Advanced Control of Power Converters: Techniques

and Matlab/Simulink Implementation (IEEE Press

Series on Control Systems Theory and
Applications) 1st Edition Hasan Komurcugil
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Table of Contents
Cover
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
About the Authors
List of Abbreviations
Preface
Acknowledgment
About the Companion Website
1 Introduction
1.1 General Remarks
1.2 Basic Closed‐Loop Control for Power Converters
1.3 Mathematical Modeling of Power Converters
1.4 Basic Control Objectives
1.5 Performance Evaluation
1.6 Contents of the Book
References
2 Introduction to Advanced Control Methods
2.1 Classical Control Methods for Power Converters
2.2 Sliding Mode Control
2.3 Lyapunov Function‐Based Control
2.4 Model Predictive Control
References
3 Design of Sliding Mode Control for Power Converters
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Sliding Mode Control of DC–DC Buck and Cuk
Converters
 3.3 Sliding Mode Control Design Procedure
3.4 Chattering Mitigation Techniques
3.5 Modulation Techniques
3.6 Other Types of Sliding Mode Control
References
4 Design of Lyapunov Function‐Based Control for Power
Converters
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Lyapunov‐Function‐Based Control Design Using Direct
Method
4.3 Lyapunov Function‐Based Control of DC–DC Buck
Converter
4.4 Lyapunov Function‐Based Control of DC–DC Boost
Converter
References
5 Design of Model Predictive Control
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Predictive Control Methods
5.3 FCS Model Predictive Control
5.4 CCS Model Predictive Control
5.5 Design and Implementation Issues
References
6 MATLAB/Simulink Tutorial on Physical Modeling and
Experimental Setup
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Building Simulation Model for Power Converters
6.3 Building Real‐Time Model for a Single‐Phase T‐Type
Rectifier
6.4 Building Rapid Control Prototyping for a Single‐Phase
T‐Type Rectifier
References
7 Sliding Mode Control of Various Power Converters
 7.1 Introduction
7.2 Single‐Phase Grid‐Connected Inverter with LCL Filter
7.3 Three‐Phase Grid‐Connected Inverter with LCL Filter
7.4 Three‐Phase AC–DC Rectifier
7.5 Three‐Phase Transformerless Dynamic Voltage Restorer
7.6 Three‐Phase Shunt Active Power Filter
References
8 Design of Lyapunov Function‐Based Control of Various Power
Converters
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Single‐Phase Grid‐Connected Inverter with LCL Filter
8.3 Single‐Phase Quasi‐Z‐Source Grid‐Connected Inverter
with LCL Filter
8.4 Single‐Phase Uninterruptible Power Supply Inverter
8.5 Three‐Phase Voltage‐Source AC–DC Rectifier
References
9 Model Predictive Control of Various Converters
9.1 CCS MPC Method for a Three‐Phase Grid‐Connected
VSI
9.2 Model Predictive Control Method for Single‐Phase
Three‐Level Shunt Active Filter
9.3 Model Predictive Control of Quasi‐Z Source Three‐
Phase Four‐Leg Inverter
9.4 Weighting Factorless Model Predictive Control for DC–
DC SEPIC Converters
9.5 Model Predictive Droop Control of Distributed
Generation Inverters in Islanded AC Microgrid
9.6 FCS‐MPC for a Three‐Phase Shunt Active Power Filter
9.7 FCS‐MPC for a Single‐Phase T‐Type Rectifier
9.8 Predictive Torque Control of Brushless Doubly Fed
Induction Generator Fed by a Matrix Converter
 9.9 An Enhanced Finite Control Set Model Predictive
Control Method with Self‐Balancing Capacitor Voltages for
Three‐Level T‐Type Rectifiers
References
Index
Books in the IEEE Press Series on Control Systems Theory and
Applications
End User License Agreement

List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Jury's table.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Driving Signals in Double‐Band Hysteresis
Scheme.
Table 7.2 System Parameters.
Table 7.3 System parameters.
Table 7.4 Comparative analysis between models.
Table 7.5 System parameters.
Table 7.6 System and control parameters.
Table 7.7 System parameters.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 System and control parameters.
Table 8.2 Comparisons of four control strategies with the
Lyapunov‐function...
Table 8.3 System and control parameters.
Table 8.4 System and control parameters.
Table 8.5 System and control parameters.
Chapter 9
 Table 9.1 Operating states, switching states and pole
voltages.
Table 9.2 System and control parameters.
Table 9.3 qZS four‐leg inverter and load parameters.
Table 9.4 System and control parameters.
Table 9.5 Simulation model parameters.
Table 9.6 Switching states and voltage vectors.
Table 9.7 Pre‐selection of voltage vectors for each region.
Table 9.8 System parameters.
Table 9.9 Comparative analysis.
Table 9.10 Relationship among the pole voltage and
switching states.
Table 9.11 CDFIG electrical parameters.
Table 9.12 Operation states, switching states and pole
voltages.

List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Basic closed‐loop power converter control system.
(a) With modula...
Figure 1.2 Effects of the root locations on the dynamic
response of the clos...
Figure 1.3 Stable region of the closed‐loop system in
discrete time.
Figure 1.4 Settling time.
Figure 1.5 Steady‐state error.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Trajectories of the system in the phase plane for
two distinct K ...
 Figure 2.2 Combination of the trajectories in Figure 2.1a
and Figure 2.1b.
Figure 2.3 Block diagram of variable structure control.
Figure 2.4 Regions of variable structure control that
establish sliding mode...
Figure 2.5 Reaching and sliding phases of a second‐order
system in the phase...
Figure 2.6 Geometrical view of three different Lyapunov
functions for n = 3....
Figure 2.7 Typical structure of an MPC controller.
Figure 2.8 MPC with continuous control set.
Figure 2.9 MPC with finite control set.
Figure 2.10 Working principle of predictive control.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 The design of SMC for controlling power
converters.
Figure 3.2 DC–DC buck converter.
Figure 3.3 Phase‐plane trajectories obtained by various
initial conditions f...
Figure 3.4 Phase‐plane trajectories of buck converter with
different λ ...
Figure 3.5 Responses of output voltage with different λ
values.
Figure 3.6 DC–DC Cuk converter.
Figure 3.7 Responses of V C2 and I L1 for an abrupt change
in V in from 80 to 4...
Figure 3.8 Trajectory of σ and x 1 in phase‐plane
corresponding to Figur...
Figure 3.9 Generalized block diagram of a sliding mode
controlled power conv...
 Figure 3.10 Replacing sign function with the hysteresis
function.
Figure 3.11 Visualization of boundary layer method for a
second‐order system...
Figure 3.12 Replacing sign function with the saturation
function.
Figure 3.13 Block diagram of state observer method in a
sliding mode control...
Figure 3.14 (a) Single‐phase H‐bridge grid‐connected
inverter, (b) implement...
Figure 3.15 Basic SPWM scheme for a single‐phase H‐
bridge grid‐connected inv...
Figure 3.16 Block diagram of sliding mode controlled two‐
level three‐phase c...
Figure 3.17 Block diagram of TSMC‐based control of a
power converter.
Figure 3.18 Block diagram of STA‐based SMC method for
controlling a power co...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Steps of Lyapunov function‐based control design.
Figure 4.2 Energy distribution in basic power converters.
(a) DC–DC converte...
Figure 4.3 Generalized block diagram of the Lyapunov
function‐based control ...
Figure 4.4 Block diagram of Lyapunov function‐based
control for DC–DC buck c...
Figure 4.5 Responses of output voltage and inductor current
for an abrupt ch...
Figure 4.6 Responses of output voltage and inductor
current for an abrupt ch...
 Figure 4.7 Responses of Lyapunov function derivative
corresponding to the ch...
Figure 4.8 Circuit diagram of a DC–DC boost converter.
Figure 4.9 Block diagram of Lyapunov function‐based
control for DC–DC boost ...
Figure 4.10 Responses of output voltage and inductor
current for an abrupt c...
Figure 4.11 Responses of output voltage and inductor
current for an abrupt c...
Figure 4.12 Responses of Lyapunov function derivative
corresponding to the c...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 The simplified block diagram of the FCS‐MPC for
controlling load ...
Figure 5.2 Detailed block diagram of the FCS‐MPC for
controlling the load cu...
Figure 5.3 Subsystem in Simulink for three‐phase current
generation.
Figure 5.4 Voltage vectors of the three‐phase three‐leg
inverter.
Figure 5.5 The sketch map of the reference and predicted
currents.
Figure 5.6 The flowchart of the FCS‐MPC technique.
Figure 5.7 Prediction of the system output based on the past
values and a me...
Figure 5.8 Comparison between the output signal of the
system and the increm...
Figure 5.9 Electrical circuit of a grid‐connected voltage
source inverter.
Figure 5.10 Block diagram of the control system.
 Figure 5.11 Cost function in MPC with some primary and
secondary control obj...
Figure 5.12 Weighting factors influence on the output
voltage, the input cur...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Simulink diagram for simulation of single‐phase
grid‐connected in...
Figure 6.2 Subsystem for the Error Variables.
Figure 6.3 Simulink diagram for simulation of three‐phase
Rectifier based on...
Figure 6.4 Subsystem for the Park transformation.
Figure 6.5 Subsystem for Main Controller.
Figure 6.6 Subsystem for PWM Generation.
Figure 6.7 Simulink diagram for simulation of three‐phase
four‐leg qZSI.
Figure 6.8 A three‐phase four‐leg qZSI model.
Figure 6.9 Subsystem for the reference current generation.
Figure 6.10 Subsystem for the PWM signals.
Figure 6.11 Simulink diagram for simulation of distributed
generation invert...
Figure 6.12 Subsystem for the Droop‐based controller.
Figure 6.13 The fundamental concepts of real‐time
simulation.
Figure 6.14 The screenshot of OPAL‐RT launcher.
Figure 6.15 The screenshot of OPAL‐RT welcome page.
Figure 6.16 The screenshot of OPAL‐RT main page.
Figure 6.17 The screenshot of OPAL‐RT Project Explorer
page.
Figure 6.18 The screenshot of New RT‐LAB Project Menu.
 Figure 6.19 The screenshot of RT‐LAB Project Menu.
Figure 6.20 The screenshot of RT‐LAB Project Explorer.
Figure 6.21 The screenshot of RT‐LAB Model menu.
Figure 6.22 The screenshot of RT‐LAB Model selection
menu.
Figure 6.23 The screenshot of RT‐LAB Project Explorer.
Figure 6.24 The screenshot of RT‐LAB Project Explorer –
Editing Simulink Mod...
Figure 6.25 The screenshot of MATLAB/Simulink model.
Figure 6.26 The structure of MATLAB/Simulink model for
RT‐LAB implementation...
Figure 6.27 The screenshot of RT‐LAB Project Explorer –
Build Configuration....
Figure 6.28 The screenshot of RT‐LAB Simulink Console.
Figure 6.29 The block diagram of the experimental setup.
Figure 6.30 The photograph of T‐type rectifier prototype.
Figure 6.31 The photograph of measurement board.
Figure 6.32 The MATLAB/Simulink model for RCP.
Figure 6.33 The screenshot of the configuration menu of
OpCtrl block.
Figure 6.34 The screenshot of the Assignment Tab in RT‐
Lab.
Figure 6.35 The screenshot of the Execution Tab in RT‐Lab.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Single‐phase grid‐connected VSI with an LCL
filter.
Figure 7.2 Stability regions of the reaching mode for
.
Figure 7.3 Single‐band hysteresis switching in one‐cycle.
Figure 7.4 Double‐band hysteresis switching in one‐cycle.
Figure 7.5 Influence of variations in h and L 1 on the average
switching freq...
Figure 7.6 Root locus of closed‐loop poles when α is varied
from 500 to...
Figure 7.7 Root locus of closed‐loop poles when β is varied
from 0 to 6...
Figure 7.8 The block diagram of single‐phase grid‐
connected VSI with the SMC...
Figure 7.9 Steady state sliding surface function, inverter
current, grid cur...
Figure 7.10 Spectrum of grid current for .
Figure 7.11 Dynamic response of grid current and grid
current reference for ...
Figure 7.12 Grid current and its reference obtained by
various β values...
Figure 7.13 Instantaneous switching frequencies obtained
by double‐band and ...
Figure 7.14 Driving signals for the switching devices.
Figure 7.15 Experimental responses of v g and i 2 for a step
change in from ...
Figure 7.16 Measured grid current spectrum for
.
Figure 7.17 Experimental responses of v g and i 2 in the
steady‐state for a st...
Figure 7.18 Circuit diagram of three‐phase grid‐connected
inverter with an L...
Figure 7.19 Control system for phase‐leg a.
Figure 7.20 Input impedances of the LCL filter and for the L
filter.
Figure 7.21 Bode plot of the input impedance in case of the
physical model a...
Figure 7.22 Bode plot of the input impedance magnitude in
the case of the ph...
Figure 7.23 Pole map for the nominal values of the LCL
filter. (a) Using the...
Figure 7.24 Root locus when the system parameters vary.
(a) L 1 varies ±30%, ...
Figure 7.25 Top: PCC voltages (50 V/div) and bottom. Grid
currents (2 A/div,...
Figure 7.26 Three‐phase currents with a grid harmonic near
the resonance fre...
Figure 7.27 Active and reactive powers in case of a sudden
step change.
Figure 7.28 (Top) Distorted PCC voltages (50 V/div) with
THD = 14%. (Bottom)...
Figure 7.29 (Top) Distorted PCC voltages (50 V/div) with
THD = 14%. (Bottom)...
Figure 7.30 Switching spectrum using the reduced model.
Figure 7.31 Circuit diagram of a three‐phase unity power
factor rectifier.
Figure 7.32 Equivalent per‐phase circuit of the UPFR.
Figure 7.33 Simulation result of cross‐coupled sliding mode
controllers.
Figure 7.34 Simulation result of decoupled sliding mode
controllers.
Figure 7.35 Control system for phase‐leg a.
Figure 7.36 Hysteresis band and switching surface.
Figure 7.37 Experimental control signals and their
corresponding sliding sur...
Figure 7.38 Experimental three‐phase currents (5 A/div)
and grid voltages (2...
Figure 7.39 Experimental results: (a) output voltage (50
V/div) and three‐ph...
Figure 7.40 Experimental results: (a) output voltage (50
V/div) and three‐ph...
Figure 7.41 (a) Output voltage (50 V/div) and three‐phase
grid voltages (20 ...
Figure 7.42 (a) Output voltage (50 V/div) and three‐phase
grid voltages (20 ...
Figure 7.43 Experimental switching surface with its
hysteresis band for phas...
Figure 7.44 Experimental switching frequency spectrum
with amplitude relativ...
Figure 7.45 Three‐phase TDVR.
Figure 7.46 Region of stability of the reaching mode.
Figure 7.47 Evolution of the sliding surface function and the
switching logi...
Figure 7.48 Triangular carrier and pulse width modulated
signals.
Figure 7.49 Block diagram of three‐phase TDVR with: (a)
Time‐varying switchi...
Figure 7.50 Simulated responses obtained by the time‐
varying switching frequ...
Figure 7.51 Simulated responses obtained by the constant
switching frequency...
Figure 7.52 Performance of time‐varying switching
frequency‐based SMC under ...
Figure 7.53 Performance of constant switching frequency‐
based SMC under volt...
 Figure 7.54 Performance of time‐varying switching
frequency‐based SMC under ...
Figure 7.55 Performance of constant switching frequency‐
based SMC under dist...
Figure 7.56 Circuit diagram of a three‐phase SAPF.
Figure 7.57 Control system for phase‐leg a.
Figure 7.58 Experimental control signals with their
corresponding sliding su...
Figure 7.59 A sudden load step change from no load to full
load and full loa...
Figure 7.60 Grid current harmonics for phase‐leg a: (a)
Before compensation,...
Figure 7.61 From top to bottom: PCC voltages (50 V/div)
with THD = 14%, load...
Figure 7.62 Measured PCC voltage and estimated PCC
voltage for phase‐leg a....
Figure 7.63 From top to bottom: grid voltages (50 V/div),
grid currents (5 A...
Figure 7.64 Experimental hysteresis band and its switching
surface for phase...
Figure 7.65 Switching spectrum: (a) without switching
decision algorithm and...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Single‐phase grid‐connected inverter with LCL
filter.
Figure 8.2 Block diagram of Lyapunov function‐based
control strategy with ca...
Figure 8.3 Magnitude and phase responses of H(s): (a) With
15% parameter mis...
Figure 8.4 Magnitude responses of obtained
with different K i1 and K v value...
Figure 8.5 Magnitude responses of Z h (s) with different K p
values.
Figure 8.6 Simulated and experimental response of v g and i
2 obtained by the ...
Figure 8.7 Simulated and experimental response of v g and i
2 obtained by the ...
Figure 8.8 Simulated and experimental response of vg and i
2 obtained by the ...

