HISTORY & SYSTEMS IN PSYCHOLOGY FINALS

2A
LECTURE / FIRST SEMESTER MWF

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION
Chapter 7: ROMANTICISM AND EXISTENTIALISM

SUMMARY • Life, according to Schopenhauer, consists of an

• The accomplishments of individuals such as unending cycle of needs and need satisfaction.
Hobbes, Bacon, Descartes, and Newton Because intelligent organisms are most aware
ushered into western philosophy a period called of their needs, they suffer more than
the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment was unintelligent organisms do. Satisfying our needs
characterized by skepticism toward religious simply postpones death, which is inevitable. The
dogma and other forms of traditional authority. only way to minimize human suffering is to deny
or minimize one’s needs.
• There was widespread optimism that the
principles governing the universe could be • Needs can be sublimated into such pursuits as
discovered and applied to the betterment of music, art, and poetry. Also, the rational mind
humankind. Under the umbrella of the can repress undesirable thoughts and hold them
Enlightenment the philosophies of empiricism, in the unconscious mind. For Schopenhauer,
sensationalism, and rationalism pictured the rational mind can and should inhibit the
humans as complex machines, products of powerful needs related to biological survival.
experience, or highly rational beings operating Schopenhauer’s philosophy had a considerable
in accordance with lofty, abstract principles. In influence on Freud’s psychoanalytic theory.
the opinion of some, all these philosophies left • Another reaction against Enlightenment
something important out of their analyses—the philosophy was existentialism. The existentialist
irrational aspect of humans. stressed meaning in life, freedom of choice,
• Those philosophers stressing the importance of subjective experience, personal responsibility,
human irrationality were called romantics. In and the uniqueness of the individual.
general, the romantics emphasized inner, • Kierkegaard is generally considered the first
personal experience and distrusted both modern existential philosopher. He believed that
science and the philosophers who pictured rationalistic philosophy, science, and the
humans as products of experience, as organized church discourage people from
machines, or as totally rational beings. having a deep, personal relationship with God.
• Rousseau is usually considered the father of Logic and facts have nothing to do with such a
modern romanticism. He believed that humans relationship, which must be based on faith
are born free and good but are soon alone. By accepting God on faith, God becomes
contaminated by society. As a guide for living a living, emotional reality in one’s subjective
and for believing, the natural impulses of the experience.
“heart” could be trusted. Rousseau believed that • For Kierkegaard, the only truth is subjective
humans have both an individual will and a truth—that is, truth that exists as a personal
general will and that for government to work, belief. Furthermore, accepting the reality of God
people must deny their individual will. Education reveals a number of logical paradoxes that
should take into consideration a child’s natural cannot be resolved logically. The existence of
curiosity rather than attempt to mold a child as if God cannot and need not be proved by rational
he or she were a lump of clay or a blank tablet. argument; it can only be taken on faith. One
• Goethe, a scientist, poet, and philosopher, should become emotionally involved with God
viewed life as consisting of choices between and read His word (the Bible) as one would read
conflicting forces (such as good and evil, love a love letter.
and hate). He believed that the best life is one • Nietzsche agreed with Schopenhauer that many
lived with passion and that results in self- human desires are irrational but disagreed that
expansion. He also believed that the physical they should be repressed or sublimated. For
sciences, although effective in providing useful Nietzsche, the basic human motive is the will to
information about the physical world, are of power, which is satisfied when a person acts as
limited value when it comes to understanding he or she feels. Acting on irrational instincts
people. causes a person to have new experiences and
• Following Kant, Schopenhauer distinguished thus to develop greater potential as a person.
between the noumenal world (things-in- • According to Nietzsche, science, religion,
themselves) and the phenomenal world rationalism, and empiricism stifle irrationality
(consciousness). What Kant called the and thereby inhibit human development.
noumenal world, Schopenhauer called the Nietzsche believed that rational philosophy and
universal will. When manifested in an individual science emphasize the Apollonian, or rational,
human, the universal will becomes the will to aspect of human nature at the expense of the
survive, which is the most powerful motive for Dionysian aspect. He believed that giving
human behavior. reasonable expression to both aspects of
human nature is best.
HISTORY & SYSTEMS IN PSYCHOLOGY FINALS
2A
LECTURE / FIRST SEMESTER MWF

