JAYAMATHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

RAJA NAGAR, ARALVAIMOLZHI

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ME 3581- METROLOGY AND DYNAMICS LABORATORY

1
ME8581 METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENTS LABORATORY LTPC
004 2
UNIT – I METROLOGY
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. Calibration and use of linear measuring instruments – Vernier caliper, Micrometer, Vernier
height gauge, depth Micrometer, bore gauge, telescopic gauge, Comparators.
2. Measurement of angles using bevel protractor, sine bar, autocollimator, precision level.
3. Measurement of assembly and transmission elements - screw thread parameters – Screw
thread Micrometers, three wire method, Toolmaker’s microscope.
4. Measurement of gear parameters – Micrometers, Vernier caliper, Gear tester.
5. Measurement of features in a prismatic component using Coordinate Measuring Machine
(CMM), Programming of CNC Coordinate Measuring Machines for repeated
measurements of identical components.
6. Non-contact (Optical) measurement using Measuring microscope / Profile projector and
Video measurement system.
7. Surface metrology - Measurement of form parameters – Straightness, Flatness, Roundness,
Cylindricity, Perpendicularity, Runout, Concentricity – in the given component using
Roundness tester.
8. Measurement of Surface finish in components manufactured using various processes
(turning, milling, grinding, etc.,) using stylus-based instruments.
UNIT – II DYNAMICS LABORATORY
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. Study of gear parameters.
2. Epicycle gear Train.
3. Determination of moment of inertia of flywheel and axle system.
4. Determination of mass moment of inertia of a body about its axis of symmetry.
5. Undamped free vibrations of a single degree freedom spring-mass system.
6. Torsional Vibration (Undamped) of single rotor shaft system.
7. Dynamic analysis of cam mechanism.
8. Experiment on Watts Governor.
9. Experiment on Porter Governor.
10. Experiment on Proell Governor.
11. Experiment on motorized gyroscope.
12. Determination of critical speed of shafts. TOTAL: 60 PERIODS

2
 CONTENT
SL.NO EXPERIMENTS REMARKS

METROLOGY LABORATORY
1 Study of Micrometer and Vernier caliper
a Calibration of Micrometer
2
b Measurement of External Dimension using Micrometer
a Calibration of Vernier Caliper
3
b Measurement of External Dimensions using Vernier Caliper
a Calibration of Depth Gauge
4
b Measurement of Depth Using Depth Gauge
a Study of Profile Projector
5
b Measurement Of Thread Parameter Using Profile Projector
a Study of Mechanical Comparator
6
b Checking the Limits of Dimensional Tolerance using Mechanical Comparator
a Study of Sine Bar
7
b Measurement of Taper Angles Using Sine Bar
a Study of Gear Tooth Vernier
8
b Measurement of Gear Tooth Dimensions using Gear Tooth Vernier
a Study of Floating Carriage Micrometer
9
b Measurement of Thread Parameters by using Floating Carriage Micrometer
a Study of Vernier height gauge
10 b Calibration of Vernier height gauge.
c Measurement by using Vernier height gauge
a Study about the uses of telescopic gauge
11
b Measurement of bore diameter using telescopic gauge
12 Study of inside micrometer
13 Study of uses of co-ordinate measuring machine
a Study of Autocollimator
14
b Measurement of flatness by using Autocollimator

3
SL.NO EXPERIMENTS REMARKS

DYNAMICS LABORATORY
1 Study of Gear Parameters
2 Velocity Ratios- Gear Train
3 Determination Of Moment Of Inertia By Using Connecting Rod
4 Determination Mass Moment Of Inertia Using Compound Pendulum
5 Free Vibration Of Spring Mass System
6 Determination Of Torsional Natural Frequency Of Single Rotor Systems
7 Cam Analysis
8 Experiment on Watts Governor
9 Experiment on Porter Governor
10 Experiment on Proell Governor
11 Experiment on Motorized Gyroscope
12 Determination of Critical Speed of Shafts

4
METROLOGY
LABORATORY

5
Outside Micrometer

6
 1. STUDY OF MICROMETER AND VERNIER CALIPER

AIM:
To study the use of micrometer and Vernier caliper.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Micrometer
2. Specimens

THEORY:
MICROMETER:
The micrometer is a linear measuring instrument. The micrometer has an accurate screw
consisting of 10 to 20 threads per cm. This screw rotates inside a fixed nut. The end of the screw
acts as one measuring tip and fixed anvil acts as other measuring tip. Threads are cut for certain
length on screw and it is left to free remaining portion called sleeve. The spindle moves towards
the fixed anvil or away from it by rotating the thimble.

The spindle is placed inside the barrel in such a way to freely to slide over the barrel.
The barrel is firmly fixed with the frame.20 divisions per cm are made in the barrel. This is the
lead screw for one complete revolution. But the thimble has 25 divisions around the
circumference. So each revolution is again divided into 25 divisions. Therefore, each division is
equal to 0.01mm. So its least count is 0.01mm

VERNIER CALIPER:
The Vernier instruments generally used in workshop and engineering metrology have
comparatively low accuracy. The line of measurement of such instruments does not coincide
with the line of scale. The accuracy therefore depends upon the straightness of the beam and the
squareness of the sliding jaw with respect to the beam. To ensure the squareness, the sliding
jaw must be clamped before taking the reading. The zero error must also be taken into
consideration. Instruments are now available with a measuring range up to one meter with a
scale value. So its least count is 0.02mm

