Unit III Settlement Geography

1. Types and Patterns of Rural Settlements

2. Hierarchy of Urban Settlements
3. Central Place Theory
Types and Patterns of Rural Settlements
Introduction
A human settlement is defined as place inhabited more or less permanently. Human
settlement is referred as cluster of dwellings of any type or where human beings live. It is
widely accepted that human settlements can be differentiated in terms of
i. Rural and
ii. Urban

The population of villages is a significant factor, but it does not universally determine
settlement. This is evident that numerous villages in densely populated nations such as
China and India have populations surpassing those of certain towns in the USA and
Western Europe.

Rural settlements and their characteristics

❖ Rural human settlements are closely and directly related to lands.
❖ These are dominated by primary activities such as fishing, mining, animal husbandry
and agriculture.
❖ The rural settlement size is relatively small.

Types of Rural Settlements

The types of rural settlements imply the degree or dispersion or nucleation of dwellings which
rely on geographical, socio-economic and cultural factors.

1. Compact Settlements
 Compact settlements have a high density of dwelling located close together.
 If the number of villages equals the number of hamlets in an area, the settlement is
designated as compact (Hamlets = Villages).
 Factors that promote compact settlements include
• Availability of fertile land in a small area
• Close social ties and support networks among residents
• Communities are closely knit and share common occupations

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 • Ease of providing basic amenities and services
 Compact settlements are found in the Malwa plateau of Narmada Valley, parts of
Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.
2. Semi-compact (fragmented) Settlements
 In semi-compact settlements, the number of villages is more than half the number of
hamlets.
 Dwellings are not tightly clustered but concentrated in a particular area.
 More often such patterns result from segregation or fragmentation of a large compact
village.
 Semi-compact settlements occur due to the following
• Large land holdings leaving space between dwellings
• Less social cohesion (unity) compared to compact settlements
 These settlements are found in Gujarat plain and some parts of Rajasthan.
3. Hamletted Settlements
 Hamlets are scattered around fields with little influence of central villages.
 The hamlets are spread over the area with intervening fields and the main or central
settlement is either absent or has feeble influence upon others.
 They arise due to
• Small and scattered landholdings
• Influence of family and clan ties over village ties
 They are predominant in coastal plains, eastern Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and
West Bengal.
4. Dispersed (isolated) Settlements
 If the number of villages is less than half the number of hamlets, the settlement will be
regarded as dispersed.
 Dispersed or isolated settlements appear in the form of isolated huts or hamlets of a few
huts in remote forests or on small hills with farms or pasture on the slopes.
 People in this live in isolated dwellings scattered in the cultivated fields.
 A cultural feature such as a place of worship or a market, binds the human settlement
together.
 These are found in tribal areas, on Himalayan slopes. Many areas of Sikkim,
Meghalaya, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand have this type of settlement.

Patterns of Rural Settlement

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1. Linear Pattern
 Linear pattern settlements are characterized by a long and narrow arrangement of
houses, which is situated along a natural or human-made features.
 The physical restrictions associated with these sites give rise to the linear pattern.
 These include river, mountain, valley, road, railway, canal edge, and levee.
 The example of such pattern can be settled along the roads of Ganga-Yamuna plain, along
coasts, in the North-East Indian states and in the valleys of Alps and Rocky Mountains.
2. Checkerboard Pattern
 This develops at a place where two roads or some other mode of transport meet or cross
almost at right angles.
 The point of intersection of two main roads is the focus of growth of the settlement, such
villages are found in large numbers in the fertile plains of North India.
 The same pattern is quite common in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.

Fig. Linear Pattern Fig. Checkerboard Pattern Fig. Rectangular Pattern

3. Rectangular Pattern
 The geometry of these settlements is rectangular shape. These settlements have straight
streets which meet each other at right angles.
 Rectangular settlements develop in the fertile plains of north India where intensive
cultivation is practiced.
 Rectangular pattern is the heritage of our old system of land measurement in Bighas.
 These are abundantly found in Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.
 In Rajasthan, the Indira Ghandhi Canal Command region has a large number of rural
settlements planned as rectangles.
 In South India, the deltas of the peninsular rivers have a large number of villages in
this pattern.

