Interaction with Soil Interface

Summary
• The matric suction is determined by the surface tension, the diameter of a pore
and the contact angle between the solid surface and the interface. The resulting
capillary pressure can be calculated using the Young-Laplace Formula.
• The pore sizes of the soil structure influence the water distribution in the soil
and the corresponding suction values.
• The relative humidity in the pores changes with soil suction, and changes
in soil suction changes the relative humidity. The resulting capillary pressure
from relative humidity can be calculated using the Kelvin Equation.
• Additional forces are applied to the water phase when it is close to the surface
of particles creating a “bound water face” that does not show the same
properties as free water.

2
The Soil Water Retention Curve (SWRC)
Concept originates from Soil Science and Soil Physics
SWRC depending on soil type

sand silt clay

volumetric water content

Definition of the matric potential:

from hydraulic point of view |ψm| = |uw-ua| = |uk|
from mechanic point of view |ψm| = ua-uw
Interaction with Soil Interface
Interaction of air/water interface with soil surface
Capillary pressure uk depending on contact angle α and surface tension σwa

Young-Laplace Formula

-uk = ∆u = |(ua – uw)|

wa ⋅ cos (δ )
2 ⋅ σσwa
− uk = ∆u = (u w − ua ) = hk ⋅ γ w =
rR
mit σ wa : Oberflächenspannung (Ts )
σwa : surface
δ : Rand - bzw. Kontaktwin kel tension
δ: contact angle (α)

4
Interaction with Soil Interface
Influence and interaction between capillary pressure and
water vapour pressure
The capillary pressure within the fluid phase is a state variable of the partly saturated
soil, which influences the water vapour pressure in the gase phase and vice verca
described through the equation after Kelvin:
uk : capillary pressure
ua : partial pressure in air phase
uw : partial pressure in water phase
uk = ua − uw = (uw − ua ) Vw : molar volume of water vapour
(1.8×10-5 m3/mol)
R : universal gas constant
RT was cos (α )
2σ2T (8.314 Nm/mol K)
=− ln (RH ) = RH : relative humidity = uv1/uv0
vw r uv1 : actual water vapour pressure
uv0 : water vapour pressure at
moist saturated air
σwa : surface tension
α : contact angle
r : radius of capillary
T : absolute temperature in Kelvin 5
Interaction with Soil Interface
Influence and interaction between capillary pressure and
water vapour pressure
The influence of water vapour pressure on the capillarity of a partly saturated
soil is significant and therefore on its hydraulic and mechanic properties
1. The water vapour pressure within the gas phase of the soil mostly differs from the
water vapour pressure at full moist saturated conditions. For α<90° is the water
vapour pressure smaller.
2. The water vapour pressure depends on the pore structure. The smaller the pore, the
larger is the capillary pressure and thus the smaller is the acting water vapour
pressure.
3. The quantification of the capillary pressure is possible through measurement of the
relative humidity. Equally, the capillary pressure can vary due to changes in the
relative humidity.

6
Interaction with Soil Interface
Effect of water on soil surface
Distribution of ion-concentration as a result of electrical charges on clay surfaces

7
Interaction with Soil Interface
Effect of water on soil surface
Double-Layer formation of water around clay surfaces

Absorbed water is held around a clay

mineral particle by hydrogen bonding
and hydration of the cations.

a) Orientation of water molecules

at particle surface
bound (absorbed) water phase
b) Absorption of water molecules
at particle surface
bound water
c) Molecular forces at particle surface
free water
(schematic)

8
The Soil Water Retention Curve (SWRC)
The SWRC as a combination of capillary and adsorptive forces
The reason why we can get suctions
beyond the boiling point!

Tuller, M. & Or. D. (2003)

The Soil Water Retention Curve (SWRC)
Evolution(s) of the SWRC
SWRC depending on watering stage & history

air phase
Luftphase
1 2 3 water phase
Wasserphase
continuous airverteilte
kontinuierlich phase Luftphase
1 diskontinuierlich
discontinuous verteilte
water phase Wasserphase
kontinuierlich
continuous airverteilte
and waterLuft-
phase
2 und Wasserphase
PDC
continuous waterverteilte
phase Luftphase
potential |Ψm | [hPa]

diskontinuierlich
3 discontinuousverteilte
kontinuierlich air phaseWasserphase
a b MDC
PDC primary drainage curve
P Grenzkurve der Entwässerung
Matrixspannung