RESULT:
The uses of Micrometer and Vernier caliper are studied.
7
TABULATION:
Least count=0.01mm Range = 0 - 25mm
Main Pitch
Scale Scale Correct Reading
Sl. No. Reading Division Mean
CR=MSR+(PSD×LC) (mm)
(M.S.R) (P.S.D)
(mm) (Div)
1

Model Calculation:

Correct Reading CR = MSR + (PSD×LC)

=
=

8
 2. (a) CALIBRATION OF MICROMETER

Aim:
To calibrate the outside micrometer using slip gauge

Instruments Required:
1. Micrometer stand
2. Outside Micrometer
3.Slip gauge

Specifications:
1. Outside micrometer
2. Range=0-25mm
3. Graduations=0.01mm
Procedure:
1. The micrometer is checked for zero error.
2. The given slip gauge is held between the faces of the anvil and spindle.
3. The spindle is moved by rotating the thimble until the anvil and spindle touches the
surface of the component.
4. Fine adjustment is made by ratchet. The main scale reading and thimble scale reading
are noted.
5. Two are more reading are taken at different places of the component.
6. The readings are tabulated and calculated.

Results:
Thus, the outside micrometer using slip gauge was calibrated.

9
TABULATION:
Least count=0.01mm Range = 0 - 25mm
Main Pitch
Scale Scale Correct Reading
Sl. No. Reading Division Mean
CR=MSR+(PSD×LC) (mm)
(M.S.R) (P.S.D)
(mm) (Div)
1

Model Calculation:

Correct Reading CR = MSR + (PSD×LC)

=
=

10
 2. (b) MEASUREMENT OF EXTERNAL DIMENSION USING MICROMETER

Aim:
To measure the external dimension of an object using outside micrometer.

Instruments Required:
1. Micrometer stand
2. Outside Micrometer
3.Workpiece

Specifications:
1. Outside micrometer
2. Range=0-25mm
Procedure:
1. The micrometer is checked for zero error.
2. The given workpiece is held between the faces of the anvil and spindle.
3. The spindle is moved by rotating the thimble until the anvil and spindle touches the
surface of the component.
4. Fine adjustment is made by ratchet. The main scale reading and thimble scale reading
are noted.
5. Two are more reading are taken at different places of the component.
6. The readings are tabulated and calculated.

Results:
Thus, the external dimension of an object is measured using outside micrometer.

11
 Tabulation:
Least count=0.02mm

VERNIER READING (mm)

S.NO MSR CR Mean (mm)

VSD = (MSR + (VSDXLC))
(mm)
(mm)

Model Calculation:

Correct Reading CR = MSR + (VSD×LC)

=
=

12
 3. (a) CALIBRATION OF VERNIER CALIPER

Aim:
To calibrate the Vernier caliper by using slip gauge

Instruments Required:
1. Vernier Caliper
2. Slip gauge

Specifications:
1. Vernier Caliper
2. Range=0-25mm
Procedure:
1. Vernier caliper is cleaned with a cloth.
2. The clamping screws are loosened.
3. The given component is fixed in both the two jaws.
4. The component should be perfectly holded.
5. The thickness is measured with the external jaws.
6. The length of the component is measured by adjusting the movable jaws.
7. The procedure is repeated for all the components. At least three readings should be
taken and then average will give the accurate measurement

Results:
Thus, the Vernier caliper has calibrated using slip gauge.

Tabulation:
13
 Least count=0.02mm

VERNIER READING (mm)

S.NO MSR CR Mean (mm)

VSD = (MSR + (VSDXLC))
(mm)
(mm)

Model Calculation:

Correct Reading CR = MSR + (VSD×LC)

=
=

14
 3. (b) MEASUREMENT OF EXTERNAL DIMENSIONS USING VERNIER
CALIPER

Aim:
To measure the external dimension of an object by using Vernier caliper.

Instruments Required:
1. Vernier Caliper
2. Workpiece

Specifications:
1. Vernier Caliper
2. Range=0-25mm
Procedure:
1. Vernier caliper is cleaned with a cloth.
2. The clamping screws are loosened.
3. The given component is fixed in both the two jaws.
4. The component should be perfectly holded.
5. The thickness is measured with the external jaws.
6. The length of the component is measured by adjusting the movable jaws.
7. The procedure is repeated for all the components. At least three readings should be
taken and then average will give the accurate measurement

Results:
Thus, the external dimension of an object by using Vernier caliper.

15
TABULATION:
Least count=0.02 mm Range = 0 - 25mm
Main Verni
Specimen’s er Correct Reading
Scale
Sl. No. Name & Scale CR=MSR+(VSD×LC) Error
Reading
Specification Division (mm)
(M.S.R)
Slip Gauge (mm) (V.S.D)
(Div)
1

Model Calculation:

Correct Reading CR = MSR + (PSD×LC)

=
=

16
 4. (a) CALIBRATION OF DEPTH GAUGE

Aim:
To calibrate the Depth gauge using slip gauge

Instruments Required:
1. Depth Gauge
2. Slip gauge

Specifications:
1. Depth Gauge
2. Range=0-25mm
3. Graduations=0.01mm
Procedure:
1. The depth gauge is checked for zero error.
2. The given slip gauge is held between the faces of the Flat surface and spindle.
3. The spindle is moved by rotating the thimble until the Flat surface and spindle
touches the surface of the component.
4. Fine adjustment is made by ratchet. The main scale reading and thimble scale reading
are noted.
5. Two are more reading are taken at different places of the component.
6. The readings are tabulated and calculated.

Results:
Thus, the depth gauge using slip gauge was calibrated.