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4. Radial Pattern
 Radial pattern develops at a nodal place where number of roads and streets coming from
different directions converge at a site.
 Houses are constructed along a radial route and a radial pattern comes into being.
 About one-third of Indian villages have radial patterns, are most of them found in
northern plain of India.

Fig. Radial Pattern Fig. Star-like Pattern Fig. Triangular Pattern

5. Star-like Pattern
 It is a refined form of radial pattern.
 It develops when the space between the transport routes like roads, streets and foot
path is occupied by houses and other buildings.
 The building process of the houses starts from the nodal place and spread in all
directions.
 This pattern is found in the fertile areas of Punjab, Haryana and west part of Uttar
Pradesh.
6. Triangular Pattern
 This pattern is the result of hindrance occurring on three sides. The hindrance may be
physical or cultural.
 Such pattern develops usually at the confluence of two rivers or two roads.
7. Circular Pattern
 Circular patter develops around a pond, lake or a crater.
 People prefer to construct houses close to pond because of easy accessibility of water.
 The pattern may develop around a temple/mosque/church.
 These are found in the upper part of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab and Trans-Yamuna region.
8. Semi-circular Pattern
 Villages which grow along the river meanders, oxbow lakes or a lake at the foothill
assume this shape.

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 Ganga and its several tributaries have semi-circular villages.

Fig. Circular Pattern Fig. Semi-circular Pattern Fig. Arrow Pattern

9. Arrow Pattern
 The villages which grow at the end of a cape (Cape of Good Hope), or at a sharp bend
of a meandering river or a lake assume this shape.
 Such settlements are found in Kanniya kumari, Chilika Lake and Gulf of Khambat.
10. Nebular Pattern
 The roads in nebula settlements are generally circular, which end at the center or
nucleus of the village.
 These are found in hilly and undulating areas of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand.
11. Terraced Pattern
 Terraced patterns are found on the hill slopes, which are cut for cultivation.
 Such villages are seen along hill slopes in Jammu & Kashmir region, Himachal
Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram and Western Ghats.
12. T-shape Pattern
 Sometime the routes meet in such a way, that they make a T junction.
 The meeting place of rivers give rise to a triangular pattern of settlements.
 T-shaped settlements develop at tri-junctions of the roads.

Fig. Nebular Pattern Fig. T-shape Pattern Fig. Terraced Pattern

13. Y-shaped Pattern

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 Y-shaped settlements emerge as the places where two roads converge on the third one
and other houses are built along these rods.

Challenges or Problems of Rural Human Settlements

Rural settlements in developing countries are large in number and poorly equipped with
infrastructure. They represent a great challenge and opportunity for planners.
Water Supply Challenges
❖ The supply of water to rural settlements is under developed regions is inadequate.
❖ People in villages, particularly in mountains and arid areas walk long distances to fetch
drinking water.
❖ Water-borne diseases such as cholera and jaundice tend to be a common problem.
❖ The countries of South Asia face conditions of drought and floodings very often.
❖ Crop cultivation sequences suffer in the absence of irrigation.
Sanitation Challenges
❖ The general absence of toilet and garbage disposal facilities causes health-related
problems.
Traditional Rural Housing
❖ The houses made of mud, wood and thatch require maintenance annually.
❖ The designs of some houses are typically deficient in ventilation and sewage system.
Lack of Communication and Connectivity
❖ Unmetalled roads and lack of modern communication networks create a unique
problem.
❖ During the rainy season, human settlements remain cut-off and pose serious difficulties
in providing emergency services.
Poor health and Education
❖ It is difficult to provide adequate health and educational infrastructure for their large
rural population.

Conclusion

Rural settlement types and patterns reflect the diverse geographical and socio-economic
realities of rural India. Rural settlements come in various forms, from compact villages to
scattered hamlets, each with its own unique characteristics and spatial arrangements.
These settlements play a crucial role in shaping the socio-economic fabric of regions,
providing insights into how communities utilize and adapt to their natural surroundings.

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 Hierarchy of Urban Settlements
Introduction
Urban settlement varies country to country; however, the following are the main characteristics
of urban settlements.