Figure 8.9 Simulated response of

in one cycle.
Figure 8.10 Simulated and experimental dynamic responses
of i 2 for a step ch...
Figure 8.11 (a) Experimental response of v g , i 2 and
spectrum of v g obtained ...
Figure 8.12 Single‐phase grid‐tied qZSI with LCL filter.
Figure 8.13 Equivalent circuit of the qZSI in [7]: (a) Active
state, (b) Sho...
Figure 8.14 Reference function generation with cascaded
PR controllers.
Figure 8.15 Block diagram of Lyapunov‐function‐based
control with cascaded P...
Figure 8.16 Steady‐state responses of the DC‐side variables
and AC‐side curr...
Figure 8.17 Dynamic responses of the DC‐side variables and
grid current. (a)...
Figure 8.18 Single‐phase voltage‐source UPS inverter.
Figure 8.19 Distribution of energy in single‐phase inverter.
 Figure 8.20 Block diagram of the Lyapunov‐function based
control with the ou...
Figure 8.21 Root loci of closed‐loop system when K i and K v
are changed.
Figure 8.22 Simulated and experimental waveforms of v o
and i o . (a) Simulatio...
Figure 8.23 Simulated and experimental responses of v o
and i o for a step cha...
Figure 8.24 Simulated response of dV(x)/dt for the step
change in the load r...
Figure 8.25 Simulated and experimental responses of v o
and i o obtained for a...
Figure 8.26 Simulated and experimental responses of i C , v
o , i o , and i L obtai...
Figure 8.27 Simulated response of dV(x)/dt for the
nonlinear load.
Figure 8.28 Three‐phase voltage‐source AC–DC rectifier.
Figure 8.29 The block diagram of Lyapunov function‐based
control of three‐ph...
Figure 8.30 The responses of grid current and output
voltage for a step chan...
Figure 8.31 The responses of grid currents under 50 Ω
resistive load when: (...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Circuit diagram of a three‐phase grid‐connected
VSI.
Figure 9.2 Simulink Block diagram of the MPC simulation.
Figure 9.3 Simulink Block diagram of the MPC controller.
Figure 9.4 From top to bottom: three‐phase grid voltages
and three‐phase gri...
Figure 9.5 Control signals without any constraint.
Figure 9.6 From top to bottom: three‐phase grid voltages
and three‐phase gri...
Figure 9.7 Control signals m d and m q with the constraint
m d ≤ 1.
Figure 9.8 Single‐phase three‐level T‐type inverter based
SAPF.
Figure 9.9 Block diagram of the energy function based MPC
with three‐level T...
Figure 9.10 Flowchart of the energy‐function based FCS‐
MPC.
Figure 9.11 Experimental setup for the SAPF.
Figure 9.12 Waveforms of grid‐voltage (e g ), grid current (i
g ), load current ...
Figure 9.13 Measured spectrums of load and grid currents
corresponding to Fi...
Figure 9.14 Waveforms of grid‐voltage (e g ), grid current (i
g ), load current ...
Figure 9.15 Waveforms of grid current (i g ), PI output ( ),
capacitor voltage...
Figure 9.16 Waveforms of grid‐voltage (e g ), grid current (i
g ), load current ...
Figure 9.17 Operation of SAPF under classical MPC; (a)
Waveforms of grid‐vol...
Figure 9.18 Waveforms of grid‐voltage (e g ), grid current (i
g ), load current ...
Figure 9.19 THD comparison of classical and presented
MPC methods under weig...
Figure 9.20 qZS three‐phase four‐leg inverter topology.
Figure 9.21 Equivalent circuit of the qZS network. (a) In
non‐shoot‐through ...
Figure 9.22 Equivalent circuit of the three‐phase four‐leg
inverter.
Figure 9.23 Block diagram of the MPC scheme proposed in
[8].
Figure 9.24 Flowchart of the presented MPC algorithm for
qZS four‐leg invert...
Figure 9.25 Steady‐state simulation results with balanced
reference currents...
Figure 9.26 Steady‐state simulation results with unbalanced
reference curren...
Figure 9.27 Transient‐state simulation results with
balanced reference curre...
Figure 9.28 Transient‐state simulation results with
unbalanced reference cur...
Figure 9.29 Circuit diagram of DC–DC SEPIC converter.
Figure 9.30 Evolution of inductor current, inductor current
error, and switc...
Figure 9.31 Effect of varying v in and i in on the inductor
current ripple.
Figure 9.32 Evolution of inductor current and cost function
in one switching...
Figure 9.33 Block diagram of the control strategy.
Figure 9.34 Responses of v out , v in , i L1 , and f sw for
abrupt changes in the r...
Figure 9.35 Dynamic responses of v out , v in , i L1, and f sw
for changing vin fr...
Figure 9.36 Responses of v out , v in , i L1, and Δi L1/2 for
changing vin from 60...
Figure 9.37 Dynamic responses of v out , v in , i L1, and i out
against abrupt loa...
Figure 9.38 Switching frequency results for load change
test: (a) boost mode...
Figure 9.39 Steady‐state responses of v out , v in , i L1, and f
sw under +10% mis...
Figure 9.40 Steady‐state responses of v out , v in , i L1, and f
sw under −10% mis...
Figure 9.41 Equivalent circuit of DG inverters in Islanding
AC microgrid.
Figure 9.42 P/ω and Q/E droop characteristics.
Figure 9.43 Control structure of conventional P/ω and Q/E
droop control...
Figure 9.44 The MPC based droop control algorithm.
Figure 9.45 Block diagram of the simulated model.
Figure 9.46 Steady state results power sharing ratio
between VSI1 and VSI2 i...
Figure 9.47 Steady state results power sharing ratio
between VSI1 and VSI2 i...
Figure 9.48 Load impact with power sharing ratio between
VSI1 and VSI2 is 1 ...
Figure 9.49 Three‐phase shunt active power filter.
Figure 9.50 The block diagram of the control technique.
Figure 9.51 Voltage vectors.
Figure 9.52 Three‐phase grid voltages divided into six
regions of 60°.
Figure 9.53 SAPF prototype.
Figure 9.54 A sudden step change in the load from full load
to half load and...
Figure 9.55 Grid current harmonics for phase‐leg a: (a)
Before compensation ...
Figure 9.56 Grid voltages (50 V/div) with a THD = 14% and
load and grid curr...
Figure 9.57 From top to bottom: grid currents (5 A/div),
load currents (5 A/...
Figure 9.58 Single‐phase T‐type rectifier with an active
power decoupling ci...
Figure 9.59 Control diagram of the grid‐voltage sensorless
MPC technique....
Figure 9.60 (a) Block diagram of MRAS based grid voltage
observer; (b) Phaso...
Figure 9.61 Experimental results of the steady‐state analysis
(a) with decou...
Figure 9.62 Experimental results of the steady‐state
analysis of auxiliary c...
Figure 9.63 Experimental results of FFT analysis (a) with
decoupling functio...
Figure 9.64 Experimental results of the actual grid voltage,
the actual grid...
Figure 9.65 Experimental results of the dynamic response
(a) main circuit; (...
Figure 9.66 Experimental results of the dynamic response
(a) with CRL; (b) w...
Figure 9.67 System configuration of the CDFIG in wind
power generation.
Figure 9.68 Equivalent circuit of the CDFIG based on the
single‐phase diagra...
Figure 9.69 Equivalent circuit of the 3 × 3 matrix converter.
Figure 9.70 Block diagram of PTC for the CDFIG.
Figure 9.71 Flowchart of the MPC algorithm.
Figure 9.72 Steady‐state simulation results of the CDFIG
with PTC algorithm....
Figure 9.73 Simulation results of CDFIG under speed
variation.
Figure 9.74 Simulation results of CDFIG under torque step.
Figure 9.75 Schematic diagram of a single‐phase three‐level
T‐type rectifier...
Figure 9.76 The behavior of energy function versus error
variables.
Figure 9.77 Block diagram of the enhanced FCS‐MPC with
T‐type rectifier.
Figure 9.78 Steady‐state results of grid‐voltage (e s ), grid
current (i s ) and...
Figure 9.79 Steady‐state results of grid‐voltage (e s ), grid
current (i s ) and...
 IEEE Press
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IEEE Press Editorial Board
Sarah Spurgeon, Editor in Chief
Jón Atli Benediktsson Behzad Razavi Jeffrey Reed
Anjan Bose Jim Lyke Diomidis Spinellis
James Duncan Hai Li Adam Drobot
Amin Moeness Brian Johnson Tom Robertazzi
Desineni Subbaram Naidu Ahmet Murat Tekalp
Advanced Control of Power
Converters

