Exp No.

: 01
Title: Measure voltage, current and power in single phase AC circuit with resistive load.
Aim:
(i) To measure the voltage, current and power in a single phase AC circuit with
resistive load.
(ii) To have the concept of unity power factor (UPF) load.
(iii) To understand the working of a wattmeter as a power measuring device.
Theory:
(a) Voltage: Voltage, also called electromotive force, is a quantitative expression of the
potential difference in charge between two points in an electrical field. It’s unit is volt.
(b) Current: Electric Current is the rate of flow of electrons in a conductor. The SI Unit of
electric current is the Ampere.
(c) Power: Electric power is the rate at which work is done or energy is transformed into
an electrical circuit. The active power is that amount of the total electric power in an AC
electric circuit which actually consumed or utilized. It is also called as true power or real
power. The active power is measured in Watts (W).
P=VIcosϕ
(d) Power Factor: It is the ratio of the actual electrical power dissipated by an AC circuit to
the product of the r.m.s. values of current and voltage. Power factor is defined as the cosine
of the angle between voltage and current. Power factor is the measure of how effectively
the incoming power is used in an electrical system. A high power factor indicates that the
power supplied to the electrical system is effectively used. A system with low power factor
doesn’t effectively consume the incoming electric supply and results in losses. There is no
power factor involved in DC circuits due to zero frequency. But, in AC circuits, the value of
power factor always lies between 0 and 1.
PF = cosɸ = Active Power (W) / Apparent Power (VA)
(e) Multiplying Factor: The multiplication factor in a wattmeter is the ratio of the power
measured to the product of the current and voltage applied to the circuit. It is typically
expressed as a dimensionless number, and is used to convert the measured electrical
power in watts to the actual power being consumed or generated by the circuit. The
multiplication factor is determined by the design and calibration of the wattmeter and can
vary depending on the type and range of the meter. Multiplication factor for a wattmeter
is that parameter by virtue of which you can use small scaled wattmeter to get the power
readings upto Multiplication factor times(multiplied) the smallest scale possible for the
given wattmeter. It allows you to measure power upto 4–6 times the power a wattmeter
can measure for the smallest scale. The formula is given as
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒_𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 × 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡_𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 × 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟_𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛_𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒_𝑜𝑓_𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟_𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
(f) Variac or Variable Autotransformer: Variable autotransformers provide variable AC supply
from a constant AC source. Popularly known as variac, it is commonly used in schools and
colleges. Apart from this, they're commonly used for matching impedance in an audio
system where they attach speakers to a regulated supply of voltage. Variacs can best be
described as tapped inductors, where the "tap" is a conductive slider that moves along the
length of the inductor. The inductor is shaped like a doughnut (toroid) with wire wrapped
radially through the center hole and around the toroid. Unlike a transformer with isolated
input and output windings, variacs have a single winding that serves as both the input and
output source. The slider is an arm equipped with a carbon contact that rotates on an axle
located at the axis of the toroid (i.e. through the doughnut hole). The enamel insulation of
the winding wire is removed where the carbon contact touches the winding, so that the
contact forms a circuit through part of the winding, just like the carbon brush of an electric
motor forms a circuit through the commutator and through the armature winding. Just like
a potentiometer, variacs divide voltage by dividing the impedance between the inputs into
two parts. The fraction of the divided input impedance connected to the output
determines the output voltage. While a potentiometer uses a resistance as the divided
impedance, the variac instead uses an inductance. This provides much higher efficiency
than a resistance, eliminating the power lost in heating the resistance. Using a variac,
almost all of the power consumed is delivered to the load connected to the output. Of
course, there is some heating due to the resistance of the winding wire, and the magnetic
coupling between the input and output is far from perfect, but still an inductive voltage
divider is much more efficient than a resistive voltage divider.
(g) Resistive Load: An electrical load that consumes electrical energy and convert it into
thermal or heat and light energy form is known as Resistive load. As the name
suggests Resistive load resist the flow of current through it due to its large resistance and
hence convert that Electrical energy into heat or light energy.
Examples of Resistive load : Incandescent bulb, Electric heater, Electric iron and
any electrical load that consists only heating elements, etc..
Properties of Resistive Load
• It consumes only Active power.
• In pure Resistive load, current and voltage waveform become exactly in phase with
each other. So the phase difference between voltage and current will be zero.
• Hence power factor of pure resistive load become unity (1).
• In case of Resistive load, Power always flows from source to load.
Circuit Diagram:

Phasor Diagram:

Apparatus Table:

SL NAME OF THE MAKER’S

QUANTITY SPECIFICATION MAKER’S NAME
NO. APPARATUS NUMBER
1
2
3

Procedure:
(i) Make the connection as per circuit diagram.
(ii) Put on the power supply.
(iii) Set the variac voltage.
(iv) Switch on the resistive load.
(v) Take the reading of voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter.
(vi) Now reset the variac voltage to 0V.
(vii) Put off the load and power supply.
Results:
SL SUPPLY CURRENT POWER RESISTANCE POWER PHASE
NO. VOLTAGE (V) (A) (W) (Ω) FACTOR (cosɸ) ANGLE (ф)

Calculation: Show necessary calculations for all readings.

Precautions and Discussions:
(i) We should not touch any of the electrical devices while doing the experiment.
(ii) Variac voltage must be taken down to 0V after doing the experiment otherwise
chances of getting electric shock will be increased.
(iii) Reading must be taken without parallax error.
Conclusion: From this experiment we found that the power factor of the load is nearer to 1
and theoretically we know that power factor of a pure resistive circuit is 1. Hence our
experimental result is correct.
 FEEE LABORATORY WORKSHEET
NAME: REG. NO. :
DATE: DEPT. :
EXP NO.: 01
TITLE: Measure voltage, current and power in single phase AC circuit with resistive load.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Results:
SL SUPPLY CURRENT POWER RESISTANCE POWER PHASE
NO. VOLTAGE (V) (A) (W) (Ω) FACTOR (cosɸ) ANGLE (ф)
Exp No. : 02
Title: Measure voltage, current and power and power factor in a single phase R-L series
circuit.
Aim:
(i) To measure the voltage, current and power in a single phase R-L circuit.
(ii) To have the concept of power factor.
(iii) To understand the phase difference between voltage and current in R-L series
circuit.
Theory:
(a) Voltage: Voltage, also called electromotive force, is a quantitative expression of the
potential difference in charge between two points in an electrical field. It’s unit is volt.
(b) Current: Electric Current is the rate of flow of electrons in a conductor. The SI Unit of
electric current is the Ampere.
(c) Power: Electric power is the rate at which work is done or energy is transformed into
an electrical circuit. The active power is that amount of the total electric power in an AC
electric circuit which actually consumed or utilized. It is also called as true power or real
power. The active power is measured in Watts (W).
P=VIcosϕ
(d) Power Factor: It is the ratio of the actual electrical power dissipated by an AC circuit to
the product of the r.m.s. values of current and voltage. Power factor is defined as the cosine
of the angle between voltage and current. Power factor is the measure of how effectively the
incoming power is used in an electrical system. A high power factor indicates that the power
supplied to the electrical system is effectively used. A system with low power factor doesn’t
effectively consume the incoming electric supply and results in losses. There is no power
factor involved in DC circuits due to zero frequency. But, in AC circuits, the value of power
factor always lies between 0 and 1.
PF = cosɸ = Active Power (W) / Apparent Power (VA)
(e) Multiplying Factor: The multiplication factor in a wattmeter is the ratio of the power
measured to the product of the current and voltage applied to the circuit. It is typically
expressed as a dimensionless number, and is used to convert the measured electrical power
in watts to the actual power being consumed or generated by the circuit. The multiplication
factor is determined by the design and calibration of the wattmeter and can vary depending
on the type and range of the meter. Multiplication factor for a wattmeter is that parameter
by virtue of which you can use small scaled wattmeter to get the power readings upto
Multiplication factor times(multiplied) the smallest scale possible for the given wattmeter .It
allows you to measure power upto 4–6 times the power a wattmeter can measure for the
smallest scale. The formula is given as
 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒_𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 × 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡_𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 × 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟_𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛_𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒_𝑜𝑓_𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟_𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
(f) Variac or Variable Autotransformer: Variable autotransformers provide variable AC supply
from a constant AC source. Popularly known as variac, it is commonly used in schools and
colleges. Apart from this, they're commonly used for matching impedance in an audio system
where they attach speakers to a regulated supply of voltage. Variacs can best be described as
tapped inductors, where the "tap" is a conductive slider that moves along the length of the
inductor. The inductor is shaped like a doughnut (toroid) with wire wrapped radially through
the center hole and around the toroid. Unlike a transformer with isolated input and output
windings, variacs have a single winding that serves as both the input and output source. The
slider is an arm equipped with a carbon contact that rotates on an axle located at the axis of
the toroid (i.e. through the doughnut hole). The enamel insulation of the winding wire is
removed where the carbon contact touches the winding, so that the contact forms a circuit
through part of the winding, just like the carbon brush of an electric motor forms a circuit
through the commutator and through the armature winding. Just like a potentiometer,
variacs divide voltage by dividing the impedance between the inputs into two parts. The
fraction of the divided input impedance connected to the output determines the output
voltage. While a potentiometer uses a resistance as the divided impedance, the variac instead
uses an inductance. This provides much higher efficiency than a resistance, eliminating the
power lost in heating the resistance. Using a variac, almost all of the power consumed is
delivered to the load connected to the output. Of course, there is some heating due to the
resistance of the winding wire, and the magnetic coupling between the input and output is
far from perfect, but still an inductive voltage divider is much more efficient than a resistive
voltage divider.
(g) Resistive-Inductive Load: An electrical load that consumes electrical energy and convert
it into In case of Resistive load, Power always flows from source to load.
An inductive load is a part of an electrical circuit that uses magnetic energy to produce work.
Common examples include transformers, electric motors, and electromechanical relays.
Circuit Diagram:
Phasor Diagram:

Apparatus Table:

SL NAME OF THE MAKER’S

QUANTITY SPECIFICATION MAKER’S NAME
NO. APPARATUS NUMBER
1
2
3

Procedure:
(i) Make the connection as per circuit diagram.
(ii) Put on the power supply.
(iii) Set the variac voltage.
(iv) Switch on the R-L load.
(v) Take the reading of voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter.
(vi) Now reset the variac voltage to 0V.
(vii) Put off the load and power supply.

Results:
SUPPLY INDUCTIVE POWER PHASE
SL CURRENT POWER VR VL RESISTANCE
VOLTAGE REACTANCE FACTOR ANGLE
NO. (A) (W) (V) (V) (Ω)
(V) (Ω) (cosɸ) (ф)

Calculation: Show necessary calculations for all readings.

Precautions and Discussions:
(i) We should not touch any of the electrical devices while doing the experiment.
(ii) Variac voltage must be taken down to 0V after doing the experiment otherwise chances
of getting electric shock will be increased.
(iii) Reading must be taken without parallax error.
Conclusion: From this experiment we found that the power factor of the load is less than 1
and theoretically we know that power factor of a series R-L circuit is less than unity. Hence
our experimental result is correct.
 FEEE LABORATORY WORKSHEET
NAME: REG. NO. :
DATE: DEPT. :
EXP NO.: 02
TITLE: Measure voltage, current and power and power factor in a single phase R-L series
circuit.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Results:
SUPPLY INDUCTIVE POWER PHASE
SL CURRENT POWER VR VL RESISTANCE
VOLTAGE REACTANCE FACTOR ANGLE
NO. (A) (W) (V) (V) (Ω)
(V) (Ω) (cosɸ) (ф)
Exp No. : 03
Title: Identify different parts of a single phase transformer and DC motor.
Aim: To study the constructional features of transformer and dc machine.
Theory:
Transformer:
A transformer is an static electrical device that uses the principle of electromagnetic induction
to transfer energy from one electric circuit to another.
❖ It is designed to either increase or decrease AC voltage between the circuits while
maintaining the frequency of the current.
❖ Transformers do this with no conductive connection between the two circuits. This is
possible through the application of Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction which
describes how a magnetic field will interact with an electric circuit to produce
electromotive force (EMF).
It mainly consists of
1. Magnetic circuit (consisting of core, limbs, yoke).
2. Electrical circuit (consisting of primary and secondary windings)
3. Dielectric circuit (consisting of insulations in different forms and used at different places)
4. Tanks and accessories (conservator, breather, bushings, cooling tubes, etc.)
▪ The primary winding is the part that is connected to an electrical source, from where
magnetic flux is initially produced. These coils are insulated from each other and the
main flux is induced in the primary winding from where it is passed to the magnetic
core and linked to the transformer’s secondary winding through a low reluctance path.
▪ The core relays the flux to the secondary winding to create a magnetic circuit that
closes the flux, and a low reluctance path is placed within the core to maximize flux
linkage.
▪ The primary and secondary windings are electrically isolated from each other but are
magnetically linked through the common core allowing electrical power to be
transferred from one coil to the other. When an electric current passed through the
primary winding, a magnetic field is developed which induces a voltage into the
secondary winding.
▪ In all the types of transformers, the magnetic core is assembled by stacking laminated
steel sheets leaving the minimum required air-gap between them to ensure the
continuity of the magnetic path.
▪ Say you have one winding (also known as a coil) which is supplied by an alternating
electrical source. The alternating current through the winding produces a continually
changing and alternating flux that surrounds the winding.
▪ If another winding is brought close to this winding, some portion of this alternating flux
will link with the second winding. As this flux is continually changing in its amplitude