 Most of the population is involved in non-primary activities like manufacturing and

service sector.
 Urban settlements usually have
o High population density
o More than 400 people/sq. km
o Notified as an urban settlement by the Government

In India, followings are the criteria for defining urban settlements

 As per 2011 census

I. The area should have more than 5000 population.
II. At least 75% of the male working population should be involved in the non-primary
sector.
III. Population density should have more than 400 persons per sq. km.
IV. The area should a have municipality or corporation or cantonment notified by the
town area committee.

The concept of urban systems was introduced by Brian J.L. Berry (1964).

The hierarchy of urban settlements refers to the classification of villages, towns and cities
based on population size, economic functions and services they provide. The main idea
behind this classification is that larger urban settlements tend to offer a wider variety of
services and have more significant economic roles compared to smaller roles.

Urban settlements can be arranged in a hierarchical order from the top to the bottom, based
on their population size. This classification is based on
a. Population Size
Larger cities rank high in the hierarchy, while smaller towns and settlements rank lower.
b. Function Performed
Cities that serve more significant
• Economic
• Political

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 • Cultural functions
have a higher rank in the hierarchy than those with fewer such functions.
c. Sphere of Influence
Cities with a more extensive reach or impact on surrounding areas rank higher in the hierarchy
than those with a more limited sphere of influence.

The urban system concept highlights the interconnectedness of cities and towns, emphasising
the importance of understanding their relationships within a large network. The urban
hierarchy further clarifies these relationships by ranking urban areas based on factors such
as population size, functions performed and sphere of influence.

Hierarchy based on Size and Services

Settlement hierarchy is a system that categorizes various settlements based on their size
and the services they offer.
 The range of services provided by a settlement is directly proportional to its size.
Smaller settlements offer basic services such as post offices, doctors and news agents,
while larger towns, cities, and conurbations provide both low order and high order
services, such as
o Chain stores
o Multi-speciality hospitals and
o leisure centres

Table Comparative Analysis of Order Centres

Parameter Low Order Centres High Order Centres
Number Large number of settlements such as A few numbers of settlements such as
small towns metropolitan areas
Distance Close together Greater distances between these cities
Population Small population Large population
Services Fewer services on offer, mainly low order Wide selection of services offered- from
low order to specialised high order
Threshold Small threshold population Large threshold population
Influence Small sphere of influence Large sphere of influence (market area)
Range Short range Large range
 Large settlements and conurbations have a broader sphere of influence compared to
smaller ones. This implies that they attract people from a larger area due o the variety of
facilities they provide. For instance, a global city like London has an extensive sphere of
influence, whereas a small hamlet or village may only influence its immediate
surroundings, spanning just a few kilometres.

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Settlements in Order of Population Size
1. Isolated Houses
Isolated dwellings often in rural area, these tends to be farmhouses or holiday homes with 10
people or a few buildings.
2. Hamlets
These are the one of the smallest types of settlements with very few houses and a small
population with provision of limited services with 100 people.
3. Villages
Larger than hamlets, villages typically consist of a few hundred to thousand people. They
may have basic services like a school, small shops, and post office.

Primate City
.
(>10 million)

Conurbation
(5-10 million)

Cities (>1 million)

Increase in size Decrease in size
of settlement, of settlement,
population and Large Towns (>200,000)
population and
services services
Small Towns (1000-20,000 people)

Villages (100-1000 people)

Hamlets (100 people)

Isolated House or Farms (a few buildings )

Fig. Hierarchy of Urban Settlements

4. Towns (small and large towns)
➢ Characterised by low levels of economic activity and political influence.
➢ A town generally has a few thousand people and provides more services than a village
such as large retail outlets, degree college and healthcare facilities.
Towns are further classified into following hierarchy
o Class 1: Population between 100,000 to 500,000
o Class 2: Population between 50,000 to 100,000
o Class 3: Population between 20,000 to 50,000
o Class 4: Population between 10,000 to 20,000
o Class 5: Population between 5,000 to 10,000

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5. Cities
➢ Cities serve tens or hundreds of thousands of people providing comprehensive services,
such as universities, hospitals and multi-brand retail stores.
➢ The city may have transportation terminals, major financial institutions and regional
administrative offices.

