from clay and well
indurated))
• These rocks have distinct bedding planes (bedding planes) and are
subjected to opening or shearing (failure) along those planes. All
except shale are easy to excavate with conventional earth
moving equipment (bulldozer).
• Some fine grained and very fine-grained elastic rocks are
subjected to slaking, which is deterioration after excavation and
exposure to atmosphere and wetting and drying cycles. Rock
which experience slaking will rapidly degenerate to soils and
thus create problem for engineering structure built on them
 Sedimentary Rocks ( Carbonate rocks)
Carbonates Rocks:
• Sometimes rock is covered with soil, so the
• forms when organic material accumulate
surface expression of karst topography may
and become indurated. Because oof their
be hidden.
organic origin they are called carbonates e.g.
• Nevertheless, the underground caverns
limestone, chalk and dolomite.
remain and sometimes the ground above
• Carbonate rocks, especially limestones can
caves into them This creates sinkhole.
be dissolved by long exposure to water,
• The caving in process may be trigged by
especially if it contains mild solution of
lowering of water table, which occurs when
carbonic acid.
well are installed for water supply purposes.
• Ground water often gains small quantities
of this acid through exposure to carbon
dioxide in the ground. This process often
produce karst topography which exposes may
underground very ragged rock at the
ground surface and many underground
caves and passageways.
Example of Identification of sedimentary rocks and types
 Metamorphic Rocks

Formation
 Derived from pre-existing
rock types and have gone
mineralogical, textural
and structural changes
 These changes are
brought by physical and
chemical environment
 Changing condition of
temperature and/ or
pressure are the primary
agent causing
metamorphic reactions in
rocks
 Metamorphic rock may
be foliated
 Metamorphic Rocks
• Both igneous and sedimentary rocks can be subjected to intense heat and pressure within earths crust.
• These condition produces dramatic change in minerals within the rocks, thus forming metamorphic rocks.
• The metamorphic process generally improve the engineering behavior of these rocks by increasing their
hardness and strength. Nevertheless, some metamorphic rocks can still be problematic.
• Some metamorphic rocks are foliated, which means they are oriented grains similar similar to bedding planes
in sedimentary rocks. These foliations are important because the shear strength is less for shear stress acting parallel
to the foliation.
• Other metamorphic rocks are nonfoliate and have no such orientation
• Unweathered, non foliated rocks generally provide excellent support for engineering works, and is similar to
intrusive igneous rocks in their quality.
• Some foliated rocks are prone to slippahe along foliated planes
• Metamorphic rocks are also subjected to weathering, thus forming weathered rocks, residual soils and
transported soils and beginning the new geological cycle.
Example of Identification of metamorphic rocks and types
 (b) MINERALS
Defination
 Naturally occurring solid elements or compound, formed by inorganic process and
has:
 Defined chemical composition
 Ordered internal arrangements of atoms
 Unique sets of physical properties
 According to the definition, oil, coal, volcanic glass (which lack order internal
structure) and manufacturing glass don’t qualify as minerals.
 Ordered internal arrangements of atoms in mineral is known as crystalline
structure (repetition of atom arrays)
 A non ordered internal arrangements is termed as amorphous or without form and
it occurs in liquids or
Formation
 When minerals solidify from liquid state or form in other ways, they yield internal
ordered solid material (crystallization).
Occurance
 Minerals comprises the soil and rock materials of the earth
 They are found in all geological environment, including alluvial sands along riverbed,
soils of plowed fields
 Despite hundreds of known minerals only 25 make up common rock forming
varieties and they influence the engineering properties of rocks and soils.
 Mineral Identification