and direction, there must be a changing flux linkage in the second winding or coil.
▪ According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, there will be an EMF induced
in the second winding. If the circuit of this secondary winding is closed, then a current
will flow through it.
▪ The winding which receives electrical power from the source is known as the ‘primary
winding’. In the diagram this is the ‘First Coil’. The winding which gives the desired
output voltage due to mutual induction is commonly known as the ‘secondary
winding’. This is the ‘Second Coil’ in the diagram.
▪ Practically all of the flux from the primary section must completely be transferred to
the secondary part. The transformer core’s function is to provide a low-reluctance path
via which the primary winding’s greatest amount of flux is transmitted through and
linked to the secondary winding.
VP – is the Primary Voltage
VS – is the Secondary Voltage
NP – is the Number of Primary Windings
NS – is the Number of Secondary Windings
ɸ (phi) – is the Flux Linkage
Transformers Turns Ratio:
𝑵𝑺 𝑽𝑺
= = 𝒏 = 𝑻𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐
𝑵𝑷 𝑽𝑷
Types of Transformer:
▪ On the Basis of Design
➢ Core Type Transformer: This transformer features two horizontal sections with two
vertical limbs and a rectangular core with a magnetic circuit. Cylindrical coils (HV and
LV) are placed on the central limb of the core type transformer.
➢ Shell Type Transformer: The shell type transformer has a double magnetic circuit and
a central limb with two outer limbs.
▪ On the Basis of Supply
➢ Single Phase Transformer: A single-phase transformer has only one set of windings.
Separate single-phase units can offer the same results as three-phase transfers when
they are externally interconnected.
➢ Three Phase Transformer: A triple-phase (or three-phase) transformer has three sets
of primary and secondary windings to form a bank of three single phase transformers.
The three phase transformer is mainly used for generation, transmission and
distribution of power in industries.
▪ On the Basis of Purpose
➢ Step Up Transformer: This type is determined by the number of turns of wire. So, if the
secondary set has a greater number of turns than the primary side, it means that the
voltage will correspond to that, which forms the base of a step up transformer.
➢ Step Down Transformer: This type is typically used for stepping down the level of
voltage in the power transmission and distribution network and so its mechanism is
the exact opposite of a step up transformer.
▪ On the Basis of Use
➢ Power transformer: Typically used to transmit electricity and has a high rating.
➢ Distribution transformer: This electrical transformer has a comparatively lower rating
and is used to distribute electricity.
 ➢ Instrument transformer: This electrical transformer is further sub-categorized into
current and potential transformers.
o Current transformer
o Potential transformer
▪ On the Basis of Cooling
➢ Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN)
➢ Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF)
➢ Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF)
➢ Oil Natural Water Forced (ONWF)
➢ Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF)
Core and Shell Type Transformer:
▪ In the “core” type (core form) transformer, the primary and secondary windings are
wound outside and surround the core ring. In the “shell type” (shell form) transformer,
the primary and secondary windings pass inside the steel magnetic circuit (core) which
forms a shell around the windings
▪ In core type half of the primary winding and half of the secondary winding are placed
one over the other concentrically on each leg in order to increase magnetic coupling.
First low voltage winding is wound on the core followed by high voltage winding. This
is done to minimize magnetic flux leakage. It must be noted here that, LV winding is
placed on the core to have minimum insulation requirement.