Table Hierarchy of Settlement Type

Settlement Type Criteria
Hamlets A group of houses within the revenue village
Revenue/Census Village A village with defined borders
Towns All the urban areas having population between 5,000 to 1 lakh
Cities/Class 1 Cities Urban areas having population between 1 lakh to 1 million
Metropolitan Cities/ Million Cities having population between 1–10 million. Chennai (8.6
Plus Cities million), Hyderabad (7.8 million), Ahmedabad (6.2 million).
Mega Cities Cities having more than 10 million people. Greater Mumbai UA
(18.4 million), Delhi UA (16.3 million), Kolkata (14.1 million)
6. Million City or Metropolitan Areas
➢ Metropolitan areas are the largest and the most developed urban centres in a region.
➢ An urban centre has population of over 1 million. Characterised by a high level of services
such as international airports and cultural institutions.
7. Conurbation
Large areas of urban development that result from the merger of adjoining towns or cities.
Conurbation urban settlements have population between 5-10 million.
8. Megalopolis
➢ A megalopolis is a very large urban agglomeration, which is also called as the first-tier
urban agglomeration.
➢ An urban settlement with a population of more than 10 million (one crore) is called
megalopolis. New York was the first city to attain megalopolis status in 1950, with a total
population of approximately 12.5 million.
➢ There are more than 32 megalopolises in the world. Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai
and Bangaluru from India

Challenges with Hierarchy of Urban Settlements

Despite the importance of understanding the hierarchy of urban settlements, there are
several issues associated.
Inclination towards Economic Units

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➢ Urban hierarchy considers all cities and towns as economic units instead of
communities where people live.
➢ It focuses on rankings based on economic output, importance as a center of trade and
population size.
➢ However, cities and towns are more than economic units. These are the places where
people build homes and lives.
Overdevelopment or Uneven Development
➢ Large cities tend to attract more investment and resources, leaving smaller towns and
rural areas underdeveloped. This imbalance can lead to social and economic disparities.
➢ The hierarchy can contribute to the overdevelopment of large cities.
➢ As cities move up the hierarchy, they receive more investment and resources.
➢ This continuous growth does not consider the environmental impact or population
pressure on infrastructure.
➢ It encourages the sustainable growth of “success” cities.
Economic Disparities
The hierarchy of urban settlements can lead to economic disparities between urban centers
and rural areas leading to inequality and social tension.
Environmental Concerns
➢ Urban growth particularly in large cities often comes at the expense of the environment.
➢ Urban settlements can have a significant impact on the environment through activities
such as transportation, construction and waste management.
➢ Issues like air pollution, deforestation and over-use of resources are common in high
level settlements.
Social isolation
Urban settlements can be socially isolated with limited access to services and amenities
such as healthcare, cultural and educational institution.
Infrastructure
Urban settlements can face challenges related to infrastructure such as traffic congestion,
housing shortages and limited access to public transportation.
Inequality

➢ The hierarchy does not consider equality between urban settlements.

➢ Areas lower on the hierarchy receive less investment and have fewer job opportunities.

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➢ This leads to inequality in access to resources between larger and small urban
settlements.
Ignorance of Social Aspects
➢ Urban hierarchy ignores factors like quality of life sustainability and equality.
➢ Smaller towns and villages often have better environments, lower costs of living and
closer-knit communities, but the hierarchy values economic output and political
influence over liveability.
Overcrowding in Large Cities
➢ As urban areas grow, overcrowding becomes a major issue, leading to housing
shortages, traffic congestion and strained public services.
Rigidity
➢ The rigid rankings in the hierarchy are also unrealistic. Many small towns have global
economic connections.
➢ Some regional centers face issues commonly associated with larger metropolitan areas.
The lines between rankings are blurring.
Possible Solutions
➢ Improved urban planning to cater the challenge overcrowding.
➢ Expansion of public services to manage overcrowding.
➢ Regional development policies and investment in small towns to solve the problem of
uneven development.
➢ Sustainable development and adoption of green technology and focus on renewable
source of energy to minimise environmental impacts.