17
TABULATION:
Least count=0.02mm Range = 0 - 25mm
Main Vernier
Scale Scale Correct Reading
Sl. No. Reading Division Mean
CR=MSR+(VSD×LC)
(M.S.R) (V.S.D) (mm)
(mm) (Div)

Model Calculation:

Correct Reading CR = MSR + (VSD×LC)

=
=

18
 4. (b) MEASUREMENT OF DEPTH USING DEPTH GAUGE

Aim:
To measure the depth of an object using depth micrometer.

Instruments Required:
1. Stand
2. Depth Gauge
3.Workpiece

Specifications:
1. Depth Gauge
2. Range=0-25mm
Procedure:
1. The micrometer is checked for zero error.
2. The given workpiece is held on the table and spindle is inserted into the hole of an
object.
3. The spindle is moved by rotating the thimble until the anvil and spindle touches the
bottom surface of the component.
4. Fine adjustment is made by ratchet. The main scale reading and thimble scale reading
are noted.
5. Two are more reading are taken at different places of the component.
6. The readings are tabulated and calculated.

Results:
Thus, the depth of an object is measured using depth gauge.

19
20
 5. (a) STUDY OF PROFILE PROJECTOR

AIM:
To study the use of profile projector

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Profile Projector
2. Specimens

THEORY:
Profile projector has a high degree of precision and the magnification is obtained with the
help of light beams which have the advantage of being straight and the profile. Therefore, suffer
less wear during usage than the mechanical type. This is to magnify parts of very small size of the
complex configuration that required accurate and enlarged profile.
This comparator has a lamp. The light rays from the projection lens fall on the mirror. The
mirror reflects the light rays on the screen. The specimen is placed on the table between these
condensing and projecting lenses. The projecting lens magnifies the profile of the specimen. The
mirror again magnifies this image. The magnified image fall on the screen. The screen is a
transparent glass. A magnified master drawing specimen profile is placed over the screen. The
projected image of the specimen profile is compared with the master drawing.
This type of optical comparator is used for inspecting small parts like screw threads, gear
teeth, saw teeth, cutting tool, needles, camp profiles, etc.
Different magnification can be obtained by adjusting the projection lens and the position of
the mirror.

RESULT:
The uses of profile projector are studied

21
Tabulation:

ACTUAL
MEAN
INITIAL FINAL READING
= A.R / No of
Sl.No DESCRIPTION READING READING A.R = I.R –
Reading taken
(mm) (mm) F.R
(mm)
(mm)

1 Major Diameter

2 Minor Diameter

3 Pitch

4 Helix angle

22
5. (b) MEASURMENT OF THREAD PARAMETER USING PROFILE PROJECTOR

AIM:
To measure thread parameter of a given screw thread using profile projector.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Profile projector
2. Specimen
SPECIFICATION
Contour projector magnification accuracy = ±0.1%
Micrometer Head = 0-25 mm
Least Count = 0.1 mm
Color illuminator = 150/250 W Halogen
Magnification = 10x, 20x, 50x lenses
PROCEDURE
1. The required Magnification adapter is fixed in the center projector.
2. The flat specimen is placed on the glass plate and perfectly focused on the screen.
3. The profile of specimen is traced on a tracing paper is fixed on the screen using pencil.
4. Then the angle between the two-reference surface and dimension are measured using
table micrometer and the Rota table screen circular scale and are tabulated

RESULT:
The diameter, pitch and angle of thread for the given specimen are found out.

Major diameter =

Minor diameter =

Pitch of screw =

Angle of thread =

23
Mechanical Comparator

24
 6. (a) STUDY OF MECHANICAL COMPARATOR

AIM:
To study the use of mechanical comparator

THEORY:
MECHANICAL COMPARATOR
Comparator is one form of linear measurement device which is quick and more convenient
for checking large number of identical dimensions. Comparator normally will not show the actual
dimensions of the work piece. They will be showing only the deviation in size.
Mechanical comparator employs mechanical terms for magnifying small deviations. The
method of magnification small movements of the indicator in all mechanical comparators is effected
by means of levers gear trains or a combination of these elements. Mechanical comparators are
available having magnifications from 300 to 5000 to 1. These are mostly used for inspection of
small parts machined to closed limits.

RESULT:
The use of mechanical comparator is studied

25
TABULATION L.C = 0.01 mm

DEFLECTION TOLERANCE ALLOWANCE

SL.NO DECISION
(Div.) (mm) (mm)

1
2
3
4
5

26
 6. (b) CHECKING THE LIMITS OF DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCE USING
MECHANICAL COMPARATOR

AIM:
To check the height of a mechanical component with standard dimension component using
Mechanical comparator

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1) Slip gauge set
2) Mechanical comparator
3) Surface plate
4) Vernier caliper
5) Dial indicator

PROCEDURE
1. Clean the instruments and its accessories by fine cotton cloths
2. Measure the basic size of the given specimen by using Vernier Caliper
3. Place the slip gauge on the mechanical comparator
4. Now set the basic size of the work piece in the mechanical comparator and set the
dial indicator in zero position and remove the slip gauge from the mechanical
comparator
5. The given specimen is placed under the plunger of mechanical comparator and
note down the variation in height of the component is noted from reading of dial.
6. Tabulate the readings

RESULT
The dimension of the specimen was checked by using mechanical comparator.