Lamination in Transformer:
▪ The laminations used in a transformer construction are very thin strips of insulated
metal joined together to produce a solid but laminated core as we saw above. These
laminations are insulated from each other by a coat of varnish or paper to increase the
effective resistivity of the core thereby increasing the overall resistance to limit the flow
of the eddy currents.
▪ The result of all this insulation is that the unwanted induced eddy current power-loss
in the core is greatly reduced, and it is for this reason why the magnetic iron circuit of
every transformer and other electro-magnetic machines are all laminated.
 ▪ The core of transformer is a stack of thin silicon-steel lamination of thickness 0.35 mm.
These lamination are insulated from each other by thin layer of varnish paint. This is
done to reduce the eddy current losses. To reduce the core losses, a high permeable
magnetic material, called Cold Rolled Grain Oriented Sheet Steel (CRGO), is used as the
core material

DC Machine:
▪ A DC machine is an electromechanical device that is used to convert electrical energy
into mechanical energy or vice versa.
▪ The DC machine used to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy, which is
known as DC motor and the DC machine used to convert mechanical energy into
electrical energy, which is known as DC generator.
▪ The same machine can be used either as a motor or generator. The construction is same
for DC motor and DC generator.
DC Machine-Construction:
▪ Yoke or Frame
▪ Yoke is also called as frame of the machine. It provides protection to the rotating and
other parts of the machine from moisture, dust and mechanical damage etc. Also it
provides the mechanical support for the poles.
▪ It is an iron body which provides the low reluctance path for the flux. This is essential
to complete the magnetic circuit.
▪ Materials used for the yoke are basically the low reluctance materials such as cast iron,
silicon steel, rolled steel, cast steel.
▪ For small dc machines the Yoke are made of cast iron. But for larger machines, cast
steel or rolled steel is used.
▪ Pole and Pole Core
▪ The pole of the DC machine is an electromagnet and the field winding is winding among
pole. Whenever field winding is energized then the pole gives magnetic flux. The
materials used for this are cast steel, cast iron otherwise pole core. It can be built with
the annealed steel laminations for reducing the power drop because of the eddy
currents.
▪ Pole Shoe
▪ Pole shoe in the DC machine is an extensive part as well as to enlarge the region of the
pole. Because of this region, flux can be spread out within the air-gap as well as extra
flux can be passed through the air space toward armature. The materials used to build
pole shoe is cast iron otherwise cast steed, and also used annealed steel lamination to
reduce the loss of power because of eddy currents.
▪ Field Windings
▪ In this, the windings are wounded in the region of pole core & named as field coil.
Whenever current is supplied through field winding than it electromagnetics the poles
which generate required flux. The material used for field windings is copper.
▪ Inter Poles
▪ Fitted to yoke between main poles. Windings are made of copper and are connected
in series with field windings. Flux produced by inter poles provides spark less
commutation.
▪ Armature Core
▪ Armature core is a cylindrical drum like structure which is mounted on the shaft.
▪ It is provided with a large number of slots all over its periphery, all these slots are
parallel to the shaft axis, Armature conductors are placed in these slots.
▪ Armature core provides a low reluctance path to the flux produced by the field winding
and this flux is cut by the armature conductor. It is made up of low reluctance and high
permeability material like cast iron or cast steel.
▪ The air holes are also provided in the armature core for the air circulation, which helps
in cooling the armature core.
▪ Core constructed using laminations so as to minimize the eddy current loss.
▪ It supports the armature winding.
▪ Rotate as a rotor with armature winding.
▪ High permeability, low reluctance materials such as cast steel or cast iron are used for
the armature core.
▪ Armature Winding
▪ The armature winding is placed on the slots of the armature core. It is made up of
copper. The armature winding links with the magnetic flux and induce a rotating
magnetic flux.
▪ According to the connections, there are two types of windings; Lap winding and Wave
winding
▪ In lap winding, the armature conductors are divided into groups of a number of poles
P. All conductor groups are connected in parallel and in one group, all conductors are
connected in series.
▪ For lap winding, the number of a parallel path (A) is the same as the number of poles
(P). Therefore, in lap winding, the number of parallel paths is more. So, lap winding is
used for low voltage high current applications.
▪ For wave winding, irrespective of the number of poles, the number of parallel paths is
always two.
▪ So, in wave winding, a smaller number of parallel paths available compared to the lap
winding. The wave winding is used for high voltage low current DC machine.
▪ Commutator
▪ A commutator is a cylindrical drum mounted on the shaft along with the armature core.
▪ It is made of a large number of wedge-shaped segments of hard-drawn copper. The
segments are insulated from each other by thin layers of mica.
▪ Armature winding is tapped at various points and these tapping’s are successively
connected to various segments of the commutator.
▪ For a dc generator it converts the alternating EMF generated internally into a DC
voltage. So it basically works like a rectifier.
▪ It collects the current from the armature conductors and passes it to the external load
via brushes.
▪ Brushes
▪ Brushes in the DC machine gather the current from the commutator and supply it to
the exterior load. Brushes wear with time to inspect frequently. The materials used in
brushes are graphite otherwise carbon which is in rectangular form.
▪ Shaft
▪ The shaft used to transfer mechanical power. If the machine is used as a DC motor,
mechanical power is transferred from the motor to load. And if the machine is used as
a DC generator, mechanical power is transferred from prime mover to the machine.
▪ Bearing
▪ The bearings are used at the end of the shaft. The friction between the rotating part
and the stationary part is reduced with the help of bearings.
▪ The bearing is made up of any hard material like carbon steel. The ball type or roll type
barring is used in the DC machine.
Exp No. : 04
Title: Determine the transformation ratio of a single-phase transformer and measure no load
and full load current of it.
Aim: To measure the transformation ratio of a single-phase transformer and obtain its no load
and full load current.
Theory:
A transformer is an static electrical device that uses the principle of electromagnetic
induction to transfer energy from one electric circuit to another.