Conclusion
Urban system highlights the interconnectedness of urban centres and their varying roles in
terms of population size, economic functions and sphere of influence. The urban hierarchy
arranges settlements vertically based on these criteria with larger settlements providing
more services and having a broader sphere of influence. Understanding the urban hierarchy
and the relationships between settlements is crucial for effective urban planning and the
sustainable development of cities and their surrounding areas.

The hierarchy of urban settlements provide a simple model, it has issues. It should be
reconsidered to value live ability, sustainability, and equality between communities instead

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of just economic rankings. A more nuanced and balanced approach is needed that treats all
urban settlements as places for people to live happy and fulfilled lives.

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 Central Place Theory (CPT)
Introduction
Central place theory is a spatial theory in urban geography that attempts to explain the
rationale behind the
❖ Distribution
❖ Pattern
❖ Size and
❖ Number of cities and towns around the world

It attempts to provide a framework by which these areas can be studied both for historic
reasons and for locational pattern of areas today. Despite having the same population
number, one town might surpass another in its functional importance.

Central Place Theory

❖ Walter Christaller proposed the Central Place Theory in 1933, and it is one of the most
widely accepted theories for explaining the spatial arrangements, hierarchy and
distribution of human settlements.
❖ The theory seeks to understand the
o Evolution of hierarchy patterns
o Number of settlements on the basis of
• Population and
• Distance from other settlements

On this perspective two theories have been advocated

1. Central Place Theory was proposed by Walter Christaller in 1933
2. Central Place Theory (CPT) later modified by August Losch

These theories suggest that there is a relationship between the functions of a settlements and
its spatial locations with regularity in the distribution pattern within an urban system.

Walter Christaller, a German geographer proposed his theory of central places in his book
Central Place in Southern Germany in 1933.

Features of the Central Place Theory

i. Christaller's research into settlement patterns in south Germany led to the Central
Place Theory.

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ii. He discovered that there is some type of relationship between distribution, size and
number of settlements.
iii. He named these laws spatial economic geographical laws or the laws of the geography
of settlements.
iv. His research looked at the connections between settlements of varying sizes and how
their economic activity influenced the people.
v. The relationship between the
• Size
• Number
• Geographic distribution
of cities is described by the Central Place Theory.
vi. The major function of the central place is to deliver goods and services to the
surrounding inhabitants.
vii. Christaller explained why the highest order settlement has very specific and distinct
activities and such activities can only be provided by the highest order settlement.
viii. Each settlement is situated in the centre of the region that it serves.

Fig. Central Place Theory

Assumptions

i. There is an isotropic plain (flat surface) on which natural resources are evenly
distributed. Isotropic plain means that cities are located in a homogenous plain area
without topographic undulations.
ii. Evenly Distributed Resources and Population: Population and resources are evenly
distributed everywhere.

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iii. Identical Income: Income of the consumers is identical means all consumers have
similar purchasing power and same taste or demand for goods and services.
iv. All the population demands the same goods such as clothing, healthcare, food, shelter
and drinking water.
v. Perfect Competition: Price is determined by demand and supply in perfect
competition. People will buy at the lowest price available on the market.
vi. Single Transportation: There is a single means of transportation.
vii. Transportation Cost: Cost incurred in transporting goods is equal for all and is
proportional to the distance.
viii. Consumers visit the nearest central place as this minimises the distance travelled.
ix. The sellers are the economic human with aim on profit maximization. People prefer to
visit the nearest centre; suppliers will locate themselves far away from each other as
possible to maximise their market areas.
x. The central place hierarchy act as a closed system.

Main Derivatives of Central Place Theory

a) Centrality of Place
❖ Central Place: It is the settlement that serves other settlements of the lower hierarchy.
❖ Centrality: It is the surplus or the ratio between goods and services offered. Greater
centrality means greater the number of services and their surplus. It is the force of
attraction or the potentiality to serve.
❖ Centrality of place refers to the extent to which a town serves its surrounding area and
can only be measured in terms of goods and services offered.
❖ There are different orders of goods and services
• Some are costly and rarely purchased (car, jewellery, modern gadgets) and need large
population to sustain them
• Others are everyday need items and will require small population for its survival
(milk, egg, bread, tea, rice, flour).
❖ It provides variety and quantity of goods and services for its population and neighbours
underline its functional importance.