27
Surface plate

Dial Gauge

Sine Bar
28
 7. (a) STUDY OF SINE BAR

AIM:
To study about Sine bar

THEORY:
SURFACE PLATE
The foundation of all geometric accuracy and indeed of all dimensional measurement in
workshop is surface plate. It is a flat smooth surface sometimes with leveling screws at the bottom.
Uses:
 It is used as a base in all measurements
DIAL GAUGE
The dial gauge has got 2 hands. The short hand reads in mm. One complete revolution of
long hand reads one mm. The plunger of the dial gauge has to be placed on the surface whose
dimension has to be read.
Least Count = One division of the circular scale with long hand.
Uses:
It is used as a mechanical comparator.
SINEBAR
A sine bar consists of a hardened, precision ground body with two precision ground
cylinders fixed at the ends. The distance between the centers of the cylinders is precisely controlled,
and the top of the bar is parallel to a line through the centers of the two rollers. The dimension
between the two rollers is chosen to be a whole number (for ease of later calculations) and forms
the hypotenuse of a triangle when in use.
When a sine bar is placed on a level surface the top edge will be parallel to that surface. If
one roller is raised by a known distance, usually using gauge blocks, then the top edge of the bar
will be tilted by the same amount forming an angle that may be calculated by the application of the
sine rule.

RESULT:
The detailed about sine bar is studied
29
TABULATION:
SLIP GAUGE
THEORETICAL EXPERMENTAL
SL.NO SPECIMEN READING
ANGLE (Deg) ANGLE (Deg)
(mm)

Model Calculation:
(i) Theoretical Value:
Diameter of bigger end D = 20 mm
Diameter of Small end d = 10 mm
Length L = 150 mm
𝐷−𝑑
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑙
𝐷−𝑑
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑙
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝜃=
(ii) Experimental value:
Height (h) =
ℎ
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
𝑙 ℎ
𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( )
𝑙
𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1( )
𝜃=°

30
 7. b) MEASUREMENT OF TAPER ANGLES USING SINE BAR

AIM
To measure the taper angle of the given specimen using sine bar

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Surface plate, 4. Slip gauge,
2. Dial gauge with stand, 5. Specimen
3. Sine bar,

FORMULA
1. Experimental angle of the work piece
ℎ
Sine θ =
𝐿
Where,
θ = Taper angle in deg.
h = Total height (thickness) of the slip gauges in mm
L = Standard length of the sine bar in mm = 150mm

2. Theoretical angle of the work piece

(𝐷−𝑑)
Tanθ =
𝐿
Where,
D = Diameter of the bigger end in mm
d = Diameter of the smaller end in mm
l = Length of the work piece in mm

PROCEDURE
1. The taper angle of the specimen is first found out approximately with the help of a bevel
protractor.
2. The sine bar is set at this angle on the surface plate with the help of the slip gauges as
shown in the figure.
3. The specimen is placed on the Sine bar so that its top taper surface is parallel to the

31
surfaceplate.

32
33
 4. The parallelism is checked and adjusted by increasing or decreasing the height level of
the slip gauges, so that there should be no deflection in the long hand of the digital gauge
when the spindle of the dial gauge is moved over the specimen surface.
5. The total height (thickness) of the slip gauges is noted down.
6. Trial readings are taken by placing the specimen at different points of the sine bar surface.

RESULT:
The taper angles of the given specimens are calculated using sine bar.
For specimen 1 taper angle
1. By theoretically =
2. By experimentally =
For specimen 2 taper angle
1. By theoretically =
2. By experimentally =

34
 Gear tooth Vernier caliper

Gear tooth thickness at pitch line

34
 8. (a) STUDY OF GEAR TOOTH VERNIER

AIM:
To study about the gear tooth Vernier

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Gear tooth Vernier,
2. Gear specimen.

THEORY:
GEAR TOOTH VERNIER
The tooth thickness is defined as the length of the arc of the pitch circle between opposite
faces of the same tooth. Most of the time a gear Vernier is used to determine the tooth thickness.
As the tooth thickness varies from top to bottom, any instrument for measuring on a single tooth
must
1. Measure the tooth thickness at a specified position on the tooth.
2. Fix that position at which the measurement is taken.
The gear tooth Vernier, therefore, consists of a Vernier caliper for making the measurement
M, combined with a Vernier depth for setting the dimension h at which the measurement M is to
beaffected.
TERMINOLOGY OF SPUR GEAR
Pitch surface: The surface of the imaginary rolling cylinder (cone, etc.) that the toothed gear may
be considered to replace.
Pitch circle: A right section of the pitch surface.
Addendum circle: A circle bounding the ends of the teeth, in a right section of the gear.
Root (or Dedendum) circle: The circle bounding the spaces between the teeth, in a right section
of the gear.
Addendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and the addendum circle.
Dedendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and the root circle.
Clearance: The difference between the dedendum of one gear and the addendum of the mating
gear.
Face of a tooth: That part of the tooth surface lying outside the pitch surface.
Flank of a tooth: The part of the tooth surface lying inside the pitch surface.