• He believed that science and philosophy had made • Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm (1844–1900)
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION
it impossible for people to accept religious Claimed that humans could no longer rely on
superstition as a guide for living. As a substitution, religious superstition or metaphysical speculation
Nietzsche proposed individually determined values as guides for living; instead, they must determine
and beliefs. The only source of information for what life’s meaning for themselves. By exercising their
is good or bad, desirable or undesirable, are will for power, people can continue to grow and
individuals themselves. According to Nietzsche, overcome conventional morality. The term
there are no universal truths, only individual supermen describes those who experiment with life
perspectives. Nietzsche referred to humans who and feelings and engage in continuous self-
had the courage to live in accordance with their overcoming.
own values, thus rising above conventional • Noble savage Rousseau’s term for a human not
morality, as supermen. Supermen experiment with contaminated by society. Such a person, he
life and are constantly in the process of becoming believed, would live in accordance with his or her
something other than what they were. true feelings, would not be selfish, and would live
• The influence of romanticism and existentialism in harmoniously with other humans.
modern psychology is seen in psychoanalysis, • Perspectivism Nietzsche’s contention that there
humanistic psychology, and postmodernism. are no universal Truths, only individual
GLOSSARY perspectives.
• Religious stage According to Kierkegaard, the
• Aesthetic stage According to Kierkegaard, the first third stage in the growth toward full personal
stage in the growth toward full personal freedom. freedom. At this stage, the person recognizes his
At this stage, the person delights in many or her freedom and chooses to enter into a
experiences but does not exercise his or her personal relationship with God.
freedom. • Romanticism Philosophy that stresses the
• Apollonian aspect of human nature According to uniqueness of each person and that values
Nietzsche, that part of us that seeks order, irrationality much more than rationality. According
tranquillity, and predictability. to the romantic, people can and should trust their
• Dionysian aspect of human nature According to natural impulses.
Nietzsche, that part of us that seeks chaos, • Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1712–1778)
adventure, and passionate experiences. Considered the father of modern romanticism,
• Enlightenment A period during which western Rousseau believed that human nature is basically
philosophy embraced the belief that unbiased good and that the best society is one in which
reason or the objective methods of science could people subjugate their individual will to the general
reveal the principles governing the universe. Once will. The best education occurs when education is
discovered, these principles could be used for the individualized and when a student’s natural abilities
betterment of humankind. and curiosity are recognized.
• Ethical stage According to Kierkegaard, the • Schopenhauer, Arthur (1788–1860) Believed that
second stage in the growth toward full personal the will to survive is the most powerful human
freedom. At this stage, the person makes ethical motive. Life is characterized by a cycle of needs
decisions but uses principles developed by others and need satisfaction, and need satisfaction simply
as a guide in making them. postpones death. The most people can do is to
• Existentialism The philosophy that examines the minimize the irrational forces operating within them
meaning in life and stresses the freedom that by sublimating or repressing those forces.
humans have to choose their own destiny. Like • Supermen The name Nietzsche gave to those
romanticism, existentialism stresses subjective individuals who have the courage to rise above
experience and the uniqueness of individuals. conventional morality and herd conformity and to
• General will According to Rousseau, the innate follow their own inclinations instead. The German
tendency to live harmoniously with one’s fellow word Übermensch can be translated as either
humans. “higher man” or “superman.”
• Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von (1749–1832) • Will to power According to Nietzsche, the basic
Believed that life was characterized by choices human need to become stronger, more complete,
between opposing forces and that much about more superior. While satisfying the will to power, a
humans was forever beyond scientific person continually becomes something other than
understanding. he or she was.
• Kierkegaard, Søren (1813–1855) Believed that • Will to survive According to Schopenhauer, the
religion had become too rational and mechanical. powerful need to perpetuate one’s life by satisfying
He believed that a relationship with God should be one’s biological needs.
an intensely personal and highly emotional
experience, like a love affair. Taking the existence
of God on faith makes God a living truth for a
person, thus Kierkegaard contended that truth is
subjectivity.