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 Fig. Range and Threshold

b) Complementary Area
❖ Complementary area: It is the hinterland or region served by the central place.
❖ Complementary area is the area for which central place is the focal point.
❖ This area would be larger for bigger and more important central places and smaller for
the less important ones.
c) Threshold Population
❖ Threshold: The minimum population required for a service to be feasible in a given
location. If this threshold is not met, a specific activity will not begin or will be
terminated.
❖ Threshold population is the minimum number of people required to support any goods
and services outlet established at the central place.
❖ It is the minimum population required for the sale of goods or to sustain any service.
❖ Some goods and services need large population and other small population to achieve
their threshold population.
❖ Ideal case of uniform income, uniform consumption and uniform taste, it can be stated
in terms of population numbers.
❖ For example, a minimum varying population is needed to retain a teacher, bank or a
post office, or hit any movie.
❖ A grocery shop needs a relatively small local population to keep its business sustainable.
❖ Jewellery, gadget (mobile, laptop) store and car shop is irregularly purchased needs a
large threshold population.
d) Range of Goods

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❖ Range: This is the maximum distance a consumer will travel to buy products or
receive services. Consumers will not travel beyond this distance since the cost of good
and service will outweigh the value.
❖ Range of goods is the maximum distance that a consumer is willing to travel to obtain
certain goods or services at range from the Central the inconvenience of travel measured
in
o Time
o Cost
o Trouble

will out weight the value and needs for the good or alternative available nearer Centre.
❖ For example, a length of the journey to buy bread, will be very small and hence frequent
trips may be afforded as against a journey to buy a coat, shoe and jewellery.
❖ The maximum range of goods and services is the farthest distance calculated in terms
of time and money that a consumer would travel to provide it.
❖ After a certain distance, people cannot afford to buy goods at all because transport
exhausts them of money.
❖ It is every day for something cheap and frequently needed like bread or daily newspaper:
people do not spend much time and money travelling to obtain it as it has small range of
goods.
❖ As against, for goods which cost more and are less frequently required, people are
prepared to travel longer distance.

Functional Rules of Central Place

✓ A number of central places shall be optimum because a greater number of central places
will distort the model. For this, Central place must serve the settlement of the lower
hierarchy.
❖ A number of hierarchical levels shall be optimal for which a maximum number of
functions must be accumulated in the central place.
❖ The size of the complementary area shall be hexagonal because
• They are the closest approximation to a circle
• They pack the surface
• Circle as a complimentary area will either over-serve or under-serve or leave certain
parts unserved.

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❖ Every complementary area of the settlement of the lower hierarchy nests within the
complementary area of the higher hierarchy. It forms a Nesting pattern.

Fig. Shape of Complementary Area

❖ The number of larger settlements is a few while the number of smaller settlements is
many.
❖ As the settlement's size increases, it provides high order services and specialised
services.
❖ As the settlement's size increases, its range and functionality increase.
❖ Higher the speciality, the more the range.

Principles in the Arrangement of the Central Places

1. Marketing Principle (K=3)

❖ Based on the marketing, the central place will serve one-third of the population,
demanding goods and services, and one-third of the geographical area of the settlement
of the lower hierarchy.
❖ According to this principle, the cities are located at hexagonal node. This principles
states that each city serves one third of three complementary areas of three lower order
cities.
K = 1+ (1/3*6) = 3.
❖ The number of cities at each lower hierarchy will be three times more than the
preceding order of cities.
2. Transport Principle/Traffic Principle (K=4)
❖ Transport principle offers to provide the most efficient and quick transport between
different cities.

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❖ This states that the cities will be located in the middle of each side of hexagonal rather
than nodes.
❖ Therefore, each city will serve the complimentary area of two of the lower order cities.
K = 1+ (1/2*6) = 4

Fig. Marketing Principle (K=3)

❖ The number of cities at each lower order will be four times the number of preceding
order or cities.
❖ On the basis of the traffic principle a central place will capture one-half of the population
demanding such service.
❖ Transportation line must connect the maximum number of settlements to provide the
most efficient services.
3. Administrative Principle (K=7)
❖ This principle states that each higher order city will serve the administrative needs of
the all the peripheral cities of lower order along with its own needs.
K = 1+ (1/1*6) = 7
❖ The number of each subsequent order of cities will be seven times the number of
preceding order or cities.
❖ The central place will serve all the settlement of the lower hierarchy.
❖ It develops in areas of highly centralised administration.
❖ It is specialist service.