35
Spur Gear

36
Circular thickness: (also called the tooth thickness) the thickness of the tooth measured on the
pitch circle. It is the length of an arc and not the length of a straight line.
Tooth space: The distance between adjacent teeth measured on the pitch circle.
Backlash: The difference between the circle thickness of one gear and the tooth space of the mating
gear.
Circular pitch: The width of a tooth and a space, measured on the pitch circle.
Diametral pitch P: The number of teeth of a gear per inch of its pitch diameter. A toothed gear
must have an integral number of teeth. The circular pitch, therefore, equals the pitch circumference
divided by the number of teeth. The diametral pitch is, by definition, the number of teeth divided
by the pitch diameter.
Module m: Pitch diameter divided by number of teeth. The pitch diameter is usually specified in
inches or millimeters; in the former case the module is the inverse of diametral pitch.
Fillet: The small radius that connects the profile of a tooth to the root circle.
Pinion: The smaller of any pair of mating gears. The largest of the pair is called simply the gear.
Velocity ratio: The ratio of the number of revolutions of the driving (or input) gear to the number
of revolutions of the driven (or output) gear, in a unit of time.
Pitch point: The point of tangency of the pitch circles of a pair of mating gears.
Common tangent: The line tangent to the pitch circle at the pitch point.
Line of action: A line normal to a pair of mating tooth profiles at their point of contact.
Path of contact: The path traced by the contact point of a pair of tooth profiles.
Pressure angle: The angle between the common normal at the point of tooth contact and the
common tangent to the pitch circles. It is also the angle between the line of action and the common
tangent.
Base circle: An imaginary circle used in involute gearing to generate the involutes that form the
tooth profiles.

RESULT:
The gear tooth Vernier are studied

37
TABULATION: L.C = 0.02 mm
Main Scale Vernier Scale
No of Gear Actual reading Mean Tooth
Reading Reading
SL.NO tooth (Z) =M.S.R+(V.S.R×L.C) Thickness
(mm) (mm)
(Nos) (mm) (mm)
M.S.R V.S.R

Model Calculation:
Module m = 𝐷 =
𝑍+2

Pitch Circle Diameter = z× m =

Thickness of gear tooth (t) = m ×𝜋 =
2
𝑡2
Addendum n = 𝑚 + =
4𝐷

38
 8. (b) MEASUREMENT OF GEAR TOOTH DIMENSIONS USING GEAR TOOTH
VERNIER

AIM:
To measure gear parameters for the given spur gear by gear tooth Vernier.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Gear tooth Vernier,
2. Gear specimen.

FORMULA USED:
𝐷
1. Module m =
𝑧+2
Where,

D = Outside diameter of the gear in mm

Z = No of Teeth
2. Pitch circle diameter = z.m
𝜋
3. Thickness of gear tooth = m ×
2

4. Addendum h = m +𝑡2⁄4𝐷

PROCEDURE
1. The gear tooth Vernier has one horizontal and vertical slide. Each slide can be moved
independently using screws. For measuring chordal thickness, first the vertical slide is
set to the height ‘h’ which is the vertical height measured from the chord at pitch point
to the crest of the tooth.
2. Initially the number of teeth is counted and pitch circle diameter is calculated using the
formula. Then addendum is calculated using the formula.
It may be also calculated as follows
h = m [1+ Z (1- cos 90/Z)/2]
3. After setting the height ‘h’ in the vertical slide, the slide is locked position. Then the
slide is made to rest over the crest of the gear tooth. The horizontal slide is touching the
side of the gear tooth. Now the chordal thickness is measured from the horizontal vernier
scale.
39
40
RESULT:
The gear tooth thickness is found out and compared with theoretical value using gear tooth
vernier
GEAR 1:
Theoretical Value =
Experimental value =
GEAR 2:
Theoretical Value =
Experimental value =

41
Floating Carriage Micrometer

42
 9. (a) STUDY OF FLOATING CARRIAGE MICROMETER

AIM:
To study the use of floating carriage micrometer
SPECIFICATIONS
1. Weight of the machine: Approx. 25kg.
2. L x W x H: Approx. 350mm x 150mmx 140mm
3. List count of micrometer: 0.001 mm
4. Standard micrometer or electronic type.
5. Electronic Micrometer has digital display and Std.
6. Dial type Fiducial Indicator with 0.01mm standard dial.
7. Admit between centres 200 mm
8. Max Diameter capacity 100mm
THEORY:
FLOATING CARRIAGE MICROMETER
In order to ensure the manufacture of screw threads to the specified limits laid down in the
appropriate standard it is essential to provide some means of inspecting the final product. For
measurement of internal threads thread plug gauge is used and to check these plug gauges Floating
Carriage Micrometer is used for measuring Major, Minor and Effective diameter.
Measuring machine shown in the figure has ―Base with two small and one big adjustable
support knobs provided for leveling the assembled unit. Base has two parallel integrals ―V‖
grooves one short and other long. Long groove is for guide pegs located at the bottom of
―Intermediate Piece‖ or ―Carriage‖ (B) and smaller for a ball. One more ―V‖ pair is in the Centre
of the base, which is provided for accommodating ―Centers‖ (E) to hold work piece. Carriage has
two parallel ―V‖ grooves, one to accommodate two balls and other to accommodate one ball.
Underneath the floating top (C) there is one ―V‖ groove on one side and flat portion on other side.
Digital Micrometer is in one bracket (with less width) and dial type fiducial on the other side lever
is provided to tighten it.

RESULT:
The floating carriage micrometer are studied

43
44
 9.(b) MEASUREMENT OF THREAD PARAMETERS BY USING FLOATING
CARRIAGE MICROMETER

AIM
To measure the major diameter, minor diameter & effective diameter of external screw
threads by using floating carriage micrometer.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Floating carriage micrometer. 4. Wire
2. Specimen 5. Cylinder.
3. Prism

FORMULA
Major Diameter Measurement:
OD = D+ (RS ~ R)
Where,
D = Diameter of setting master in mm.
RS = Micro meter reading over setting master in mm.
R = = Micro meter reading over threaded W/P or gauges, +/ – is determined by
relative size of master & work piece in mm.
Minor Diameter Measurement:
ID = D- (R ~ RO)
Where,
D = Diameter of setting master in mm.
C = Core or minor diameter of work piece in mm.
RP = Reading over master & prism in mm.
R = Reading over master & prism in mm
Measurement of effective diameter by using 2 wire method:
E = T+P
T= D+ (RW ~ ROW)
Where,
E = Effective or pitch diameter in mm.
T = Measured dimension using cylinder in mm.
RW= Reading measured over setting master with wire in mm.
ROW= Reading measured over work piece over wire in mm.