Techniques and MATLAB/Simulink

Implementation
Hasan Komurcugil
Eastern Mediterranean University, Turkey

Sertac Bayhan
Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Qatar

Ramon Guzman
Technical University of Catalonia, Spain

Mariusz Malinowski
Warsaw University of Technology, Poland

Haitham Abu‐Rub
Texas A&M University, Qatar

IEEE Press Series on Control Systems Theory and

Applications
Maria Domenica Di Benedetto, Series Editor
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About the Authors
Hasan Komurcugil received the BSc, MSc, and PhD degrees from
the Eastern Mediterranean University (EMU), Famagusta, North
Cyprus, Via Mersin 10, Turkey, in 1989, 1991, and 1998, respectively,
all in electrical engineering. Then, he was promoted to assistant
professor in 1998, associate professor in 2002, and full professor in
2008. From 2004 to 2010, he was the Head of the Computer
Engineering Department, EMU. In 2010, he played an active role in
preparing the department's first self‐study report for the use of
Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology. In 2010, he
was elected as the as the Board Member of Higher Education,
Planning, Evaluation, Accreditation and Coordination Council
(YODAK) North Cyprus. From 2010 to 2019, he played active role in
evaluating the universities in North Cyprus. In 2022, he visited Texas
A&M University at Qatar as an associate research scientist in the
electrical and computer engineering program. He has authored more
than 70 science citation index expanded journal papers and 80
conference papers. His research interests include power electronics
and innovative control methods for power converters such as sliding
mode control, Lyapunov‐function‐based control, and model
predictive control. He is a coauthor of one book (Multilevel
Inverters: Introduction and Emergent Topologies) chapter. He is a
member of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society (IES) and Senior
Member of the IEEE. He served as the Corresponding Guest
Associate Editor of the IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion
and Guest Editor of the IEEE Transactions on Industrial
Informatics. Currently, he serves as the Associate Editor of the IEEE
Transactions on Industrial Electronics and the IEEE Transactions
on Industrial Informatics.
Sertac Bayhan received the MS and PhD degrees in electrical
engineering from Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey in 2008 and 2012,
respectively. His undergraduate degree was also earned at the same
university, and he graduated as valedictorian. He joined Gazi
University as a lecturer in 2008 and was promoted to associate
professor and full professor in 2017 and 2022, respectively. He was
an associate research scientist at Texas A&M University at Qatar
from 2014 to 2018. Currently, Dr. Bayhan is a senior scientist at
Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute (QEERI) and an
associate professor (joint appointment) in Hamad Bin Khalifa
University's Sustainable Division. His research encompasses power
electronics and their applications in next‐generation power and
energy systems, including renewable energy integration, electrified
transportation, and demand‐side management.
Dr. Bayhan is the recipient of many prestigious international awards,
such as the Teaching Excellence Award in recognition of outstanding
teaching in Texas A&M University at Qatar in 2022, Best Paper
awards in the 3rd International Conference on Smart Grid and
Renewable Energy, March 20–22, 2022, Doha/Qatar and 10th
International Conference on Renewable Energy Research and
Applications, September 26–29, 2021, Istanbul/Turkey, the
Research Fellow Excellence Award in recognition of his research
achievements and exceptional contributions to the Texas A&M
University at Qatar in 2018. He has acquired $13M in research
funding and published more than 170 papers in mostly prestigious
IEEE journals and conferences. He is also the coauthor of three
books and six book chapters.
Dr. Bayhan has been active senior member of IEEE. Because of the
visibility of his research, he has been recently elected as an energy
cluster delegate of the Industrial Electronics Society (IES). In 2020,
he founded the IES Qatar Section Chapter and is currently its chair.
Furthermore, he currently serves as associate editor of the IEEE
Transactions on Industrial Electronics, IEEE Journal of Emerging
and Selected Topics in Industrial Electronics, IEEE Open Journal of
the Industrial Electronics Society, and IEEE Industrial Electronics
Technology News.
Ramon Guzman received the BSc, MSc, and PhD degrees in
communications engineering from the Unıversıtat Politècnica de
Catalunya (UPC), in 1999, 2004, and 2016, respectively. He was
promoted to assistant professor in 2002 and associate professor in
2016. Currently, he is an associate professor with the department of
automatic control in the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya. He has
authored more than 40 documents including science citation index
expanded journal papers and conference papers. His research
interests include advanced control methods for power converters
such as sliding mode control, model predictive control, among
others. He is a coauthor of the book (Control Circuits in Power
Electronics) chapter and the book (Communication in Active
Distribution Networks) chapter. He is a member of the IEEE
Industrial Electronics Society (IES) and Senior Member of the IEEE.
Currently, he serves as an associate editor of the IEEE Transactions
on Industrial Electronics.
Mariusz Malinowski received a PhD degree with honors in
Electrical Engineering from the Warsaw University of Technology
(WUT) in 2001. He then attained a habilitation in 2012 and a full
professor title in 2019.
He received the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society (IES) David
Irwin Early Career Award for "Outstanding research and
development of modulation and control for industrial electronics
converters" in 2011, IEEE IES David Bimal Bose Award for Industrial
Electronics Applications in Energy Systems for "Contributions in
control of industrial electronics converters applications in energy
systems" in 2015, and Power Electronics and Motion Control
(PEMC) Istvan Nagy Award in 2021.
Mariusz Malinowski has published many journals and conference
papers and is a co‐author of five books. He has participated in many
research and industrial projects and has been a reviewer and PhD
commission member for numerous PhD theses in Germany, Spain,
Denmark, Australia, India, Switzerland, and Poland.
Mariusz Malinowski's public service includes activity in IEEE, where
he was editor‐in‐chief of IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine,
associate editor of IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, and
associate editor of IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics.
Mariusz Malinowski is currently the past chair of the IEEE Poland
Section and president of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society. He
has an IEEE Fellow status.
Mariusz Malinowski participated in the development of technologies
that received many prizes e.g. three times recognition in the
competition Polish Product of the Future organized by the Polish
Agency for Enterprise Development (PARP), the Grand Prix
Exhibition of Innovations in Geneva (Gold Medal) and the
Exhibition in Brussels “Eureco” (Bronze Medal).
Mariusz Malinowski was visiting scholar and professor in the
following institutions: Aalborg University (Denmark), University of
Nevada (Reno, USA), Technical University of Berlin (Germany),
Universidad Tecnica Federico Santa Marıa (Valparaıso, Chile),
ENSEEIHT ‐ Laplace, Toulouse (France), and ETH Zurich
(Switzerland).
Haitham Abu‐Rub is a full professor holding two PhDs from
Gdansk University of Technology (1995) and from Gdansk University
(2004). Dr. Abu Rub has long teaching and research experiences at
many universities in many countries including Qatar, Poland,
Palestine, USA, and Germany.
Since 2006, Dr. Abu‐Rub has been associated with Texas A&M
University at Qatar, where he has served for five years as the chair of
Electrical and Computer Engineering Program and has been serving
as the managing director of the Smart Grid Center at the same
university.
His main research interests are energy conversion systems, smart
grid, renewable energy systems, electric drives, and power electronic
converters.
Dr. Abu‐Rub is the recipient of many prestigious international
awards and recognitions, such as the American Fulbright
Scholarship and the German Alexander von Humboldt Fellowship.
He has co‐authored around 400 journal and conference papers, five
books, and five book chapters. Dr. Abu‐Rub is an IEEE fellow and co‐
editor in chief of the IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics.
List of Abbreviations
AC
Alternating Current
ADC
Analog Digital Converter
BDFIG
Brushless Doubly Fed Induction Generator
CCSMPC
Continuous Control Set Model Predictive Control
CDFIG
Cascaded Doubly Fed Induction Generator
CM
Control Machine
CMV
Common Mode Voltage
CPL
Constant Power Load
CRL
Constant Resistive Load
DC
Direct Current
DG
Distributed Generation
DLQR
Discrete Linear Quadratic Regulator
DPC
Direct Power Control
DSP
Digital Signal Processor
EKF
Extended Kalman Filter
EV
Electric Vehicle
FCS
Finite Control Set
FCSMPC
Finite control set model predictive control
FPGA
Field Programmable Gate Array
HM
Hysteresis Modulation
IGBT
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
ISMC
Integral Sliding Mode Control
KF
Kalman Filter
KKT
Karush–Kuhn–Tucker
MCU
Microcontroller unit
MIMO
Multi‐Input Multi‐Output
MIPS
Millions Instructions Per Second
MOSFET
Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor
MPC
Model Predictive Control
MRAS
Model Reference Adaptive System
NPC
Neutral Point Clamped
PCC
Point of Common Coupling
PI
Proportional Integral
PID
Proportional Integral Derivative
PLL
Phase‐Locked Loop
PM
Power Machine
PR
Proportional Resonant
PTC
Predictive Torque Control
PV
Photovoltaic
PWM
Pulse Width Modulation
qZS
Quasi Z Source
qZSI
Quasi Z Source Inverter
RMS
Root Mean Square
SAPF
Shunt Active Power Filter
SDA
Switching Decision Algorithm
SEPIC
Single‐Ended Primary‐Inductor Converters
SISO
Single‐Input Single‐Output
SMC
Sliding Mode Control
Space
Vector Modulation
SPWM
Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation
STA
Super Twisting Algorithm
TDVR
Transformerless Dynamic Voltage Restorer
THD
Total Harmonic Distortion
TSMC
Terminal Sliding Mode Control
UPFR
Unity Power Factor Rectifier
UPS
Uninterruptible Power Supply
VFD
Variable Frequency Drive
VOC
Voltage Oriented Control
VSI
Voltage Source Inverter
VSS
Variable Structure System
WF
Weighting Factor
Preface
Power electronics converters play an important role in every stage of
today's modernized world including computers, smart home
systems, electric vehicles, airplanes, trains, marine electrical
systems, microgrids, robots, renewable energy source integration
systems, residential, and many industrial applications. The main
function of a power converter is to achieve DC–DC, DC–AC, AC–DC,
and AC–AC power conversion with high performance in terms of
efficiency, stability, robustness, reduced complexity, and low cost. A
power converter consists of switching devices and diodes, which are
turned on and off based on a control strategy for achieving the
desired power conversion performance. Hence, the control of power
converters is the key point in achieving the desired target.
The traditional control techniques that are based on the linearized
model (small‐signal model) of converter offer satisfactory
performance around the operating point. However, these control
strategies fail in achieving the desired performance away from the
operating point. In the last two decades, many advanced nonlinear
control strategies, such as sliding mode control, Lyapunov function‐
based control, and model predictive control, have received
significant attention of many researchers and practicing engineers.
The effectiveness of these control methods has been proved in
literature. Considering the advantages and superiority of nonlinear
control, it is essential and timely to write a comprehensive book to
present the fundamental ideas, design guidelines, mathematical
modeling, and MATLAB®\Simulink®‐based simulation of these
advanced control strategies for various power converters employed
in many applications. Thus, we decided to write this book to cover
the advanced nonlinear control methods of power electronic
converters in a single source. The book provides a unique
combination of the advanced nonlinear control methods mentioned
above for various power converters and applications. Furthermore,
each control method is supported by simulation examples along with
MATLAB®\Simulink® models, which will make the book of high
benefit for researchers, engineering professionals, and
undergraduate/graduate students in electrical engineering and
mechatronics areas.
This book has nine chapters that can be divided into four parts. In
the first part, a brief introduction of sliding mode control, Lyapunov
function‐based control, and model predictive control methods is
presented (Chapters 1 and 2). In the second part, design guidelines of
these control methods are presented in detail (Chapters 3–5). Third
part presents a tutorial on physical modeling and experimental
verification using MATLAB®\Simulink® (Chapter 6). Finally, case
studies of various power converter applications are given in the
fourth part (Chapters 7–9). These case studies are mainly based on
our own research work available in literature. We have carefully
selected each case study to cover a wide range of converter
applications. All Simulink models referred to in the case studies are
provided as supplementary material to be downloaded from the web
site provided by the publisher. These MATLAB®\Simulink® models
will be very helpful in learning the basics of these control methods.
In this respect, we believe that this book fills the gap between theory
and practice and provides practical guidance to the researchers,
graduate and senior undergraduate students, and practicing
engineers for designing and developing these advanced control
methods using MATLAB®\Simulink®.
Acknowledgment
We would like to take this opportunity to express our sincere
appreciation to all the people who were directly or indirectly helpful
in making this book a reality. We emphasize that portions of the
book appeared in earlier forms as journal papers and conference
papers with some of our students and colleagues. Due to this fact,
our special thanks go to all of them.
We are grateful to the Qatar National Research Fund (a member of
Qatar Foundation) for funding many of the research projects, whose
outcomes helped us in preparing major part of this book. Chapters
1–4 for NPRP grant (NPRP12S‐0226‐190158), Chapters 7 and 8 for
NPRP grant (NPRP12C‐33905‐SP‐220), and Chapters 5, 6, and 9 for
NPRP grant (NPRP12S‐0214‐190083). The statements made herein
are solely the responsibility of the authors.
This work was supported in part by the OPUS program of the
National Science Centre of Poland under Grant NCN
2018/31/B/ST7/00954.
This work is also supported in part by the R+D+i project PID2021‐
122835OB‐C21, financed by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501000011033
and FEDER “A way of making Europe.”
Also, we appreciate the help from many colleagues for providing
constructive feedback on the material and for editing. Particular
appreciation goes to Dr. Naki Guler from Gazi University, Turkey, for
his great help not only in drawing many of the figures but also in
creating some of the MATLAB®\Simulink® models.
Finally, we are indebted to our families for their continued support,
endless patience, a wonderful working environment at home,
especially during the difficult time of the COVID‐19 pandemic, and
encouragement, without which this book would not have been
completed.
Hasan Komurcugil
Sertac Bayhan
Ramon Guzman
Mariusz Malinowski
Haitham Abu‐Rub
About the Companion Website