Identification
 Chemical properties aid in identification of some minerals but mostly physical
properties are used.
 Properties include color, streak, luster hardness specific gravity, cleavage,
fracture, crystal form, magnetism, tenacity reaction to acid.
 Color: very deceptive in limited situation, It’s the surface appearance.
 Streak: color of finely powdered mineral
 Luster: overall appearance of the surface of mineral
 Hardness: Resistance of mineral to scratching
 Specific gravity: Ratio between weight of mineral in air to weight of equivalent
volume in water ( specific gravity of minerals > 2.70)
 Cleavage : Ability to break along smooth parallel planes
 Fracture: Irregular breaks in the absence of cleavage
 Crystal form: Display of well-formed crystal faces of mineral
 Tenacity: Resistance a mineral show to various destructive mechanisms such as
crushing , breaking, bending, tearing etc.
 Diaphaneity: Ability to transmit light (Transparent, Translucent, Opaque)
 Rock forming minerals
Silicates
 Examples: Ferromagnesian, nonferromagnesians, Feldspar, quartz.
Oxide Minerals
 Iron oxides Hematite (Fe2O3) recognized as red streak and limonite(Fe2H2O) brown streak
in gravel . Magnetite (Fe3O4). Causes corrosion to reinforced concrete.
Sulfide Minerals
 Most common are pyrites (fool’s gold). It has brassy color and hardness about 3.5 to 4.
Nuisance mineral if occur in gravel. Staining on concrete may occur due to oxidation.
Carbonate Minerals
 Important carbonates are (CaCO3). It reacts with dilute Hydrochloric Acid. It has low
hardness of 3. Dissolves in water, problem of sinkhole.
Sulphate Minerals
 Include Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) and anhydrate (CaSO4). Soluble in water hence can cause slope
stability and failure of foundations.
Clay Minerals
 They comprise an essential portion of soil and therefore yield strong influence of soil
behavior. Examples are Kaolinite, halloysite, illite and montmorillonite. They swell in presence
of water and shrinks when dry. Causes foundation failure as a results of wetting and dry cycles.
Zeolites
 Silicate minerals related to feldspar. Na-Zeolite is obtained by adding NaCl to zeolite
material. They yield high density of negative charge and are used to soften water (removal
of Ca2+ and Mg2+)
 Engineering Consideration of Minerals
Problems associated with various minerals may be full Collapse of
appreciated by engineer bust first problematic minerals tunnel wall
must be if the problem is to be predicted. From gypsum
1) Recognizing gypsum that lie along a proposed
tunnel centerline will provide information of
problem of swelling in presence of water and
deterioration of concrete lining.
2) Presence of pyrite in a dark shale can suggest
ultimate problem of deterioration from swelling Slope stability
and acid water failure due to
3) Problem of pyrite in concrete aggregate can create expansive soils
serious problem of corrosion to reinforced
concrete
4) Swelling clays in shale can problem that slope
stability may be a problem or heaving problem

Corrosion of
steel and
concrete due to
presence of
pyrite
 (c) STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
Structural geology
• Structural geology is the study of three-dimensional
distribution of rock formation and orientation of
weakness of plane they contain.
• Under certain conditions, these weakness plane will
control rock behavior.
• Its also involves the study of rocks that’s have been
deformed by earth stresses
Bedding planes and foliation
• All sedimentary rocks formed in horizontal or near
horizontal layers, and these layers reflects alternate
cycles of deposition.
• The shear strength along these weakness plane is
typically much less than across them, a condition called
anisotropic strength.
• When these rocks are were uplifted by tectonic forces in
the earth, the bedding planes could be rotated to a
different angle (Fig. 2.6) Because rock shear more easily
along these planes, their orientation is important.
• Many landslides have occurred on slopes with unfavorable
bedding orientation.
• Some metamorphic rocks have plane of weakness
called foliation. This characteristics is called schistosity.
 Rock deformation under high pressure