45
TABULATION:
OBSERVED
MAIN PITCH READING
S.N DESCRIPTIO Actual
SCALE SCALE (mm)
SPECIMEN Reading
O N READING READING O.R=M.S.R
(mm)
(mm) (mm) + (P.S.R
×L.C)
Setting
1 Major Diameter Component
Workpiece
Setting
2 Minor Diameter Component
Workpiece
Setting
Effective
3 Component
Diameter
Workpiece

Calculation:
1. Major Diameter: OD = D + ( RS~ R )
Where:D = Rs = and R =
OD =
OD =
2. Minor Diameter:ID = D + ( R~ RO )
Where: D = , Ro = and R =
OD =
OD =
3. Effective Diameter:E = T+P
Where P = (0.86603 ×P) – W = (0.86603 ×2) – 1.35 = 0.3820 mm2
T = D + (Rw~ ROw)
Where: D = , Rw = and Row =
T=
Therefore E = T+P
E=

46
 P = (0.86603 x p) – W
W =Mean diameter of cylinder wire used = 1.35 mm
p = Pitch of thread = 2 mm

PROCEDURE
1. The setting master is held b/w center and taken the reading at the diameter say RS.
2. The master cylinder is then replaced by a threaded work piece and R is taken.
3. Take the reading on micrometer and indicator in such a way that radius portion of prism
touches master.
4. The cylinder or wire should be chosen so that when placed b/w the threads, they should
contact about halfway down the flanks.

Result:
Thus, the thread parameters of a screw thread are measured using floating carriage
micrometer

47
48
 10. (a) STUDY OF VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE

AIM:

To study the precision measuring instrument such as Vernier height gauge.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Dial gauge
2. Standard slip gauge
3. Specimens

THEORY:
VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE:
The Vernier height gauge gives a direct reading and is designed for the accurate
measurement and marking off vertical height above a surface plate datum. It can also be used to
measure differences in heights by taking the Vernier scale reading at each height and determining
the difference by subtraction. A major advantage of the Vernier height gauge is that it contains its
own measuring scale, capable of direct measurement to a fraction of millimeter usually 0.02mm.
The height gauge has a solid base. A vertical beam is mounted over the base. The vertical
has main scale graduations. A slider slides up and down along the beam. The slider has s Vernier
scale. The slider can be locked using a clamping screw. The slider can be adjusted accurately using
a fine adjustment screw. The slider has the measuring jaw integral with it. A scriber is clamped to
the measuring jaw.

RESULT:
The use of Vernier height gauge is studied.

49
TABULATION:
Least count=0.02mm
VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE
READING (mm) SLIPGAUGE
S.NO READINGS ERROR
MSR VSR TR
VSC (mm) (mm)
(mm) (mm) =M.S.R + (V.S.R
1

Model Calculation:

Correct Reading CR = MSR + (VSD×LC)

=
=

50
 10. (b) CALIBRATION OF VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE

AIM:
To calibrate the Vernier height gauge using slip gauges
INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
1. Vernier height gauge
2. Slip gauge
FORMULAUSED:
TR =MSR+ (VSCXLC)
Where, TR-Total Reading
MSR-Main Scale Reading
VSC-Vernier Scale Coincide
LC-Least Count
PROCEDURE:
1. Vernier height gauge is cleaned with a cloth.
2. The clamping screws are loosened.
3. The given component is fixed in both the two jaws.
4. The component should be perfectly holded.
5. The height is measured with the external jaws.
6. The height of the component is measured by adjusting the movable jaws.
7. The procedure is repeated for all the components.
8. At least three readings should be taken and then average will give the accurate
measurement.

RESULT:
Thus, the Vernier height gauge was calibrated by using slip gauge.

51
 TABULATION: L.C = 0.02 mm
MAIN VERNIER OBSERVED
S.NO SPECIMEN SCALE SCALE READING (mm)
Result
READING READING =M.S. R + (V.S.R
M.S.R (mm) V.S.R (mm) ×L.C)

1 Step : 1

2 Step : 2

3 Step : 3

Model Calculation:

Correct Reading CR = MSR + (VSD×LC)

=
=.

52
 10. (c) MEASUREMENT BY USING VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE

AIM
To determine the height of the given specimen by using the precision measuring instruments
like Vernier height gauge.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Surface plate, 4. Dial gauge,
2. Vernier caliper, 5. Standard slip gauge,
3. Micrometer. 6. Vernier Height Gauge.

FORMULA
Least Count = 1 Main Scale Division – 1 Vernier Scale Division in mm Vernier Scale
Reading = Vernier Scale Coincidence X Least Count in mmTotal Reading = Main Scale
Reading + Vernier Scale Reading in mm
PROCEDURE:
 Clean the main scale, Vernier scale and measuring jaws of the
Vernier height gauge withfine cotton cloth
 The Vernier height gauge is checked for zero
 Place the job in the surface plate
 Place the measuring jaw such that it touches the surface to be measured
from the smoothsurface
 Measure the main scale reading and Vernier scale coincidence of the
Vernier height gauge

RESULT:
The measurement of given specimen is carried out using Vernier height gauge.