This book is accompanied by the companion website:

www.wiley.com/go/komurcugil/advancedcontrolofpowerc
onverters
The website includes case studies of Simulink model.
1
Introduction
1.1 General Remarks
Power electronics converters are widely utilized in almost every
aspect of todays' modernized world including computers, smart
home systems, electric vehicles (EVs), trains, marine, aircrafts,
microgrids, robots, renewable energy conversion and integration,
and many industrial applications. The main function of a power
converter is to convert the electrical power from one form to the
other [1]. In general, there are four different categories of power
converters: DC–DC, AC–DC, DC–AC, and AC–AC. In each category,
various converter topologies have been developed to meet the
desired conversion and application objectives. For instance, when
the photovoltaic (PV) energy is to be converted and injected into the
grid, a DC–DC boost converter is connected between the PV panel
and DC–AC inverter to ensure a constant inverter input voltage and
to possibly track the panel's maximum power point. The necessity of
DC–DC boost converter in such application arises due to the buck
operation of the inverter (i.e. DC input voltage is greater than the
amplitude of its AC voltage). On the other hand, an AC–DC converter
(usually referred to as rectifier) is used in an electric vehicle (EV)
charging system to convert the grid's AC voltage to DC such that the
battery can be charged. Another example is the use of series active
filter (usually referred to as dynamic voltage restorer) in the
protection of sensitive loads (i.e. medical equipment in the hospitals,
data centers, and so on) against voltage sags, and voltage swells in
the grid voltage. When such voltage variations occur in the grid, the
series active filter, which is built using a DC–AC inverter, generates
and injects the required compensation voltage to the point of
common coupling such that the sensitive load voltage is always kept
at the desired value. Similar examples can be given for the other
converter categories.
Thus, considering the importance of today's energy demand and the
need for clean and reliable resources, the use of power electronics
has increased tremendously. As such, the performance of the power
converters used in these applications has gained utmost importance.
In most of the power electronics‐related applications, closed‐loop
control is essential to keep the voltage or current at reference values
under various conditions, which include load changes, grid voltage
deterioration (voltage sags, voltage swells, and distorted grid
voltages), and parameter variations, which occur because of aging
and operating conditions. More importantly, the stability of closed‐
loop system should not be jeopardized under these situations. For
this reason, the design of a closed‐loop system that responds to these
challenges is an essential and difficult task. First of all, it should be
noted that the design of closed‐loop control for power electronics
converters requires a deep knowledge in many areas such as circuit
analysis, advanced mathematics, modeling, control systems, and
power electronics. In this regard, this chapter starts with the
introduction of simplest closed‐loop control for power converters.
Then, mathematical modeling, basic control objectives, and
performance evaluation are explained briefly. Hence, the reader is
urged to refresh or gain further basic information in the areas of
control theory and power electronics converters from the literature.
This book is primarily concerned with advanced nonlinear control of
power converters. A closed‐loop control is referred to as nonlinear
control if it contains at least one nonlinear component. Nonlinear
control of power converters received attention of many researchers
in the last two decades. The main reason of this popularity comes
from the advantages over linear control methods, which lack
guaranteed stability in large operation range of the converters; facing
hard nonlinearities (saturation, dead‐zone, backlash, and hysteresis),
which cannot be approximated linearly; and having model
uncertainties, which are assumed to be known when designing the
linear controller. Whereas the nonlinear control is able to cope with
the problems mentioned above. In this book, sliding mode control,
Lyapunov function‐based control, and model predictive control
methodologies are explained for power converters. Although these
nonlinear control methods are not new, their application in power
converter control was limited in the past due to the required
extensive computations. Since last decade, the advent of fast
implementation platforms such as digital signal processors and field
programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) relieved the computation burden
issue. Therefore, compiling the design and application of the
nonlinear control methods mentioned above in a single book is very
beneficial for the interested readers.

1.2 Basic Closed‐Loop Control for Power

Converters
A basic single input single output (SISO) closed‐loop power
converter control system is illustrated in Figure 1.1. Here, the main
aim is to control the power converter in order to accomplish specific
desired control objectives (see Section 1.4). Clearly, the output signal
(i.e. voltage or current) is measured and compared with the reference
one to produce an error signal. This error signal is applied to the
controller. Then, the controller generates modulation signal from
which the pulse width modulation (PWM) signals are generated.
These signals are applied to the gates of switching devices (i.e.
insulated gate bipolar transistors [IGBTs], metal oxide
semiconductor field effect transistors [MOSFETs], etc.) in the power
converter. Upon the application of PWM signals, the switching
devices are turned on and off. The value of voltage (or current) in the
converter is changed by these switching actions. If the controller is
well designed, the error signal is continually reduced until the output
signal tracks the reference signal in the steady state. On the other
hand, the number of loops in a control system may be more than one
depending on the converter topology and the application area.
Figure 1.1 Basic closed‐loop power converter control system. (a)
With modulation, (b) without modulation.
Numerous control approaches have been developed for the power
converters. Each control approach has its own advantages and
disadvantages concerning with the controller complexity and cost,
dynamic response, steady‐state error, robustness to parameter
variations, and closed‐loop stability. It is worth to mention that the
discussion in this book is based on the introduction, design and
application of sliding mode control, Lyapunov function‐based
control, and model predictive control methods used in various power
converters. While the sliding mode control and Lyapunov function‐
based control methods require a modulation block as shown in
Figure 1.1a, the finite control set model predictive control (FCS‐MPC)
method does not require a modulation as shown in Figure 1.1b. The
design of sliding mode control, Lyapunov function‐based control,
and model predictive control are explained in Chapters 3, 4, and 5,
respectively. The following sections intend to present background
information regarding the steps that should be taken into
consideration when designing a controller. Even though these steps
are well known in the modern control systems area, the readers, who
are not fully familiar with these, will gain a knowledge before
learning each of these control methods.

1.3 Mathematical Modeling of Power

Converters
Usually, an accurate mathematical model of the converter is
necessary when there is a need to design its controller. As it will be
discussed in Chapter 3, the sliding mode control does not require
mathematical modeling of the converter. Whereas the Lyapunov
function‐based control and model predictive control approaches rely
on the mathematical model of the power converter as will be
explained in Chapters 4 and 5, respectively. However, a perfect
mathematical model, which represents all dynamics of the converter,
is not possible in practice due to the certain noises (i.e. measurement
noise) and possible failure conditions. There are two types of
mathematical models in the continuous time: linear models and
nonlinear models. The behavior of a linear converter system is
usually described by linear differential equations written in the state‐
space form as follows:

(1.1)

where x represents the state vector, u represents the input vector, y

represents the output vector, and A, B, C, and D represent the
matrices with appropriate dimension. Such models are suitable to be
used with the root‐locus method, state‐space method, and frequency
domain design methods such as Bode plot and Nyquist method. As
will be discussed in Chapter 4, the Lyapunov function‐based control
method uses the linear converter system model in (1.1). On the other
hand, the model predictive control method (see Chapters 5 and 9)
uses discrete‐time version of the continuous‐time model in (1.1) as
given below:

(1.2)

where Ad, Bd, Cd, and Dd are discretized matrices of A, B, C, and D,

respectively. The sampling instants are represented by k and k + 1. It
is worth to mention that the sampling period Ts is omitted in (1.2)
for brevity. In general, the discretization of (1.1) can be based on the
integral approximation method or Euler's method. In the case of
integral approximation method, the input is assumed to be constant
between sampling instants k and k + 1 (i.e. u(t) = u(kTs), kTs ≤ t ≤ (k
+ 1)Ts), which results in following discrete‐time state equation:

(1.3)

Note that (1.3) is same as first equation of (1.2) if Ts is omitted.

Comparing (1.2) and (1.3), it can be seen that

(1.4)

The discrete‐time output equation can be derived in the same way. In

the case of Euler's method, the first derivative of state equation at t =
kTs is approximated as follows:
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a salary; and though he continued his intercourse with them for
some time, he kept up his character as an adept to the last.

Engraved by B. Holl.

LEIBNITZ.

From a Picture in the

Florence Gallery.

Under the Superintendance

of the Society for the
Diffusion of Useful
Knowledge

London, Published by
Charles Knight, Ludgate
Street.