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 Fig. Patterns of Nesting of Complementary Areas

Applicability of CPT

1. CPT provides a rationale for selective location and efficient space and functions.
2. In terms of functional and behavioural dimensions CPT has drawn attention to country and
inter-town interdependence.
3. CPT encourages order in the spacing and inter-relatedness of settlements where
settlements are seen in wider contexts.

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4. CPT seeks to analyse the functional and hierarchical orderliness in the settlement
landscape.
5. CPT helps us to identify more clearly the role of settlements as places of trade exchange
and the extent to which this has influenced the nature of emerging settlement pattern in
region.
6. CPT has been used as a guideline for relocation policy and this was incorporated as an
integral part of
o Regional planning in Germany,
o Location of settlements
o Population size
o Linkages
o Hierarchy and
o Allocation of market and service
functions were determined by central place principle.

India

❖ India has almost the same number of hierarchies for the administrative principle (6
hierarchical levels rather than 7) as described by the theory.
❖ The 6 levels in India are as follows
i. National Capital
ii. State Capitals
iii. District Headquarters
iv. Tehsil towns
v. Blocks
vi. Gram Panchayats
Table Closest to the Central Place Theory's Assumption
Parameter Actual Central Place Theory
National Capital 1 1 (6)
State Capitals 28 6
District Commissioners 300 36
District Headquarters 600 216
Tehsil Headquarters 2400 1296
Blocks 7000 7776
Village Panchayats 2.75 lakh 46656

❖ India has

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a) 28 States and
b) 8 Union Territories (UTs)
means 36 entities and every Indian state has on average, 15-20 districts and more than 6 lakh
villages.
❖ So, in case of India, applicability is quite difficult, it looks like theory has a similar
hierarchy but other postulates are different.
❖ CPT can be applicable at district and block level (India) rather than at national and state
level in marketing principle.
❖ In India, marketing principle can be applicable at the district level hierarchy because
tehsil town's 1/3rd of population moves to the district town for higher order goods and
services.
❖ Thus, it is applicable at bock level, where the number of sellers is similar as in central
place theory.

Criticisms and Limitations

1. The central place theory is criticised for its oversimplification of the real world by
making a number of assumptions.
2. The positioning of settlements is random and not evenly spaced contrary to even
spacing of settlements suggested by Christaller.
3. The assumptions of CPT are unrealistic and faulty.
4. It is nearly impossible to have a flat land surface, ideal market places and no preference
for shopping areas.
5. Current modern economy is a capitalist economy, but the government plays an equally
important role in shaping the market and the placement of activities.
6. The concept of perfect competition is untrue in reality with some firms making more
money than others.
7. Resources are never dispersed equitably, and certain people benefit
disproportionately.
8. Hexagonal pattern is suited for theoretical development, but in the real world may
other complicated factors are at work. Hexagonal pattern (shape) has been criticised
because he has neglected linear patterns along physical and human-made features
including rivers, mountains, rail road, canals, and hills.
9. Every higher order centre also functions as a lower order centre in the CPT, but often
lower centres have some activities which some higher centre have a central place theory.

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10. Technological change has brought changes in the ways provision of goods and services
are organised and located like super markets, online shopping and mall culture.
11. Consumer behaviour cannot be projected. Affluence, changes in taste and preferences
and greater mobility enabling people to travel farther to do their shopping and obtain
required services have altered demand patterns for goods and services.
12. Most scholars think that the central place ranking and hierarchy cannot be applied to
all regions; the formula of k = 3 cannot be applied in all regions.

Conclusion

Central place theory is a spatial theory that attempts to explain the reasons for the distribution
patterns of settlement, size and number of cities and towns around the world. It provides the
hierarchical relationship among settlements. Walter Christaller's central place theory is the most
profound but later on other theories came with better applicability. These theories find out how
all the settlements are functionally integrated with each other, what is the importance of central
place, its sphere of influence and the services offered by the central place in terms of marketing,
transportation and administration.

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