Rock deformation
• Tectonic forces distort rock mases. In the earth crust
rocks are under high confining pressure and elevated
temperatures
• High temperature causes rock to be less brittle hence
plastic deformation
• Stress –strain relationship is as show below
• For elastic deformation (earthquake wave passes
through a rock )in plastic range, the rock returns to its
original shape.
Folds
• When horizontal compressive forces are present, the
rock distort into a wavy pattern called folds.
• Sometimes these folds are gradual, other times they
are gradual and very abrupt. When folds are oriented
concave downwards, they are called anticlines and when
they concave upwards, they are called synclines.
• Folding of rock occurs in plastic range of the curve
Compressive stresses deform the rock but upon removal of the
stress by uplift or erosion the rock retains the folded shape
• Faulting occurs when the rock raptures (fracture) as
brittle material.
On release of stress, the strain is irrecoverable i.e rock retains
the faulted shape
 Folds in Rock
Folds in rock
• Caused by compressional stresses that buckle
the rock unit
• The trough or downward portion is called the
syncline and the crest portion is the syncline
• If only one direction of dip prevail in a fold
system, it is called monocline
• Another essential part of a fold is the axis
plane. Imaginary plane used to divide folds into
two equal parts
• The axis plane is used to describe the degree
of symmetry of the fold system
• Symmetrical
• Asymmetrical
• Overturned
 Rock deformation under high pressure

Fractures
• Fractures are cracks in rock mass. There orientation is
very important because shear strength along these
fractures is less than the intact rock mass, so they form
potential failure planes.
• There are three types of fractures these fractures is
less than that of the intact rock; joints, shear and faults.
• Joints: Relatively minor tensile fractures that have
experienced no or minimal shear movements. They
can be as a results of cooling, tensile tectonics or
tensile stresses form lateral movement of adjacent
rocks.
• Shear: Fractures that have experienced a small shear
displacement.
• Faults: Similar to shears but have experienced much
greater shear displacement.
• Faults are classified according to their geometry and
direction of movements
B-C: Plastic deformation
• Dip-slip faults: Movement primarily along dip
• Strike-slip faults: movement primarily along stike A-B: Elastic deformation
 Strikes and dip
Strike and Dip
• A rock mass may be unstable if it has joints oriented in certain
directions but much more stable if they are oriented in a
different direction
• For similar reasons, we are interested in the orientation of the
faults, bedding planes and other geological features.
• We express orientation using strike and dip (Fig 2.9)
• Strike of a plane is the compass direction of the intersection of
the plane and horizontal, and it is expressed as a bearing from
north. For example, f a strike in N30°W , then the intersection
of the fault plane with horizontal plane traces a line oriented at
30° west of true north. Dip also need direction. For example, a
fault with N30°W of strike may have a dip of 20°northesterly.
When expressed together, these data are called attitude and may
be expressed in a condensed form as N30°W , 20°NE .
• Attitude are usually measured in the field using Brunton campus.
 Strikes and dip
Strike and Dip
• Sometimes we need to know the dip as it would appear in
vertical plane other than one perpendicular to the strike (Fig.
2.12).
• We may draw a cross section a cross section that is oriented
perpendicular to the slope, but at some angle other than 90°
from the strike, and we ned to know the dip angle as it appears
in the cross section. This dip is called apparent deep and may
computed as.
 Faults in Rock
Faults
• Faults are fractures along which significant
movement has occurred
• Displacement may be measured in meter or km.
Minimum movement of 1m qualify as a fault
• Altitude of fault is described in terms of strikes
and dip
• The wall above the fault plane is called is called
the hanging wall and the portion below is the
footwall
• Movement along the fault plane can be either
 Along the dip direction (dip-slip faults)
 Along strike direction (strike slip faults)
 Combination of both strike and dip direction
(oblique faults)

Dip slip faults: Normal faults,

reverse faults or thrust faults
 Dip slip & Strike slip faults
Dip –Slip faults

• Normal faults: Hanging wall

moved down relative to foot
wall.
• Reverse faults: Hanging wall
moved up relative to foot
wall.
• Thrust faults: Low deep Strike slip faults (Wrench faults)
angle reverse faults . • Occur when relative movement is all
horizontal.
• Two types are : Right lateral strike
• Normal faults: Caused by either vertical fault and left lateral strike fault
compressive force or horizontal
compressive force. It involves lengthening
of the earth’s crust
• Reverse faults: Caused by either horizontal
compressive force or vertical compressive
force. It involves shortening of the earth’s
crust.
Oblique faults