▪ Say you have one winding (also known as a coil) which is supplied by an alternating
electrical source. The alternating current through the winding produces a continually
changing and alternating flux that surrounds the winding.
▪ If another winding is brought close to this winding, some portion of this alternating flux
will link with the second winding. As this flux is continually changing in its amplitude
and direction, there must be a changing flux linkage in the second winding or coil.
▪ According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, there will be an EMF induced
in the second winding. If the circuit of this secondary winding is closed, then a current
will flow through it.
 ▪ The winding which receives electrical power from the source is known as the ‘primary
winding’. In the diagram this is the ‘First Coil’. The winding which gives the desired
output voltage due to mutual induction is commonly known as the ‘secondary
winding’. This is the ‘Second Coil’ in the diagram.
▪ Practically all of the flux from the primary section must completely be transferred to
the secondary part. The transformer core’s function is to provide a low-reluctance path
via which the primary winding’s greatest amount of flux is transmitted through and
linked to the secondary winding.

VP – is the Primary Voltage

VS – is the Secondary Voltage
NP – is the Number of Primary Windings
NS – is the Number of Secondary Windings
ф (phi) – is the Flux Linkage
EMF Equation of Transformer:

𝑑∅
𝐸=𝑁
𝑑𝑡
𝐸 = 𝑁 × 𝜔 × ∅𝑚𝑎𝑥 × cos (𝜔𝑡)
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑁𝜔∅𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑁𝜔 2𝜋
𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = × ∅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = × 𝑓 × 𝑁 × ∅𝑚𝑎𝑥
√2 √2
𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 4.44𝑓𝑁∅𝑚𝑎𝑥
For the primary winding emf, N will be the number of primary turns, ( NP ) and for the
secondary winding emf, N will be the number of secondary turns, ( NS ).
Transformers Turns Ratio:
𝑁𝑆 𝑉𝑆
= = 𝑛 = 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑁𝑃 𝑉𝑃
▪ When a transformer is used to “increase” the voltage on its secondary winding with
respect to the primary, it is called a Step-up transformer (n>1). When it is used to
“decrease” the voltage on the secondary winding with respect to the primary it is called
a Step-down transformer (n<1).
▪ However, a third condition exists in which a transformer produces the same voltage on
its secondary as is applied to its primary winding (n=1). In other words, its output is
identical with respect to voltage, current and power transferred. This type of
transformer is called an “Isolation Transformer” and is mainly used for impedance
matching or the isolation of adjoining electrical circuits.
Losses In Transformer:
▪ A transformer does not require any moving parts to transfer energy. This means that
there are no friction or windage losses associated with other electrical machines.
However, transformers do suffer from other types of losses called “copper losses” and
“iron losses” but generally these are quite small. The losses of energy, which appears
as heat due both to hysteresis and to eddy currents in the magnetic path, is known
commonly as “transformer core losses”.
▪ Transformer Hysteresis Losses are caused because of the friction of the molecules
against the flow of the magnetic lines of force required to magnetise the core, which
are constantly changing in value and direction first in one direction and then the other
due to the influence of the sinusoidal supply voltage.
▪ This molecular friction causes heat to be developed which represents an energy loss to
the transformer. Excessive heat loss can overtime shorten the life of the insulating
materials used in the manufacture of the windings and structures. Therefore, cooling