53
Telescopic Gauge

54
 11. (a) STUDY ABOUT THE USES OF TELESCOPIC GAUGE

AIM:
To study about the uses of telescopic gauge

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Telescopic gauge 3. Micrometer
2. Vernier caliper 4. Specimen

THEORY:
Telescopic Gauge
The telescopic gauge is used for the measurement of internal diameter of a hole during
machining operation. It consists of a handle and two plungers, one telescopic into the other and
both under spring tension. Ends of the plungers have spherical contacts. The plunger can be locked
in position by turning a knurled screw at the end of the handle. To measure the diameter of a hole,
the plungers are first compressed and locked in position. Next, the plunger end is inserted in the
hole and allowed to expand the opposite edges. Finally, they are locked in place, taken out of the
hole, and measured by an outside micrometer

RESULT:
The uses of telescopic gauge are studied.

55
 TABULATION:
MEAN
MAIN PITCH OBSERVED
=O.R / No
S.NO SPECIMAN SCALE SCALE READING (mm)
of readings
READING READING =M.S.R + (P.S.R
taken
M.S.R(mm) P.S.R(mm) ×L.C)
(mm)

56
 11. (b)MEASUREMENT OF BORE DIAMETER USING TELESCOPIC GAUGE

AIM:
To measure the bore diameter of the hollow work piece by using telescopic gauge

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Telescopic gauge 3. Micrometer
2. Vernier caliper 4. Specimen

FORMULAE
MICROMETER:
Pitch Scale Reading = Pitch Scale Coincidence x Least Count
Total Reading = Head Scale Reading + Pitch Scale Reading

PROCEDURE:
1. Range of the instruments is noted down.
2. The work piece is placed on the surface plate and set the measuring instrument
for zero
3. To measure the diameter of a hole, the plungers are first compressed and locked
in position
4. Next, the plunger end is inserted in the hole and allowed to expand the opposite
edges
5. Finally, they are locked in place, taken out of the hole, and measured by an outside
micrometer

RESULT
The precision measuring instruments are studied and compared. The diameter of work

57
pieces is determined by using

58
Outside Micrometer & Inside Micrometer

59
 12. STUDY OF INSIDE MICROMETER

AIM:
To study the precision measuring instrument such as Vernier caliper and Vernier height

gauge.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Surface plate, 3. Micrometer
2. Vernier caliper,
MICROMETER
Outside micrometer:

An outside micrometer is shown. It consists of two scales, main scale and thimble scale.
While the pitch of barrel screw is 0.5 mm the thimble has graduation of 0.01 mm. The least count
of this micrometer is 0.01 mm.
The micrometer requires the use of an accurate screw thread as a means of obtaining a
measurement. The screw is attached to a spindle and is turned by movement of a thimble or ratchet
at the end. The barrel, which is attached to the frame, acts as a nut to engage the screw threads,
which are accurately made with a pitch of 0.05mm. Each revolution of the thimble advances the
screw 0.05mm. On the barrel a datum line is graduated with two sets of division marks. Inside
micrometer:
Inside micrometer is used for measuring internal dimensions.it has mainly four parts such
as measuring head, extension rods, spacing collars and handle. The range of instrument is varied by
using different lengths of the extension rods and spicing collars. The selection of extension rodis
based on nearest 1cm and connected in the micrometer head. One micrometer head is held tightly
against the bore but the surface adjusted till the correct feel is sensed. Inside micrometer can also
be used as a height gauge with suitable arrangements to measure inside diameter of the cylinders,
rings etc.
The range of inside micrometer are 25-150, 150-300,300 – 450 and 450 – 600mm. Usually,
the extensions rods are made of hardened materials up to 800HV but measuring faces are brazed
with tungsten carbide or other hard material to reduce wear and tear. But before putting into
operation, the measuring faces are lapped to ensure high precision and good surface finish. Spacing
collars are used to obtain fine adjustments in its range. Detachable handles are used in inside
micrometer.

RESULT:
The uses of micrometer are studied.

60
61
 13. STUDY OF USES OF CO ORDINATE MEASURING MACHINE

AIM:
To measure thread parameter of a given screw thread using coordinate measuring machine.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Coordinate measuring machine
2. Specimen

THEORY:
Measuring machines are used for measurement of length over the outer surfaces of a length
bar or any other long member. The member may be either rounded or flat and parallel. It is more
useful and advantageous than vernier calipers, micrometer, screw gauges etc. the measuring
machines are generally universal character and can be used for works of varied nature. The co-
ordinate measuring machine is used for contact inspection of parts. When used for computer-
integrated manufacturing these machines are controlled by computer numerical control. General
software is provided for reverse engineering complex shaped objects. The component is digitized
using CNC, CMM and it is then converted into a computer model which gives the two surface of
the component. These advances include for automatic work part alignment on the table. Savings in
inspection 5 to 10 percent of the time is required on a CMM compared to manual inspection
methods.

RESULT:
The uses of CMM are studied

62
63
 14. (a) STUDY OF AUTO COLLIMATOR

AIM:

To study about the uses of autocollimator.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Collimator Unit 3. Plain Reflector
2. Base 4. Optical Source

THEORY:

AUTO- COLLIMATOR
Auto-collimator is an optical instrument used for the measurement of small angular
differences, changes or deflection, plane surface inspection etc. For small angular measurements,
autocollimator provides a very sensitive and accurate approach. An autocollimator is essentially an
infinity telescope and a collimator combined into one instrument
Basic principle
If a light source is placed in the flows of a collimating lens, it is projected as a parallel beam
of light. If this beam is made to strike a plane reflector, kept normal to the optical axis, it is reflected
back along its own path and is brought to the same focus. The reflector is tilted through a small
angle ‘0’. Then the parallel beam is deflected twice the angle and is brought to focus in the same
plane as the light source.