SWC |ψAEV | PWC primary wetting curve

PWC SDC Grenzkurve der Bewässerung
MDC main drainage curve
|ψWEV | MWC
matric

Hauptentwässerungskurve
MWC main wetting curve
Hauptbewässerungskurve
SDC scanning drainage curve
Übergangskurve der Entwässerung
θWr θS - θWr - θAr θAr SWC scanning wetting curve
θW Übergangskurve der Bewässerung
θS = θW + θAr |ψAEV | air entry value
θ θS Lufteintrittspunkt
volumetrischer water content θ [Vol-%]
volumetric Wassergehalt |ψWEV | water entry value
Wassereintrittspunkt
The Soil Water Retention Curve (SWRC)
Origin of the capillary hysteresis
Inc-Bottle Effect
imbibition drainage
The Soil Water Retention Curve (SWRC)
Summary
• The SWRC changes significantly with soil type.
• The SWRC shows a pronounced hysteresis due to variations in the pore sizes
of the soil.
• The shape of the SWRC depends on the direction of water changes (drainage/
imbibition) and the starting point of the SWRC/change in water content.
• There are three distinct ranges of the SWRC which influence the connectivity of
the water and air phase, respectively (important for transport processes of both
phases).
• The forces acting on the water phase is composed of capillary forces defined by
the surface tension and the sizes of pores, and adsorptive forces influenced by
the chemistry of the water phase.
12
The Soil Water Retention Curve (SWRC)
Determination of the SWRC
Overview of different methods
Experimental Methods
- in laboratory
(Tempe Cell or Buchner Funnel, Pressure plate apparatus,
column tests, dew-point potentiameter)
- in field
(infiltration tests, one-step- / multi-step-experiments)

Pedotransfer functions (PTF)

- regression / statistical analysis
(multiple regression, neural networks)
- physical / mathematical based
(based on particle size distribution, pore models,
fractal systems, including secondary pore strcuture)
The Soil Water Retention Curve (SWRC)
Summary
• The measurement method for the SWRC needs to be adapted to the soil type.
• There is no method that can capture the entire suction range when measuring the
SWRC. Only by using several methods, the entire SWRC can be captured.
• Suction can be controlled either through the water phase or the air phase directly or
through controlling the RH.
• Changes in water content can be forced by imbibition or drainage. Through
measurement of water content and suction, a transient SWRC can be measured.
• The velocity of water content changes, changes the transient SWRC.
• Cyclic hydraulic loading (repetitions of imbibition and drainage) can lead to
accumulation of water in the pore space.
• The SWRC changes with the density of soils.
• There are Pedotransferfunctions that can be used to determine the SWRC from basic
soil parameters.
14
Faculty Development Program, HP University, India Dr. P.N. Mishra ([email protected]) | 13/08/2021

INTRODUCTION TO SOIL WATER RETENTION CURVE

SWRS-S should be based on

actual measurement of volume
during SWRC measurement (you
could also do it based on data
from an independently conducted
shrinkage test, but not without
limitations)

Mishra, P.N., Scheuermann, A. and Bhuyan, H. (2020). “A unified approach for establishing soil water retention and volume change behaviour of soft soils.” Geotechnical Testing Journal. ASTM. 44(5).
Unsaturated Hydraulic Conductivity
What we already know…
• At fully water saturated consitions (Sr = 1, θ = θs) the hydraulic conductivity k
as we conventionally measure it in tests is valid.
• Water can only flow due to gradients when the water phase is continuously
distributed within the pore structure of the soil
• When the water content reaches and falls below the residual water content and
smaller (θ < θr) water flow due to Darcy is not possible anymore. Any water
transport can occur only due to vapor transport.
• Similarly, air flow due to pressure gradients is possible only when the air phase is
continuously distributed. For θ > θW air exists as bubbles only and transport of
air occurs in form of air bubble movement.
• The Main Drainage and Main Weeting Curves form the boundary for the water
content zone where both, water and air phase, can flow due to gradients
(percolation limits).
16
Unsaturated Hydraulic Conductivity

One solution to this Question ku (Sr ⋅ n ) (1 − n )

= f (Sr , n ) = 3
3 2

n (1 − Sr ⋅ n )
2
Based on the Kozeny / Carman Equation kf

Scheuermann, A. (2005):
Instationäre Durchfeuchtung quasi-homogener Erddeiche 18
(transient seepage through quasi-homogeneious embankments).
Unsaturated Hydraulic Conductivity

Approaches to quantify ku
• Empirical-statistical approaches:
Determination of the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity based on simple soil
parameters (Pedotransferfunctions).
• Macroscopic Approaches:
Consideration of a macroscopic structure (e.g. circular capillary) and
adaptation/transfer of flow conditions to the porous media (e.g. empirical by
an analogous consideration).
• Microscopic Approaches:
Based on the consideration of a pore model and the knowledge of the
saturated hydraulic conductivity k, unsaturated hydraulic conducivity can be
determined by summation of individual capillaries.