of a transformer is important.
▪ Transformer Eddy Current Losses on the other hand are caused by the flow of
circulating currents induced into the steel caused by the flow of the magnetic flux
around the core. These circulating currents are generated because to the magnetic flux
the core is acting like a single loop of wire. Since the iron core is a good conductor, the
eddy currents induced by a solid iron core will be large.
▪ Eddy currents do not contribute anything towards the usefulness of the transformer
but instead they oppose the flow of the induced current by acting like a negative force
generating resistive heating and power loss within the core.
 ▪ Eddy current losses within a transformer core cannot be eliminated completely, but
they can be greatly reduced and controlled by reducing the thickness of the steel core.
Instead of having one big solid iron core as the magnetic core material of the
transformer or coil, the magnetic path is split up into many thin pressed steel shapes
called “laminations”. To reduce the core losses, a high permeable magnetic material,
called Cold Rolled Grain Oriented Sheet Steel (CRGO), is used as the core material.
No Load Condition of Transformer:
When the transformer is operating at no load, the secondary winding is open circuited
which means there is no load on the secondary side of the transformer and therefore
current in the secondary winding will be zero, while primary winding carries a small current
called I0 or no-load current which is 2-10% of the rated current.
This current is responsible for supplying the iron losses (hysteresis and eddy current loss) in
the core. A very small amount of copper losses in the primary winding is also present.
Full Load Current in a Transformer:
Full load current is nothing but the maximum allowable current to the winding, which is
used to design the protection system for the transformer.
Apparatus Table:

SL NAME OF THE MAKER’S

QUANTITY SPECIFICATION MAKER’S NAME
NO. APPARATUS NUMBER
1
2
3

Circuit Diagram:

No Load Circuit of Transformer

 Full Load Circuit of Transformer
Procedure:
(a) During No-Load Current Test:
(i) We connect ammeter to the low voltage side and put on the supply.
(ii) Step by step we are increasing the variac voltage to the 110 V.
(iii) Note down the voltage and ammeter reading.
(iv) Reset the variac voltage to 0 V.
(b) During Full Load Current Test:
(i) We connect ammeter to the high voltage side and put on the supply.
(ii) Step by step we are increasing the variac voltage and our target is 5A reading in the
Ammeter.
(iii) Note down the voltage.
(iv) Reset the variac voltage to 0 V.
Results:
(a) Table for Transformation Ratio:
SL NO. INPUT VOLTAGE, V1 (V) OUTPUT VOLTAGE, V2 (V) TRANFORMATION RATIO (V2/V1)

(b) Table for No-Load Current:

SL NO. VOLTAGE (V) NO-LOAD CURRENT (A)

(c) Table for Full-Load Current:

SL NO. VOLTAGE (V) Full-LOAD CURRENT (A)
Calculation: Show necessary calculation.
Precaution:
(i) All connections should be tight.
(ii) The circuit should be connected according to the diagram.
(iii) The power supply should be on after complete checking of the circuit.
(iv) After the experiment variac voltage should be taken to zero.
 FEEE LABORATORY WORKSHEET
NAME: REG. NO. :
DATE: DEPT. :
EXP NO.: 04
TITLE: Determine the transformation ratio of a single-phase transformer and measure no load
and full load current of it.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

No Load Circuit of Transformer

Full Load Circuit of Transformer

Results:
(a) Table for Transformation Ratio:

SL NO. INPUT VOLTAGE, V1 (V) OUTPUT VOLTAGE, V2 (V) TRANFORMATION RATIO (V2/V1)
(b) Table for No-Load Current:

SL NO. VOLTAGE (V) NO-LOAD CURRENT (A)

(c) Table for Full-Load Current:

SL NO. VOLTAGE (V) Full-LOAD CURRENT (A)