His first work, which appeared when he was twenty-two years old,
was a treatise written under the name of George Vlicorius,
recommending the choice of the Elector Palatine to be King of
Poland. In 1670 he published his first philosophical work, an edition
of ‘Marius Nizolius contra Pseudophilosophos;’ and in the following
year two treatises on abstract and concrete motion, severally
dedicated to the French Academy and the Royal Society.
During his abode at Nuremberg, the Baron de Boinebourg, minister
of the Elector of Mayence, procured a legal appointment for him in
that state. While he held this post he travelled into France and
England. After the death of the Elector, he accepted a similar
appointment in the dominions of the Duke of Brunswick-Lunenberg.
At the peace of Nimeguen in 1678 he wrote upon some disputed
ceremonials, under the title of Cesarinus Furstnerius, and displayed
a great extent of reading, and a little of that speculative spirit which
afterwards produced the pre-established harmony. He is said,
though a Lutheran, to have argued on the supposition that Europe
was to be considered as a large federation, of which the Emperor
was the temporal, and the Pope the spiritual, head. In 1679 he was
engaged by the reigning Duke to write the history of the House of
Brunswick. On this service he went through Germany and Italy in
search of authorities. It is related that, on one occasion, having left
Venice in a small boat, a storm arose, and the boatmen began to
discuss in Italian, which they supposed their passenger did not
understand, the propriety of throwing the heretic overboard.
Leibnitz, with great presence of mind, drew out a rosary, which he
had about him par précaution, as Fontenelle supposes, who does not
seem to guess that this anecdote, coupled with what has preceded,
makes it at least an even chance that Leibnitz was really a Catholic.
And this is negatively supported by the fact, that, Lutheran as he
was considered, he very rarely attended the services of his church,
in spite of the publicly-expressed disapprobation of the clergy. But
on the other hand, he positively refused to profess Catholicism,
when an advantageous settlement at Paris was offered on that
condition. That he was both a religious man and a Christian is
sufficiently attested by his writings.
He returned from his tour in 1690, and in 1693 published his ‘Codex
Juris Gentium Diplomaticus.’ He had published almost at the same
time with his first work a treatise on the study of jurisprudence. The
first volume of the ‘History of Brunswick’ appeared in 1707, and two
others in 1710 and 1711.
In 1700 he induced the Elector of Brandenburg to found the
Academy of Berlin, of which he was appointed perpetual president.
He contributed many valuable papers to its memoirs. His patron, the
Duke of Brunswick-Lunenberg, died in 1678, and was succeeded by
Ernest-Augustus, first Elector of Hanover, on whose issue by the
Electress Sophia the crown of England was settled. Leibnitz
continued in the Elector’s service till his death. This took place from
gout, November 14, 1716, at Hanover. The real life of such a man is
in his character and writings. With regard to the first, the account of
Fontenelle is as follows. He had a strong constitution, ate a good
deal, drank little, and never undiluted liquors. When alone, he
always took his meals as his studies permitted. His chair was
frequently his only bed, and in this way he is said to have sometimes
passed whole months. He made notes of all he read, not to preserve
them, but to fix the contents on his memory; for when once written,
they were finally laid aside. He communicated freely with all classes
of men, and could entirely divest himself of his character of a
philosopher. His correspondence was immense; he answered every
one who wrote, however small the pretext for addressing him. He
was of a gay humour, easily excited to anger, and easily appeased.
He lived at great expense, but had preserved and hid two years’
amount of his salary. The securing of this treasure gave him great
uneasiness; and upon this slight ground he has been charged with
avarice. He was never married: it is said that he contemplated such
a connexion at the age of fifty, but that the lady desired time to
consider. “This,” says his biographer, “gave M. Leibnitz the same
opportunity, and he continued unmarried.”
The number and variety of characters in which Leibnitz is known will
not permit us to say much upon each subject. His public life was that
of a jurist. His ‘History of Brunswick’ was continued by M. Echard;
who supplied Fontenelle with the necessary information for his
éloge. In youth he was a poet; and he is said in one day to have
made three hundred Latin verses without a single elision. But the
Leibnitz of our day is either the mathematician or the metaphysician.
In the first of these two characters he is coupled in the mind of the
reader with Newton, as the co-inventor of what was called by
himself the Differential Calculus, and by Newton the Method of
Fluxions. Much might be instanced which was done by him for the
pure sciences in other respects; but this one service, from its
magnitude as a discovery, and its notoriety as the cause of a great
controversy, has swallowed up all the rest.
Leibnitz was in London in 1673, and from that time began to pay
particular attention to mathematics. He was in correspondence with
Newton, Oldenburg, and others, on questions connected with infinite
series, and continued so more or less till 1684, when he published
his first ideas on the Differential Calculus in the Leipzic Acts. But it is
certain that Newton had been in possession of the same powers
under a different name, from about 1665. The English philosopher
drops various hints of his being in possession of a new method, but
without explaining what it was, except in one letter of 1672, of
which it was afterwards asserted that a copy had been forwarded to
Leibnitz in 1676. Leibnitz published both on the Differential and
Integral Calculus before the appearance of Newton’s Principia in
1687; and indeed before 1711, the era of the dispute, this new
calculus had been so far extended by Leibnitz and the Bernoullis,
that it began to assume a shape something like that in which it
exists at the present day. In the first edition of the Principia, Newton
expressly avows that he had, ten years before (namely, about 1677),
informed Leibnitz that he had a method of drawing tangents, finding
maxima and minima, &c.; and that Leibnitz had, in reply, actually
communicated his own method, and that he (Newton) found it only
differed from his own in symbols. This passage was, not very fairly,
suppressed in the third edition of the Principia, which appeared in
1726, alter the dispute; and the space was filled up by an account of
other matters. It was obvious that, on the supposition of plagiarism,
it only gave Leibnitz a year to infer, from a hint or two, his method,
notation, and results.
Some discussion about priority of invention led Dr. Keill to maintain
Newton’s title to be considered the sole inventor of the fluxional
calculus. Leibnitz had asserted that he had been in possession of the
method eight years before he communicated it to Newton. He
appealed to the Royal Society, of which Newton was President, and
that body gave judgment on the question in 1712. Their decision is
now worth nothing; firstly, because it only determined that Newton
was the first inventor, which was not the whole point, and left out
the question whether Leibnitz had or had not stolen from Newton;
secondly, because the charge of plagiarism is insinuated in the
assertion that a copy of Newton’s letter, as above mentioned, had
been sent to Leibnitz. Now they neither prove that he had received
this letter in time sufficient to enable him to communicate with
Newton as above described, or, if he had received it, that there was
in it a sufficient hint of the method of fluxions. The decision of
posterity is, that Leibnitz fairly invented his own method; and though
English writers give no strong opinion as to the fairness with which
the dispute was carried on, we imagine that there are few who
would now defend the conduct of their predecessors. Whoever may
have had priority of invention, it is clear that to Leibnitz and the
Bernoullis belongs the principal part of the superstructure, by aid of
which their immediate successors were enabled to extend the theory
of Newton; and thus Leibnitz is placed in the highest rank of
mathematical inventors.
The metaphysics of Leibnitz have now become a by-word. He is pre-
eminent, among modern philosophers, for his extraordinary fancies.
His monads, his pre-established harmony, and his best of all possible
worlds, are hardly caricatured in the well-known philosophical novel
of Voltaire. If any thinking monad should find that the pre-
established harmony between his soul and body would make the
former desire to see more of Leibnitz as a metaphysician, and the
latter able to second him, we can inform him that it was necessary,
for the best of all possible universes, that Michael Hansch should in
1728 publish the whole system at Frankfort and Leipzic, under the
title, ‘Leibnitzii Principia philosophica more geometrico demonstrata;’
and also that M. Tenneman should give an account of this system,
and M. Victor Cousin translate the same. It is not easy to give any
short description of the contents, nor would it be useful. A school of
metaphysicians of the sect of Leibnitz continued to exist for some
time in Germany, but it has long been extinct.
The mathematical works of Leibnitz were collected and published at
Geneva in 1768. His correspondence with John Bernoulli was also
published in 1745, at Lausanne and Geneva. It is an interesting
record, and exhibits him in an amiable light. He gives his friend a
check for his manner of speaking of Newton, at the time when the
partizans of the latter were attacking his own character, both as a
man and a discoverer. He says (vol. ii. p. 234), “I thank you for the
animadversions which you have sent me on Newton’s works; I wish
you had time to examine the whole, which I know would not be
unpleasant even to himself. But in so beautiful a structure, non ego
paucis offendar maculis.” He also says that he has been informed by
a friend in England, that hatred of the Hanoverian connexion had
something to do with the bitterness with which he was assailed;
“Non ab omni veri specie abest, eos qui parum Domui Hanoveranæ
favent, etiam me lacerare voluisse; nam amicus Anglus ad me
scribit, videri aliquibus non tam ut mathematicos et Societatis Regiæ
Socios in socium, sed ut Toryos in Whigium quosdam egisse.” (Vol.
ii. p. 321.)
Engraved by C. E. Wagstaff

CARDINAL XIMENES.

From a Picture in the

Florence Gallery.

Under the Superintendence

of the Society for the
Diffusion of Useful
Knowledge.

London, Published by
Charles Knight, Ludgate
Street.
 XIMENES.