Oblique faults
• Also known as translational
fault
• Have both strike slip and dip
slip combination
 WEATHERING
Weathering: The rocks break and undergo decay under the influence of the
atmospheric factors like wind, sun, frost, water, and organisms and then
produce soil. This phenomenon is called "weathering”.
The weathering, includes two processes:
(i) disintegration or physical breaking, and
(ii) decomposition or chemical decay,
Erosion: Erosion involves the transportation and removal of weathering
products from the place of their formation.
Denudation: The combined effect of weathering and erosion is called
"denudation" which involves the general wearing down of the earth's
surface.
 Physical weathering
 Physical weathering or disintegration is the mechanical breaking fill rocks to form
particles of smaller size, without change in composition. The principal agents of
physical weathering are as follows:
i. Frost: The freezing of water in the cracks of rocks tend to disintegrate them
because water on freezing expands about one eleventh of its volume and
therefore, exerts great pressure on the walls of the cracks. By this process
angular fragments of rocks are broken from the high mountain ranges. These
fragments of rocks roll down the hill slope, and accumulate at the bottom to
form "talus" deposit.
ii. Heating and Cooling: The heating and cooling of rock masses occur due to daily
and seasonal temperature changes. The heat causes them to expand and cooling
causes them to contract. The repeated expansion and contraction tend to
develop cracks in the rocks. In desert areas, the coarse grained rocks, like granite,
disintegrate soon into their constituent crystals, and become desert sands as a
result of temperature variation;
iii. Organisms: Plants and animals also play important part in the physical
weathering of rocks. Plant roots grow into cracks and joints, and push the rock
fragments apart. The burrowing of animals such as earth worms, ants, and
rodents also contribute to the disintegration of rocks. Man also breaks the rocks
by making road cuts, tunneling, quarrying, mining, and cultivating the land.
 Chemical weathering
 Chemical weathering or decomposition is a process in which rocks are broken down by
chemical decay of minerals. The chief agents of chemical weathering are as follows:
 Water: The chemical weathering of rocks is done mainly by rain water. The processes
involved are:
i. Oxidation,
ii. Hydration,
iii. Carbonation, and
iv. Solution
Oxidation:
The oxygen, in the presence of water, readily unites with the iron present in the minerals such as
pyroxenes, amphiboles, and olivine, and converts it to iron oxide (hematite) or to hydroxides (limonite).
The oxidation of pyrite leads to the formation of limonite and weak solution of sulphuric acid. This acid is
a powerful chemical agent, which attacks the rocks and develops solution pits. The iron oxides and
hydroxides are the very common products of oxidation, which impart the red and yellow colors to soils.
Hydration:
Hydration is the process in which water molecules combine chemically with the minerals to produce new
compounds. The formation of gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) from anhydrite (CaSO4) is a good example of
hydration. Carbonation frequently occurs together with hydration. Thus orthoclase feldspar, a mineral
that is abundant in granite, is decomposed and converted into kaolin by hydration and carbonation. Other
hydrous silicates formed by hydration of the primary silicates (pyroxenes, amphiboles, olivine etc.) include
chlorite, serpentine, talc, and zeolites.
 Chemical weathering