19
Unsaturated Hydraulic Conductivity

Usual Approach to determine ku

• Measurement of hydraulic conductivity k in laboratory at
saturated conditions
• Measurement of SWRC in laboratory with any technology
• Parameterisation of SWRC using van Genuchten
Parameterisation (1980)
• Application of the van Genuchten Parameters to describe
hydraulic conductivity at unsaturated conditions using the
model of Mualem (1976)

20
Unsaturated Hydraulic Conductivity
Summary
• The unsaturated hydraulic conductivity is always smaller than the saturated hydraulic
conductivity.
• For saturations S=1, the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity equals the saturated hydraulic
conductivity.
• With reducing saturation, the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity reduces non-linearly over
many orders of magnitude.
• There are many methods for estimating the evolution of the unsaturated hydraulic
conductivity with changing saturation based on empirical relationships, macroscopic or
microscopic considerations.
• Usually, the relative unsaturated hydraulic conductivity is presented as a relationship of the
unsaturated hydraulic conductivity to the saturated hydraulic conductivity.
• Measuring the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity in the lab is difficult.
• The usual approach for determining the evolution of the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity
is through measuring the saturated hydraulic conductivity and the SWRC, which will be
parameterised and applied in the Mualem (1976) approach to parameterise the ku-
relationship. 21
ku & Preferential Flow
Summary
• The absolute unsaturated hydraulic conductivity can change in a way that finer
grained soils get higher in hydraulic conductivity than coarser grained soils at the
same matric suction.
• If two materials neighbouring each other at the same matric suction, the higher
hydraulic conductivity in the finer soil can lead to so-called capillary barrier effects
forcing the water to flow in a preferential manner within the finer soil.
• Hydraulic conductivity differences can also occur due to differences in water
content.
• This change in hydraulic conductivity in homogeneous soils due to moisture content
differences can lead to an instability of the moisture front and preferential flow of
water e.g. in form of fingering.
• In sloped surfaces, the distribution of moisture can lead to preferential flow of water
within the zone of higher water content.

22
Potential Concept & Flow Law
Summary
• The total water potential is a sum of gravitational potential, pressure potential and
osmotic potential.
• The pressure potential can be either negative or positive.
• Ambient pressure potential is always positive and matric potential always negative.
• The hydrostatic potential is part of the ambient pressure potential.
• The piezometric (hydraulic) head is calculated from the total potential by dividing
with the unit weight of water, or the gravitational acceleration and water density.
• The combination of Darcy’s Law with the Mass Balance Equation leads to an
equation describing the flow of water at unsaturated conditions.
• Depending on the chosen depending variable, the flow law can be either described
in dependency of the matric suction ψm (Richards Equation) or the volumetric water
content θ (Darcy-Buckingham Equation).
• Usually, the flow of water at unsaturated conditions is described with the equation
after Richards with the Capacity Function / 23
Water infiltration at unsaturated conditions

Infiltration front of water during precipitation

Scheuermann, A. (2005):
Instationäre Durchfeuchtung quasi-homogener Erddeiche nw 24
(transient seepage through quasi-homogeneious embankments).
Water infiltration at unsaturated conditions

Horizontal infiltration into an embankment

Solution after Brauns (1999)
1 transient infiltration front
2 infiltration front when water seeps out of
the downstream side toe for the first time
3 steady state phreatic surface
4 mean infiltration depth x* when infiltration
front reaches the downstream side toe

1 na (x * )
2 2 2
 h  h
t (x * ) = mit
with x* =  b − mw  +
2 k f (h + ψ )  2  4

Scheuermann, A. (2005): Instationäre Durchfeuchtung quasi-homogener Erddeiche

25
(transient seepage through quasi-homogeneious embankments).
Faculty Development Program, HP University, India Dr. P.N. Mishra ([email protected]) | 13/08/2021

EFFECTIVE STRESS PRINCIPLE FOR UNSATURATED SOILS

Unsaturated soils
• After Bishop (1959)

• The component of stress experienced by the bulk soil is termed

as the external/mechanical stress

• However, χ(ua - uw) is the interparticular stress component that

tracks its origin to the water phase in the pore space. This
component is identified as internal/hydraulic stress

• χ Is the effective stress parameter (0 for dry soil, 1 for saturated 𝝈𝝈′ = σ − 𝒖𝒖𝒂𝒂 + χ 𝒖𝒖𝒂𝒂 − 𝒖𝒖𝒘𝒘
soil, a function of degree of saturation for unsaturated soils)

Lu and Likos (2004) Unsaturated soil mechanics

Modified Effective Stress Concept

Remember the three distinct zones for saturation?