Gonzales Ximenes de Cisneros, Primate and Regent of Spain, was

born at Tordelaguna, in Castile, in 1437. He was descended of an
ancient family, long settled at Cisneros in the kingdom of Leon, and
was baptized Gonzales after an ancestor who was one of the most
renowned knights of his day: the name of Francis, by which he is
commonly known, he assumed in after-life, in honour of the saint
whose monastic rule he embraced. But though he was of honourable
descent, neither rank nor wealth were stepping-stones to his
preferment. His father supported a large family upon the income of
his humble office of collector of tenths, payable to the king by the
clergy: but his own studious disposition, and the facilities then
afforded by the universities to poor scholars, raised him out of the
obscurity in which his lot appeared to be cast. At the schools of
Alcala, and at the University of Salamanca, he studied philosophy,
theology, canon and civil law; and his proficiency soon enabled him
to support himself, by teaching others. Having completed his
education he undertook a journey to Rome, hoping there to find a
readier field for the exercise of his talents than at home. Poor and
friendless, he maintained himself by pleading in the Spanish causes
which came before the Court of the Consistory; and he was already
rising into eminence, when, hearing of his father’s death, and the
distress of his family, he abandoned his flattering prospects and
returned to Spain.
It appears that he had taken holy orders during his abode at Rome,
for before his departure Sixtus IV. bestowed on him a reversionary
grant of the first benefice which should fall vacant. This proved to be
Uceda; and he immediately produced his letters and took
possession. The Archbishop of Toledo, who had already promised
the living, was highly offended at this exercise of what in truth was a
most objectionable prerogative of the Holy See. He not only
dispossessed, but imprisoned for six years, Ximenes, who remained
firm in the assertion of his rights. At the end of that time the prelate
yielded. Ximenes soon exchanged Uceda for a chaplaincy in the
cathedral of Siguenza. Here he applied himself to the pursuit of
theology, and laid the foundation of that Hebrew and Chaldaic
learning which bore such noble fruit in after-life. He gained the
warm friendship of his bishop, the Cardinal Mendoza, who, in 1483,
appointed him grand vicar of the diocese. In that office he
distinguished himself by integrity and talents for business, as he had
before by piety and learning. And the fairest prospect of
advancement was open to him, when all at once he resolved to quit
the world, and to devote himself wholly to religious meditation.
He embraced the strictest rule of the Franciscan order, with a zeal to
which the general example of his brethren gave no countenance. He
retired to the secluded monasteries of Castagnar and Salceda, and in
the forests which surrounded them, devoted himself wholly to
prayer, the study of the Scriptures, and the mortification of the flesh.
He thus gained the reputation of uncommon sanctity, and there
seems to be no reason to think that his asceticism was defiled by
any trace of hypocrisy. But his friend the Cardinal saw that he was
fitted for still better things, and regretting his departure from active
life, expressed a belief that he would ultimately be raised to much
higher dignity, to the great advantage of the Church. And, in truth,
the Cardinal, who had been raised from the see of Siguenza to the
primacy of Spain, the Archbishopric of Toledo, did much to fulfil his
own prediction. He introduced Ximenes to the Queen Isabella, who
was then in want of a confessor, and she readily listened to his
recommendation, and appointed Ximenes to the vacant office. He
would fain have declined it, urging that he had been called to the
cloister from active life to attend to his own salvation; that what was
demanded would withdraw him from his proper vocation; and that a
sovereign above all persons needed a religious guide, not only of
good intentions, but of experience and wisdom. The Queen smiled
as she assured him, that if he had formerly been directed to
solitude, he was now summoned to court, and that if he would take
charge of her conscience, she would be answerable for having
chosen him to do so. And he consented, on condition that he should
be required to attend her only when called by the duties of his
office. This was in 1492. The austerity of his life and the wildness of
his aspect caused him, when he appeared, to be compared by the
gay frequenters of the court to an old Egyptian hermit come out
from the desert.
Moved by the hope of advancing the temporal interests of their
order, his monastic brethren now appointed him their provincial.
They widely mistook his character. He accepted the proffered dignity,
moved chiefly by the hope that it would furnish him with an excuse
for more frequent absence from court; and he employed his power
in striving to reform the corruptions which abundant wealth had
introduced among them. His own life was in strict adherence to the
self-denial which he recommended to others. In his visitations he
travelled on foot from convent to convent, accompanied by one
brother, Francis Ruyz, whom he had selected for his constant
companion, as uniting the qualifications of a lively temper and sound
health, with learning, modesty, and trustworthiness. For their
sustenance they depended upon alms, and in the trade of begging
Ximenes was very unsuccessful. Ruyz used to remonstrate on the
misapplication of his talents. “Your Reverence will let us die of
hunger; you were not meant for this profession. God gives each of
us his talents: do you pray for me, and I will beg for you. Your
Reverence may be made to give, but certainly not to ask.” Visiting
Gibraltar in one of these tours, he was strongly possessed by the
desire of going to preach the gospel in Africa. On this subject he
consulted a female devotee, who had the reputation of enjoying
divine revelations in visions, and was dissuaded by her from
prosecuting the scheme.
The Primate Mendoza died at the end of 1494. In their last
interview, he urged his sovereign not to entrust the vast revenues of
his see to any one connected with the highest nobility, esteeming its
power to be even dangerous to the crown, when knit by family ties
to great feudal influence. Isabella listened to his advice, and after
much hesitation pitched on Ximenes to be his successor. Aware of
his feelings, she kept her intentions secret until letters confirmatory
of the appointment arrived from the Pope. These without preface
she put into his hands. Reading the address, “To our venerable
brother Ximenes, Archbishop elect of Toledo,” “Madam,” he said,
“these letters are not for me;” and he rose abruptly and quitted the
royal presence. Six months elapsed before he was induced to accept
the proffered dignity, in virtue of a direct injunction from the Pope.
He was consecrated October 11, 1495.
Rank and wealth made no difference in the manners of the ascetic
monk. He continued to live upon the coarsest fare, to wear the
humble dress of his order, to sleep on the ground, or on a bed as
hard, and to travel on an ass, or on foot. And Pope Alexander VI.
thought it necessary to send a letter to him, with the very unusual
exhortation to cultivate the pomps and vanities of the world a little
more, for the sake of the church of which he was so exalted a
member. Ximenes obeyed, and probably became convinced of the
propriety of the counsel, as he became more engaged in civil
government. He assumed even a more gorgeous state than his
predecessors, but he still practised his usual self-denial in private; he
slept and fared as hardly as before, and wore a haircloth under his
episcopal robes. He was exemplary in the discharge of his public
duties; liberal even to an extreme in relieving the daily necessities of
the poor, and in contributing to charitable, useful, and religious
undertakings; diligent in promoting the welfare of the people to the
full extent of his almost regal power, by repressing extortion and
peculation, whether in courts of law, or the collection of the revenue,
by providing for the due administration of justice, ecclesiastical and
civil, and by exercising a strict superintendence over the conduct of
the parochial clergy. To the cry of the wretched his ears were always
open; he hated oppression; and if an injured vassal complained
against the highest noble in the land, he was ready to grant justice,
if the matter lay within his jurisdiction, or, if not, to carry the
complaint before the Queen. And his zeal and energy carried to a
happy conclusion the arduous undertaking of reforming the
Franciscan brotherhood, upon which he succeeded in enforcing a
new system of regulations in 1499, after a most obstinate
resistance.
We may here mention with unmixed praise one of the Archbishop’s
charitable undertakings. It was an institution for the education of the
daughters of indigent nobles, on such principles, according to the
words of our authority, as should train them to the fit discharge of
their duties towards their families and towards society. A fund,
afterwards increased by the Spanish monarchs, was set apart to
provide them with marriage portions. We may here trace the original
of the celebrated establishment of St. Cyr.
His principal work was the establishment of a university at Alcala,
where he himself received his early education. The foundation-stone
was laid by himself in 1498; the buildings were completed, and the
first course of lectures given, in 1508. For a model he took the
university of Paris; he endowed it richly, and collected men
distinguished for their learning from all parts of Europe, to fill the
professorial chairs. Here he undertook the great work of publishing
the first Polyglot Bible, the Complutensian, as it is called, from the
Latin name of Alcala, where it was printed, which will exist for ages
as a noble specimen of the Archbishop’s piety, munificence, and zeal
for learning. The four first volumes contain the Old Testament in the
Hebrew—the Septuagint version, with a Latin translation—the
Vulgate, as corrected by St. Jerome—and the Chaldee Paraphrase,
with a Latin translation. The fifth and sixth volumes contain the
Greek Testament and the Vulgate. The printing of this great
undertaking commenced in 1502, and was not completed till 1517,
shortly before the death of Ximenes, who, when the last volume was
brought to him, is reported by his earliest biographer, after an
ejaculation of pious thanksgiving, to have addressed the bystanders
in these words:—“Many high and difficult undertakings I have carried
on in the service of the State, yet, my friends, there is nothing for
which I more deserve congratulation than for this edition of the
Scriptures, which lays open, in a time of much need, the fountain-
head of our holy religion, whence may be drawn a far purer strain of
theology than from the streams which have been turned off from it.”
But owing to a hesitation at the Court of Rome, how far the criticism
of the Scriptures should be encouraged, the Bible was not given to
the world till 1522. Only about 600 copies were printed. The price
fixed on it was six and a half ducats. The epistle dedicatory to Leo X.
is by Ximenes himself: the preface, according to Dr. Dibdin, is by
another hand. The most learned Hebrew and Greek scholars who
could be procured were employed in the collation of manuscripts;
and it may be noted that for seven Hebrew MSS. the sum of 4000
golden crowns was paid. These with other treasures of learning,
which were deposited with the University of Alcala, about the middle
of the last century were sold to a firework-maker as lumber. The
whole cost of the work, which was defrayed by Ximenes, is said to
have exceeded 50,000 gold crowns.
In 1498 the Archbishop was summoned to Granada by Ferdinand
and Isabella, to deliberate on the means to be used for the
conversion of the Moors. Inflamed by zeal, he had recourse to
means which show the wisdom of the serpent more than the
simplicity of the dove. He began with the priests and doctors of the
law, and strove by kindness and attention, mixed with religious
discussion, to dispose them to adopt the Christian faith. The priests
led over the people in such flocks, that, in one day, the anniversary
of which was observed as a festival, December 18, 1499, upwards of
3000 persons were baptized by aspersion in Granada. That the
Archbishop should have believed in the sincerity of these wholesale
conversions is not credible; he probably thought that a hypocritical
worship of the true God was a less evil than sincere idolatry. The
inquisition was charged with the superintendence of the souls of
these nominal Christians, and the relapse from that faith which they
never embraced was punished according to the mercy of that
irresponsible tribunal. The dread and indignation produced by these
measures led to a revolt, which was quelled, however, under the
guidance of the Archbishop.
The same desire of making Christians any how appears in the
measures adopted on this occasion. The inhabitants of the quarter in
which the tumult broke out were declared guilty of high treason, and
offered their choice of death or conversion. They embraced the
latter; and the other Granadans, to the number of 150,000, followed
their example. But these severities drove the most resolute spirits to
that last insurrection, related with so much interest in Washington
Irving’s ‘Chronicles of Granada;’ which terminated in the expatriation
of the remnant who abided in their national creed. But however
unapostolic the Archbishop’s mode of conversion may have been, his
zeal and ability in instructing and rendering truly Christian those who
submitted to the outward forms of the religion is said to have been
admirable.
His conduct towards the unhappy natives of the West Indies was
less exceptionable. He did his utmost not only for their conversion,
but to protect them from the cruel exactions of the Spanish settlers.
The excellent Isabella of Castile died November 26, 1504. According
to the tenor of his beloved mistress’s will, Ximenes steadily
maintained the claim of Ferdinand, her husband, to the regency of
the kingdom during the minority of Charles V. After the death of the
Archduke Philip, September 25, 1506, he renewed his exertions to
determine the Castilians in favour of Ferdinand’s claim to the
regency, in preference to the Emperor Maximilian, Charles V.’s
paternal grandfather; being satisfied that, notwithstanding the
ancient jealousy between Castile and Arragon, the former would be
better governed by a prince intimately acquainted with its
circumstances and interests than by a stranger. Ferdinand, who was
then engaged at Naples, owed his success in this matter to Ximenes;
and showed his gratitude by procuring for him the rank of Cardinal,
with the title of Cardinal of Spain, together with the office of Grand
Inquisitor.
In his zeal for spreading the true faith, Ximenes had conceived a
scheme for the conquest of the Holy Land, and indeed had nearly
succeeded in effecting a league for that purpose between Ferdinand,
Manuel of Portugal, and Henry VII. of England. But this hope being
defeated, he was still anxious to employ the power of Spain against
Mahometanism, and used his best endeavours to persuade
Ferdinand to invade the coast of Barbary. The king’s parsimony was
not to be overcome, until Ximenes offered a loan sufficient to equip
the proposed armament, and defray its expenses for two months;
and the capture of the town of Marsarquiver, in the autumn of 1505,
was the immediate result. Here the Spanish arms remained
stationary till 1509, when the Cardinal obtained permission to
attempt the siege of Oran at his own expense, on the sole condition,
that if he succeeded, either the patrimony of the church expended in
this secular undertaking was to be repaid, or the domain conquered
was to be annexed to the see of Toledo. He assumed himself the
supreme direction of the expedition, entrusting the command of the
army to Peter Navarre, an able, turbulent, and ambitious soldier.
Everything was unfavourable to the Cardinal. The king was jealous
of him; Navarre impatient of the subjection of the sword to the
crozier; and other officers, corrupt or hostile, and encouraged by the
example of their superiors, stirred the soldiers to mutiny. But the
decision of Ximenes compelled obedience, and the wisdom of his
measures ensured success; so that the surrender of Oran was the
almost immediate result of his descent upon Africa. He would
willingly have remained there to pursue his successes. But finding
the disobedience of his lieutenant to be secretly encouraged by
Ferdinand, he determined to return while he could do so with
honour, leaving Navarre in the command of the troops. For himself
or his see he reserved no part of the spoil. That which was not
bestowed upon the soldiers, or consumed in the service, he set
apart for the crown. Yet a fresh disagreement arose when the
Cardinal, according to the compact, demanded payment of the
advances made by the see; and when Ferdinand at last was
compelled to acquiesce, it was in the most ungracious and
unbecoming manner.
Ferdinand died January 23, 1516. On his death-bed he appointed
Ximenes Regent of Castile during the minority of Charles V., with
expressions indicative of no personal regard, but bearing strong
testimony to his unbending justice, disinterestedness, and zeal for
the public welfare. The Cardinal’s conduct in this exalted station was
consistent with the tenor of his past life; he was a just ruler, but his
authority was feared and respected rather than loved. If he had one
passion unmortified, it was ambition: he ruled with a single eye to
his young sovereign’s interests; but he evaded that sovereign’s
attempts to circumscribe his powers with as much success as he
bore down the opposition of those turbulent nobles, who hoped, in
the weakness of a minority, to find a fit opportunity for prosecuting
their own aggrandizement, and committing with impunity acts of
illegal violence. For when Charles V. sent some of his confidential
Flemish ministers to be associates in the commission of regency, the
Cardinal received them with respect, and granted them the external
distinctions of office; for the rest they were mere puppets in his
hands. Of his internal policy, the chief scope was to elevate the regal
power, and to depress that of the nobles, even by throwing a greater
weight into the hands of the unprivileged classes: the same policy as
had been pursued by the wisest princes of the age, Ferdinand and
Isabella, Henry VII. of England, and Louis XI. of France. The crown
had been reduced to great poverty by lavish grants, extorted, in
disturbed times, by the necessity of conciliating powerful noblemen,
rather than granted by free-will, or out of real gratitude for services;
and it was one of Ximenes’ first objects to remedy this evil, even by
means which showed none of that regard to vested interests, which
belongs to times in which the course of law is regular and supreme,
and consequently the rights of property are rigidly respected. Such
pensions as had been granted in Ferdinand’s reign he cut off at
once, on the plea that the grantor could only have bestowed them
for his own life. The crown lands alienated during the same period
were resumed: even the Cardinal’s boldness did not venture to carry
the inquiry farther back, from the apprehension of driving the whole
body of the nobility into revolt.
These changes, and other important measures, were not carried into
effect without great discontent and considerable open resistance.
But the Cardinal was strong, in the resources of his own powerful
mind, in the general reverence of the people for the sanctity of his
character, in his exalted rank as head of the Spanish church, and in
the immense revenues of his see, which gave him a command of
money not enjoyed by the crown, and enabled him to keep in his
own pay a considerable body of troops. With these he maintained
order, and repressed feuds, which the barons, trusting to the
common weakness of a regency, hastened to decide by the sword;
and set at defiance the enmity of the nobility at a later period, when
more decided encroachments on the privileges of the order had
produced a general spirit of discontent. On one occasion a
deputation of the chief grandees of Castile required to be informed,
under what title he presumed to exercise such high authority. The
Cardinal showed the will of Ferdinand, and its confirmation by
Charles V., and finding them still unsatisfied, led them to a window,
from which he pointed out a strong military force under arms.
“These,” he said, “are the powers which I have received from the
king. With these I govern Castile; and with these I will govern it,
until the king, your master and mine, takes possession of his
kingdom.”
One of his schemes for strengthening the crown was the erection of
a species of militia, composed of burghers of cities; but that class
was not sufficiently advanced in knowledge to appreciate the
immense accession of importance which would accrue from this
measure, which they regarded solely as a burden. It was therefore
unpopular among them, as well as unpalatable to the barons; and
was entirely dropped soon after the regent’s death.
His foreign policy was nearly confined to the conduct of two wars:
the one to maintain Navarre, which had been usurped by Ferdinand,
against the legitimate monarch John d’Albret; the other, an
expedition against the pirate Barbarossa, King of Algiers, who
inflicted a signal and entire discomfiture on the invading army.
In the administration of the kingdom Ximenes displayed the same
inflexible love of justice, and the same economy, integrity, and order,
as in the management of his own diocese of Toledo; and he brought
the finances into so flourishing a state, that after discharging the
crown debts, and placing the military establishment in a more than
commonly efficient state, he was enabled to remit large sums of
money to the young king in Flanders. And he had something of a
title to Charles’s more immediate and personal gratitude, for having
used with success his own overpowering influence to obtain the
recognition of that prince as king of Castile during the lifetime of his
insane mother, against the usage of the realm, although he had
remonstrated with earnestness against pressing the indecorous and
unfilial claim. All these services however were thrown into the shade
by one thing. Ximenes hated the Flemish ministers whom Charles
sent into Spain, and who disgraced their high station, and corrupted
the country by open and abandoned venality. He never ceased to
remonstrate against these abuses, and to importune Charles to visit
his Spanish dominions; and the Flemish favourites saw that their
own ruin was certain if the regent once gained an ascendance over
the king’s mind. They retarded therefore the departure of the latter
as much as possible, and succeeded in prejudicing him against his
most sincere and judicious friend and servant. Convinced at last of
the necessity for his presence, Charles set out for Spain, and landed
in the province of Asturias, September 13, 1517. The Cardinal
hastened towards the coast to meet him, but was stopped at Bos
Equillos by a severe illness, which, as was very usual in past times,
was imputed to poison. He wrote to the king, entreating him to
dismiss the train of foreigners by whom he was attended, and
earnestly soliciting a personal interview, which, from the pressure of
illness, he was unable himself to seek. This favour was not granted,
and he was vexed and harassed by a series of petty slights. At the
point of death he received a letter of dismissal couched in civil but
cold terms, permitting him to return to his diocese, and repose from
his labours. Whether the Cardinal retained his faculties so as to be
aware of this final mark of ingratitude is doubtful; but his end was
assuredly hastened by mortification at the evil return made for his
faithful service. He died a few hours after receiving the dismissal in
question, November 8, 1517.
Though austere in temper, Ximenes was not cruel, and in civil
matters had great reluctance to the shedding of blood. Yet in eleven
years, as Grand Inquisitor, he burnt at the stake 2500 persons, for
the glory of God and the good of the sufferer’s souls. Such miserable
self-delusion in so great and good a man ought to teach humility, as
well as to inspire abhorrence.
Our sketch has necessarily been personal rather than historical: a
fuller account of the public life of Ximenes will be found in
Robertson’s ‘Charles V.,’ as well as in the biographies of Flechier,
Marsollier, and others. Barrett’s ‘Life of Ximenes’ appears to be a
compressed translation from the Life by Flechier. We conclude with
the short and comprehensive praise of Leibnitz, who said, that “If
great men could be bought, Spain would have cheaply purchased
such a minister by the sacrifice of one of her kingdoms.”