Carbonation:
When minerals containing calcium, magnesium, sodium, or potassium ions
react with water containing carbon dioxide, carbonates and bicarbonates
are formed which are taken into solution. This, process of decomposition is
called carbonation. The calcium feldspars may break down to form clay and
calcium carbonate by carbonation.
Solution:
The process of solution and carbonation goes on together. The limestone,
dolomites; rock salt, and gypsum are particularly susceptible to solution
when they are attacked by water containing carbon dioxide.
 Chemical weathering
 Chemical weathering or decomposition is a process in which rocks are broken down by
chemical decay of minerals. The chief agents of chemical weathering are as follows:
 Water: The chemical weathering of rocks is done mainly by rain water. The processes
involved are:
i. Oxidation,
ii. Hydration,
iii. Carbonation, and
iv. Solution
Oxidation:
The oxygen, in the presence of water, readily unites with the iron present in the minerals such as
pyroxenes, amphiboles, and olivine, and converts it to iron oxide (hematite) or to hydroxides (limonite).
The oxidation of pyrite leads to the formation of limonite and weak solution of sulphuric acid. This acid is
a powerful chemical agent, which attacks the rocks and develops solution pits. The iron oxides and
hydroxides are the very common products of oxidation, which impart the red and yellow colors to soils.
Hydration:
Hydration is the process in which water molecules combine chemically with the minerals to produce new
compounds. The formation of gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) from anhydrite (CaSO4) is a good example of
hydration. Carbonation frequently occurs together with hydration. Thus orthoclase feldspar, a mineral
that is abundant in granite, is decomposed and converted into kaolin by hydration and carbonation. Other
hydrous silicates formed by hydration of the primary silicates (pyroxenes, amphiboles, olivine etc.) include
chlorite, serpentine, talc, and zeolites.
 Weathering grades
• Weathering leads to general disintegration of rocks through change in mineral composition, increase in
void spaces and weakening of interparticle bonds.
• Based on visual observation, the geological society of London proposed six grades of withering as below
SOIL FORMATION, TRANSPORTATION AND DEPOSITION

Geologists classify soils into two major categories residual soils and transported soils.
Residual soils
• When weathering process is faster than the transport induced process included by water, wind
and gravity, much of the resulting soils remain in place.
• Its is know as residual soil, and typically retains many of the characteristics of the parent rock.
• The transition with depth from soil to weathered rock to fresh rock is typically gradual with no
distinct boundaries.
• In tropical regions, residual soils layer can be very thick, sometimes extending for hundred of
meters before reaching unweathered bedrock.
• Cooler regions and more arid regions normally have much thinner layers and no residual soil at
all.
• Example are
 Decomposed granites: sandy residual derived from weathering of granites.
 Saprolite: Not completely weathered and still retain much structure of parent rock
 Laterite: Found in tropical regions. Typically cemented with iron oxides to give it high
strength.
 SOIL FORMATION, TRANSPORTATION AND DEPOSITION

Geologists classify soils into two major categories residual soils and transported soils.
Transported soils
• Transported soils are formed by the deposition of the sediments that have been transported from
their place of origin by various agents.
• Example are
 Glacial soils (Drift) : Transported by glacial. Can be categorized as till, glaciofluvial soils and
glaciolacustrine soils.
 Alluvial soils (fluvial or alluvium): Transported by rivers or streams.
 Lucustrine and Marine Soils: Deposited beneath lakes.
 Aeolian soils: Deposited by winds. This mode of transportation produces poorly graded soils.
 Colluvial soils: Transported downslope by gravity..
 Soils
Groups of soils
• In civil engineering soil is earth material that can be disintegrated by water by gentle agitation
• Soil deposit can be grouped into two main groups
 Transported soils
o Materials that’s have been moved from their place of origin
o Soil particles are segregated according to size by or during transportation process
o Process of transportation and deposition has effect on the properties of the resulting soil
o Agents of transportation can be gravity, wind, glacial, river
 Residual soils
Residual soils or sedentary soils have principally formed from weathering of rocks or accumulation of
organic materials and remain at the location of origin.

Soils Types
Depending on the grain size soil can be grouped as
 Gravel (60mm-2 mm)
 Sand(2mm-0.075 mm)
 Clay(>0.075 mm)
 Silt(>0.075 mm)
 Gravel and Sand are considered granular/ soil while Clay and Silty are considered fine grained soils
 Clay and Silt can be distinguished based of Plasticity Index