air phase
Luftphase
1 2 3 water phase
Wasserphase limestone; n=0.415
1
continuous airverteilte
kontinuierlich phase Luftphase particle size; d=71µm
diskontinuierlich verteilte
discontinuous water phase Wasserphase
kontinuierlich
continuous airverteilte
and waterLuft-
phase
2 und Wasserphase
PDC
continuous waterverteilte
phase Luftphase
potential |Ψm | [hPa]

diskontinuierlich
3 discontinuousverteilte
kontinuierlich air phaseWasserphase
a b MDC
PDC primary drainage curve capillary pressure
P Grenzkurve der Entwässerung
tensile strength
Matrixspannung

SWC |ψAEV | PWC primary wetting curve

PWC SDC Grenzkurve der Bewässerung
MDC main drainage curve
|ψWEV | MWC
matric

Hauptentwässerungskurve
MWC main wetting curve
Hauptbewässerungskurve
SDC scanning drainage curve
Übergangskurve der Entwässerung
θWr θS - θWr - θAr θAr SWC scanning wetting curve
θW Übergangskurve der Bewässerung
θS = θW + θAr |ψAEV | air entry value
θ θS Lufteintrittspunkt
volumetrischer water content θ [Vol-%]
volumetric Wassergehalt |ψWEV | water entry value
Wassereintrittspunkt

The saturation of a soil determines how much

capillary pressure is transferred to the soil!
Saturation S 27
Modified Effective Stress Concept

Summary to Extended Effective Stress Concept

• The capillary pressure within the water phase always increases the effective
stress.
• There are many approaches to introduce the capillary pressure in the
effective stress concept of Terzaghi.
• All approaches have in common that they introduce an effective stress
parameter χ that is dependent on the state of saturation of the soil.
• There are many methods to estimate the effective stress parameter χ from
saturation, water content or the form of the SWRC.
• The effective stress parameter χ usually has a non-linear form.

28
Soil Shear Strength at Unsaturated Condition

Summary to Failure Criteria for Unsaturated Soils

• The Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criteria can be modified to provide a failure
criteria for unsaturated soil conditions.
• Two independent stress state variables namely net normal stress (σ-ua)
and suction (ua-uw) are introduced to take into account the suction in the
Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria.
• There are many approaches to modify the Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria with
and without the consideration of the change in saturation.
• The suction component is introduced as another stress dimension within the
Mohr-Coulomb stress representation.
• Usually, the shear strength increases non-linearly with increasing suction.
• Frequently, a simplified linear relationship between shear strength and
suction is introduced for the stress range considered.
29
Shear Strength Testing for Unsaturated Soils

Measurement of Shear Strength of Unsaturated Soils

Both direct shear and triaxial testing equipment can be used to measure the shear
strength of unsaturated soil.
Each apparatus used for testing unsaturated shear strength properties must be modified
by adding a high air entry disc installed in the pedestal of the apparatus.
The high air entry disc allows the separation of air and water pressure that are either
applied to the soil specimen or measured in the soil specimen
(concept of pressure plate apparatus).
A number of stress paths with variation of matric suction (ua – uw) and confining stress (σ3,
in the case of a triaxial cell) can be implemented for testing the unsaturated soil specimen.
Before the mechanical test, the soil specimen is conditioned with a constant matrix
suction until equilibrium is reached.
The mechanical test is conducted just like for saturated soil samples with the possibility to
measure various stress paths using the triaxial cell test.
30
Based on and modified: https://www.issmge.org/education/recorded-webinars/shear-strength-of-unsaturated-soils
Shear Strength Testing for Unsaturated Soils

Summary to Testing of Unsaturated Soils

• In principle every soil mechanical testing device can be modified to
accommodate unsaturated conditions.
• Frequently, a high air entry disc is introduced that allows the application of
suction via increased air pressure (concept of pressure plate apparatus).
• Alternatively, relative humidity can be varied either directly or via osmotic
membranes and salt solutions.
• A crucial step for shear strength testing is to condition the soil specimen with
a constant capillary pressure/suction to equilibrium stage before conducting
the mechanical test.
• Stress paths can be applied either mechanically via axial stress or cell
pressure and via the matric suction.
31
Relevance to Geotechnical Engineering

Summary to Hydraulics and Mechanics of Unsaturated Soils

• Mostly the conditions in the soil are somewhat unsaturated, which is
commonly not taken into account.
• Hydraulic processes occurring at water pressures below approx. 200kPa
can accommodate air bubbles.
• Above the line at which uw=0 (zero potential line) prevails, concepts for
unsaturated soils needs to be applied.
• All mechanical soil manifestations, such as compressibility, shear strength,
swelling, rutting etc., are influenced by unsaturated conditions.
• Especially loosely compacted soils are sensitive for changes in suction.
• Soil Mechanics for saturated conditions are more than sufficient for
geotechnical design, however the role of suction should be kept in mind and
its role in the design scrutinized when relevant.
32