Engraved by J. Thomson.

ADDISON.
From a Picture copied by J.
Thurston in the Possession
of the Publisher.

Under the Superintendence

of the Society for the
Diffusion of Useful
Knowledge

London, Published by
Charles Knight, Ludgate
Street.
 ADDISON.

Joseph Addison, the second of the six children of Dr. Launcelot

Addison and Jane Gulstone, was born May 1, 1672, at Milston in
Wiltshire. The feebleness of his infancy seems to have impaired his
spirit as a boy; for, in the General Dictionary, Dr. Birch relates, that
when at school in the country, he was so afraid of punishment as to
have absconded, lodging in a hollow tree in the fields, till a hue and
cry restored him to his parents. At the Charter-House was formed
that friendship between him and Sir Richard Steele, which led to
their close alliance in a new kind of literary undertaking. Addison
could not but feel his own superiority; and Spence intimates, that
the one was too fond of displaying, and the other too servile in
acknowledging it. Steele occasionally availed himself not only of his
friend’s pen, but of his purse. Johnson has given currency to the
story, that Addison enforced the repayment of 100l. by an execution,
and the fact is said to have been related by Steele himself, with tears
in his eyes. Hooke, the Roman historian, professed to have received
it from Pope. The biographer sarcastically remarks, that the
borrower probably had not much purpose of repayment; but the
lender, who “seems to have had other notions of 100l., grew
impatient of delay.” Now no date is assigned to this anecdote; and
Addison’s finances were so low during the greater part of his life,
that he might have suffered greatly by the disappointment; nor does
it detract from the character of a man in narrow circumstances, that
he entertains serious notions of 100l.
In 1687 Addison was entered at Queen’s College, Oxford, where he
took the degree of M.A., February 14, 1693. One of his early poetical
attempts was ‘An Account of the greatest English Poets, inscribed to
H. S.;’ initials which have been currently assigned to Dr. Henry
Sacheverell, who is indebted, for no enviable place in history, to his
trial and its consequences. But a college friend of Addison has left it
on record, that the initials were the property of a gentleman bearing
the same name, who died young, after having shown some promise
in writing a history of the Isle of Man, and who bequeathed his
papers to Addison, containing, among other things, the plan of a
tragedy 011 the death of Socrates, which the legatee had some
thoughts of working up himself. In this poem the writer tells his
friend that Spenser can no longer charm an understanding age. Now
the judgment of the present age disclaims this confident decision;
nor would it be worth recording, but for Spence’s assertion, that the
critic had never read the ‘Faery Queene,’ when he drew its character.
In after life he spoke of his own poem as a “poor thing;” but his
general level as a versifier was not high. The ‘Campaign’ is his
masterpiece in rhyme.
He was indebted to Congreve for his introduction to Montague, then
Chancellor of the Exchequer. Johnson says, that “he was then
learning the trade of a courtier, and subjoined Montague as a
poetical name to those of Cowley and of Dryden.” In 1695 he wrote
a poem to King William, with an introduction addressed to Lord
Somers, who is said by Tickell to have sent a message to the author
to desire his acquaintance.
In 1699, he obtained an annual pension of 300l. to enable him to
travel. He passed the first year in preparation at Blois, and then
departed for Italy. That he was duly qualified to appreciate the
attractions of “classic ground,”—his own phrase, sneered at for
affectation by contemporary critics, but since sanctioned by general
adoption,—appears by his ‘Travels,’ and by the letter from Italy to
Lord Halifax. His ‘Dialogues on Medals’ were composed at this time.
On the death of King William, in March, 1702, he became distressed
for money by the stoppage of his pension. This compelled him to
become tutor to a travelling squire. The engagement seems to have
been for one year only, for he was at Rotterdam in June, 1703. In
the ‘Gentleman’s Magazine’ for November, 1835, may be found three
very curious, because characteristic, letters, from the Duke of
Somerset, surnamed by his contemporaries the Proud, to old Jacob
Tonson, forwarding a proposal to Addison to undertake the office of
tutor to his son, then going abroad. We transcribe a passage from
the second letter, as a sample of the proud Duke’s liberality. “I desire
he may be more on the account of a companion in my son’s travels,
than as a governor, and as such shall account him; my meaning is
that neither lodging, travelling, nor diet, shall cost him sixpence, and
over and above that, my son shall present him at the year’s end with
a hundred guineas, as long as he is pleased to continue in that
service to my son, by taking great care of him, by his personal
attendance and advice, in what he finds necessary during his time of
travelling.” It appears from the Duke’s quotation of the answer, in
the third letter to Tonson, that Addison had “other notions” of this
offer than the proposer entertained. “I will set down his own words,
which are these:—‘As for the recompense that is proposed to me, I
must confess I can by no means see my account in it,’ &c.” A
hundred guineas and maintenance was, even in those days, a mean
appointment from a Duke to a gentleman.
Addison returned to England at the latter end of 1703. In 1704, at
the request of Lord Godolphin, to whom he was introduced by the
Earl of Halifax, he undertook to celebrate the victory of Blenheim,
and composed the first portion of his poem called the ‘Campaign.’
This proved his introduction into office. After filling some inferior
appointments, he became, in 1706, Under-Secretary of State. About
the same time, he wrote the comic opera of ‘Rosamond,’ which was
neglected by the public, has been overpraised by Johnson, and is
now deservedly forgotten.
Thomas Earl of Wharton was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland,
December 4, 1708, and proceeded to his destination April 10, 1709,
accompanied by Addison as his Secretary. Addison therefore left
London two days before the commencement of the ‘Tatler,’ the first
number of which came out April 12; and his own first contribution
appeared May 26. His last was No. 267, and the work ended with
No. 271, January 2, 1710–11. In No. 93 is an article on a ‘Letter
from Switzerland, with Remarks on Travelling,’ and a sly hint that
‘Fools ought not to be exported,’ in Addison’s happiest style of
playful satire. The praise of original design clearly belongs to the
projector of the ‘Tatler.’ Tickell however was justified in saying, that
Addison’s aid “did not a little contribute to advance its reputation;”
and Steele candidly allows, that his coadjutor not only assisted but
improved his original scheme. In his dedication of the comedy of the
‘Drummer,’ he says, “It was advanced indeed, for it was raised to a
greater thing than I intended it; for the elegance, purity, and
correctness, which appeared in his writings, were not so much to my
purpose, as in any intelligible manner I could, to rally all those
singularities of human life, through the different professions and
characters in it, which obstruct any thing that was truly good and
great.”
The first No. of the ‘Spectator’ appeared March 1, 1710–11, and the
paper was discontinued December 6, 1712; No. 555 concluded the
seventh volume, as first collected by the publishers. The work was
resumed June 18, 1714, with No. 556, and the eighth volume closed
with No. 635. Of the first forty-five papers of the revived ‘Spectator,’
Addison wrote twenty-three; more than half: he did not contribute to
the last thirty-five. Notwithstanding the avowed purpose of
exclusively treating general topics, Steele’s Whiggism once burst its
bounds, by reprinting in the ‘Spectator’ a preface of Dr. Fleetwood to
some sermons, for the purpose of attracting the Queen’s notice to it.
Had the Number been published at the usual hour, the household
might have devised means for its suppression, with some plausible
excuse for its absence from the royal breakfast table; but the non-
issue until twelve o’clock, the time fixed for that meal, left no
opening for cabal, and her Majesty’s subjects were, for her sake,
deprived of their morning’s speculation till that hour. In No. 10
Addison states the daily sale at three thousand: Johnson makes it
sixteen hundred and eighty; apparently far below the real number.
The latter number is given on calculation from the product of the
tax; the assertion of the publisher was Addison’s authority; and he
might, in the commencement of the work, have indulged in the puff
oblique. No. 14, composed of Letters from the Lion—from an Under-
Sexton—on the Masquerade—and Puppet Show, is selected by the
annotators, as “meriting the attention of such as pretend to
distinguish with wonderful facility between Addison’s and Steele’s
papers.” It is wholly Steele’s. The ‘Guardian’ was published in the
interval, between the ‘Spectator’s’ being laid down and taken up
again. The first Number came out March 12, 1713; the last, October
1, 1713. Inattention to marks has sometimes subjected Addison to
undeserved censure. Dr. Blair vindicates Tasso’s description of Sylvia
against the ‘Guardian;’ but by a double inadvertence, he quotes No.
38 for a passage contained in 28, and ascribes to Addison what was
written by Steele. The ‘Whig Examiner,’ and the ‘Freeholder,’ both
exclusively Addison’s, have been enabled by their wit to survive the
usual fate of party-writings. The former is so much more pungent
than usual with the author, and excited so much alarm and jealousy
in Swift, that he triumphantly remarks, “it is now down among the
dead men;” part of the burthen of a popular Tory song. The humour
of the latter, Steele thought too gentle for such blustering times; and
is reported to have said, that the ministry made use of a lute, when
they should have called for a trumpet.
On the demise of the other papers, Hughes formed a project of a
society of learned men of various characters, who were to meet and
carry on a conversation on all subjects, empowering their secretary
to draw up any of their discourses, or publish any of their writings,
under the title of Register. Addison, in answer, applauds the
specimen, and approves the title; but adds, “To tell you truly, I have
been so taken up with thoughts of that nature, for these two or
three years last past, that I must now take some time pour me
délasser, and lay in fuel for a future work. I am in a thousand
troubles for poor Dick, and wish that his zeal for the public may not
be ruinous to himself; but he has sent me word, that he is
determined to go on, and that any advice I can give him, in this
particular, will have no weight with him.”
Tickell says respecting Cato, “He took up a design of writing a play
upon this subject, when he was very young at the university, and
even attempted something in it there, though not a line as it now
stands. The work was performed by him in his travels, and
retouched in England, without any formal design of bringing it on
the stage, till his friends of the first quality and distinction prevailed
with him to put the last finishing to it, at a time when they thought
the doctrine of liberty very seasonable.” Cibber says, that in 1704 he
had the pleasure of reading the first four acts privately with Steele,
who told him they were written in Italy. Oldmixon in his ‘Art of
Criticism,’ 1728, talks about Addison’s reluctance to resume the
work, and his request to Hughes to write the fifth act. According to
Pope, the first packed audience was made to support the ‘Distressed
Mother;’ the scheme was tried again for Cato with triumphant effect.
The love-scenes are the weakest in the play, and are by some
supposed to have been foisted on the original plan, to humour the
false taste of the modern stage. When the tragedy was shown to
Pope, he advised the author to print it, without committing it to the
theatre, as thinking it better suited to the closet than representation.
When Lord Sunderland was sent as lord lieutenant to Ireland in
1714, Addison was appointed his secretary. This, as well as another
step in his promotion, has been omitted by Johnson. In 1715 he was
made a lord of trade. In 1716 he married the Countess Dowager of
Warwick, to whom he had long paid his addresses. Johnson
pleasantly suggests, that his behaviour might be not very unlike that
of Sir Roger to his disdainful widow, and supposes that the lady
might amuse herself by playing with his passion. Spence dates his
first acquaintance with her from his appointment as tutor to the
young earl; but as neither the time of that appointment is known,
nor the footing on which he stood with the family, the first steps in
this affair are left in obscurity. The result is better known. Mr. Tyers,
in an unpublished essay on ‘Addison’s Life and Writings,’ says,
“Holland House is a large mansion, but could not contain Mr.
Addison, the Countess of Warwick, and one guest, peace.” He
became possessed of this house by his marriage, and died in it. His
last and great promotion was to the dignity of Secretary of State in
1717; but he was unfit for it, and gained no new laurels by it. He
carried so much of the author into the office of the statesman, that
he could not issue an order of mere routine without losing his time
in hunting after unnecessary niceties of language. During his last
illness he sent for Gay, and with a confession of having injured him,
promised him a recompense if he recovered. He did not specify the
nature of the injury; nor could Gay, either then or subsequently,
guess at his meaning. Dr. Young furnished the received account of
his interview with Lord Warwick on his death-bed; but there appears
to be no ground for Johnson’s imputation on the young man’s morals
or principles, or for supposing that it was a last effort on Addison’s
part to reclaim him. Young mentions his lordship as a youth finely
accomplished, without a hint of looseness either in opinions or
conduct. Addison died June 17, 1719: his only child, a daughter, died
at Bilton, in Warwickshire, at an advanced age, in 1797. Not many
days before his death he commissioned Mr. Tickell to collect his
writings; a gentleman of whom Swift said that Addison was a whig,
but Tickell, whigissimus.
To ascertain the claim of short periodical papers to originality of
design, we must look to the state of newspapers at an earlier date.
As vehicles of information they are often mentioned in plays in the
time of James and Charles the First. Carew, in his ‘Survey of
Cornwall,’ first published in 1602, quotes ‘Mercurius Gallo-Belgicus.’
Till the beginning of the eighteenth century, the periodical press had
been exclusively political; no class of writers but divines and
theoretical reasoners had administered to the moral wants of
society: certain gentlemen, therefore, of liberal education, and men
of the world, combined to furnish practical instruction in an amusing
form, by fictions running parallel with the political newspaper.
Addison announces the design “to bring philosophy out of closets
and libraries, schools and colleges, to dwell in clubs and assemblies,
at tea-tables and in coffee-houses.” In the character of his fictitious
friend the clergyman, he speaks of “the great use this paper might
be of to the public, by reprehending those vices which are too trivial
for the chastisement of the law, and too fantastical for the
cognizance of the pulpit.” Another object was to allay party-violence
by promoting literary taste; in Steele’s figurative language, to
substitute the lute for the trumpet. On this subject Addison says, “I
am amazed that the press should be only made use of in this way by
news-writers, and the zealots of parties; as if it were not more
advantageous to mankind to be instructed in wisdom and virtue than
in politics, and to be made good fathers, husbands, and sons, than
counsellors and statesmen.”
Dr. Beattie, who published an edition of Addison’s works in 1790,
with a Life prefixed, says that he was once informed, but had
forgotten on what authority, that Addison had collected three
manuscript volumes of materials. He might have found this in
Tickell’s Life. “It would have been impossible for Mr. Addison, who
made little or no use of letters sent in by the numerous
correspondents of the Spectator, to have executed his large share of
this task in so exquisite a manner, if he had not ingrafted into it
many pieces that had lain by him in little hints and minutes, which
he from time to time collected, and ranged in order, and moulded
into the form in which they now appear. Such are the essays upon
wit, the pleasures of the imagination, the critique upon Milton, and
some others.”
The original delineation of Sir Roger de Coverley, for the
management and keeping of which character Addison has been
highly extolled, must unquestionably be ascribed to Steele. He drew
the outlines; Addison principally worked up the portrait. Johnson not
only takes a false view of the character, but in contradiction to every
judgment but his own, represents the author as sinking under the
weight of it. “The irregularities in Sir Roger’s conduct seem not so
much the effects of a mind deviating from the beaten track of life,
by the pressure of some overwhelming idea, as of habitual rusticity,
and that negligence which solitary grandeur naturally generates. The
variable weather of the mind, the flying vapours of incipient
madness, which from time to time cloud reason, without eclipsing it,
it requires so much nicety to exhibit, that Addison seems to have
been deterred from prosecuting his own design.” This seems to be a
mistake from beginning to end. Addison had no more design to
impute incipient madness to Sir Roger, than to his contrast, Sir
Andrew Freeport. Habitual rusticity is not the prevailing feature in a
man who visited the metropolis every season: a main beauty of the
picture is, that Sir Roger is always a gentleman, although an odd
one. Hear Lord Orford on the subject. “Natural humour was the
primary talent of Addison. His character of Sir Roger de Coverley,
though inferior, is only inferior to Shakspeare’s Falstaff.” But however
prejudiced or mistaken Johnson might be in this particular instance,
when he deals in generalities, he traces the peculiar merits of
Addison’s manner with the touch of a master. “He copies with so
much fidelity, that he can be hardly said to invent; yet his exhibitions
have an air so much original, that it is difficult to suppose them not
merely the product of imagination.”
An attempt has been made to compare the humour of Addison with
that of Molière, of whom Lord Chesterfield said that no man ever
had so much. But a parallel between an essayist and a dramatic
writer will not run straight; the construction of the drama gives so
much greater latitude to the display of humour, and allows of so
much nearer an approach to extravagance, that there can be no
drawn game between them, and the essayist will almost always be
the loser.
As a critic, Addison’s merit is impartially and ably set forth in the
notes to his Life in Dr. Kippis’s edition of the ‘Biographia Britannica.’
On that subject Johnson is just and liberal. “Addison is now despised
by some who perhaps would never have seen his defects, but by the
lights which he afforded them.” By some of these arrogant despisers
he has been blamed for deciding by taste rather than by principles.
To this Dr. Warton, who thought him superior to Dryden as a critic,
briefly answers, taste must decide. Addison’s style has been
universally admired and thought a model. Lord Orford says of
Addison, Swift, Bolingbroke, and Dr. Middleton, “Such authors fix a
standard by their writings.” Johnson says he did not wish to be
energetic; Dr. Warton affirms that he is so, and that often. Steele
describes his habits of composition. “This was particular in this
writer, that, when he had taken his resolution, or made his plan for
what he designed to write, he would walk about a room, and dictate
it into language with as much freedom and ease as any one could
write it down, and attend to the coherence and grammar of what he
dictated.” Pope says that he wrote with fluency; but if he had time to
correct, did it slowly and cautiously; but that many of the
‘Spectators’ were written rapidly, and sent to the press in the
instant; and he doubts whether much leisure for revisal would have
led to improvement. “He would alter any thing to please his friends,
before publication, but would not retouch his pieces afterwards; and
I believe not one word in Cato, to which I made an objection, was
suffered to stand.” The last line of Cato was Pope’s; a substitute for
the original.
We have neither room nor willingness to enter on the jealousy
between these two eminent persons. Bowles vindicates Addison’s
conduct, and relates the following fact to the credit of his
disposition:—“Though attacked by Dennis as a critic, he never
mentioned his name with asperity, and refused to give the least
countenance to a pamphlet which Pope had written upon the
occasion of Dennis’s stricture on Cato.” The piece here alluded to is
the ‘Narrative of the Madness of John Dennis.’ Pope strangely
imputed Addison’s pious compositions to the selfish motive of an
intention to take orders and obtain a bishopric on quitting
administration. Johnson cites this as the only proof that Pope
retained some malignity from their ancient rivalship: with this
opinion we cannot quite agree.
Addison’s defect of animal spirits condemned him to silence in
general company; but his conversation, when set afloat by wine and
the presence of confidential friends, was brilliant and delightful.
Steele represents him as “having all the wit and nature of Terence
and Catullus, heightened with humour more exquisite than any other
man ever possessed.” This high flight is borne out by Pope’s less
suspicious testimony. “Addison’s conversation had something in it
more charming than I have found in any other man.” Tonson and
Spence represent him as demanding to be the first name in modern
wit; and with Steele as his echo, depreciating Dryden, whom Pope
and Congreve defended against them. We close our account with the
following summary of his character from Hutchinson’s ‘History of
Cumberland’:—“Addison was modest and mild, a scholar, a
gentleman, a poet, and a Christian.”
 BRAMANTE.

The name of Bramante derives a marked distinction from its intimate

connexion with the history of the famous church of St. Peter at
Rome, and is further interesting in its association with the names of
Michael Angelo, of Raphael, and of the pontiff Julius II. Bramante is
justly noted among the cinquecento architects, as a powerful co-
operator in the great work of restoring, under certain modifications,
the style of ancient Rome. The leader of this reformation is
universally acknowledged to have been Brunelleschi; while Palladio is
honoured as having effected its final and permanent establishment.
Brunelleschi had evinced his daring and his taste in projecting the
vast dome of Florence cathedral, the character of which, however,
exhibited only a slight advance towards the regular architecture of
antiquity; and it remained for a successor to emulate at once the
majestic elevation of the Florentine cupola, and the more classic
beauty of the Roman Pantheon.
Brunelleschi died in 1444, a circumstance which we mention as
giving additional interest to the fact, that, in 1444, Bramante was
born. The family of the latter, his birth-place, and even his name, are
matters of some obscurity; but there is reason to believe that his
parentage was humble, and that he was born in the territory of
Urbino. Whether at Urbino the capital of the Duchy, or at Castel
Durante, at Fermignano, or at Monte Asdrubale, there are no means
of deciding, unless we admit as evidence in favour of the latter place
an existing medal in the Museo Mazzachelliano, whereon are
inscribed the words “Bramantes Asdruvaldinus.” He is variously called
Bramante Lazzari, Lazzaro Bramante, and is spoken of as “Donato di
Urbino, cognominato Bramante.”
 Engraved by J. Posselwhite.

BRAMANTE.

From a Portrait by
Alessandro D’Este in the
Collection of the Capitol, at
Rome.

Under the Superintendence

of the Society for the
Diffusion of Useful
Knowledge

London, Published by
Charles Knight, Ludgate
Street.

He seems to have evinced, at an early age, a general feeling for

poetry and art; and is said to have first studied painting assisted by
the works of Fra. Bartolomeo Corradini. During a sojourn at Milan he
obtained the friendship of the poet Gaspero Visconti, and in the
capacity of a sonneteer and improvisatore exhibited an unusual
facility of composition. Of his abilities as a painter in distemper and
fresco, examples are to be seen in that city, and at other places in
the Milanese territory. On his subsequent removal to Rome, he was
employed to execute some paintings (which no longer exist) in the
church of S. Giovanni Laterano.
Architecture, however, soon claimed Bramante as more particularly
her own, and he manifested a zealous ardour in the study of classic
examples. It does not appear that he published any volumes on the
subject, but we are credibly informed that he industriously measured
the ancient remains of Rome, and of Adrian’s villa at Tivoli.
The Cardinal Caraffa was among the first to form an estimate of his
merits, and commissioned him to rebuild the cloisters of the
Monastery della Pace at Rome. He also superintended the execution
of the Trastevere Fountain for Pope Alexander VI., and erected great
part of the palace della Cancellaria. The church of S. Lorenzo in
Damaso, and the circular chapel in the cloister of S. Pietro in
Montorio (where St. Peter is said to have been crucified) are also of
Bramante’s architecture; nor should we omit to mention him as the
designer of the palace in the Piazza di Scossacavalli, which for some
time belonged to the English crown, and was presented by Henry
VIII. to the Campeggi. Bramante’s designs for other palaces and
churches were numerous. Several buildings in Milan are attributed to
him, as well as an imperial palace for the Duke of Urbino (never
finished), and the church dell’ Incoronata at Lodi.
The established fame of Bramante now recommended him to Pope
Julius II., who had formed the idea of uniting the old Vatican palace
with the Belvedere by means of a magnificent court, an engraving of
which, as it was first executed by Bramante, is to be seen in the
public library erected by the Corsini princes. The division of the court
by the Vatican library, subsequently erected by Sixtus V., and other
additions and alterations, have utterly destroyed the effect of
Bramante’s design, though the principal architectural features still
remain. Among these, in a lofty central pile of building, is a vast