RESULT:

The uses of autocollimator are studied

64
TABULATION:

AUTOCOLLIMATOR READING
SL.NO TEST SURFACE LENGTH (mm)
(mm)

65
 14. (b) MEASUREMENT OF ANGLE BY USING AUTO COLLIMATOR

AIM:
To test the angle of the given object.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Collimator Unit 3. Plain Reflector
2. Base 4. Optical Source

SPECIFICATION:
Objective focal length = 300mm
Objective clear aperture = 25mm
Barrel diameter = 38mm
Barrel length = 200mm
Eyepiece magnification = 10X
Measuring range = 25 minutes
Read out = direct gratitude ATP
Dimensions of base = Solid lagged C.I base (75mm*250mm)
Flatness of base = As per ISI stander’s
PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the light and observe the measuring gratitude through eyepiece.
2. The smallest division of liner scale is 1 minute.
3. Bring the plain reflector in front of autocollimator to get a reflected.
4. Depending upon variation in surface position of target will change on measuring scale.
5. There upon the position of intersection point of cross bar line will measuring gratitude
is the deviation in minute.
6. Using micrometer provided for eyepiece we can measure the function up to 10 seconds

RESULT:
Thus, the angle of a given workpiece and graph was plotted.
66
 DYNAMICS
LABORATORY
 To study various types of Kinematic links, pairs, chains and
Mechanisms
AIM: - To study various types of kinematics links, pairs, chains & Mechanisms.

APPARATUS USED: - Kinematics links, pairs, chains & Mechanisms.

THEORY: - 1. Definitions of kinematics links, pairs, chains & Mechanisms.

1. Classifications of kinematics links, pairs, chains & Mechanisms.

2. Diagrams of kinematics links, pairs, chains & Mechanisms

4 Advantages & Disadvantages of kinematics links, Pairs, chains & Mechanisms.

5. Applications of kinematics link, Pairs, chains & Mechanism

6. Examples of kinematics link, Pairs, chains & Mechanisms.

KINEMATIC LINK: - A mechanism is made of a number of resistant bodies out of which some may
have motions relative to the others. A resistant body or a group of resistant bodies with rigid
connections preventing their relative movement is known as a link. A link also known as kinematic
link or element.

Examples :- A slider-crank mechanism consists of four links: frame and guides, crank connecting rod
and slider, the crank link may have crankshaft and flywheel also, forming one link having no relative
motion of these.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF LINKS:-
1. Binary link

2. Ternary link

3. Quarternary link

KINEMATIC PAIR: - A kinematic pair or simply a pair is a joint of two links having relative motion
between them.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF PAIRS:
1- Kinematics pairs according to nature of contact:-

(i) Lower pair (links having surface or area contact)

Examples- Nut turning on a screw, shaft rotating in a bearing, universal joint etc.

(ii) Higher pair (Point or line contact between the links)

 Examples:- when rolling on a surface, cam and follower pair, tooth gears, ball and roller
bearings etc.

2- Kinematics pairs according to nature of Mechanical Constraint:-

(a) Closed pair (when the elements of a pair are held together mechanically)

Examples :- all the lower pairs and some of the higher pair

(b) Unclosed pair (when two links of a pair are in contact either due to force of gravity or some
spring action),

Example :- cam and follower pair.

3- Kinematics pairs according to nature of relative motion:-

(i) Sliding pair

(ii) Turning pair

(iii) Rolling Pair

(iv) Screw pair (Helical pair)

(v) Spherical pair

KINEMATIC CHAIN :- A kinematic chain is an assembly of links in which the relative motions of
the links is possible and the motion of each relative to the others is definite. If indefinite motions of
other links , it is a non-kinematic chain.

Types of kinematics chains :-

(i) Four bar chain or quadric cycle chain

(ii) Single slider crank chain

(iii) Double slider crank chain

MECHANISM :- A linkage is obtained if one of the links of a kinematics chain is fixed to the ground.
If motion of each link results in definite motions of the others, the linkage is known as a mechanism.
If one of the links of a redundant chain is fixed, it is known as a structure. The degree offreedom of a
structure is zero or less. A structure with negative degree of freedom is known as a superstructure.
OBSERVATION & CONCLUSION:-
1. Comparison between kinematics links,Pairs, chains & Mechanisms.

2. Type of Motion to be named.

VIVA-QUESTIONS:-
a) Define machine & structure.

b) Concept of kinematics links, pairs, chains & mechanism.

c) Classification & examples of all the kinematics links, pairs, chains & mechanism.

d) Grasshof’s criterion.

e) Types & examples of constrained motion.

To study various types of gear trains- simple, compound, reverted, epicyclic and differential.

AIM: -To study various types of gear trains- simple, compound, reverted, epicyclic and differential.

APPARATUS USED: -. Arrangement of Gear train system.

THEORY: -
1. Definition of. Geart rain

2. Classification of Geartrain

3. Diagrams of different types of Gear train.

4. Working & Construction of different types of Gear train.

5. Advantages & Disadvantages of Gear train

6. Applications of Gear train .

7. Examples of Gear train

GEAR TRAIN :- A gear train is a combination of gears used to transmit motion from one shaft to
another. It becomes necessary when it is required to obtain large speed reduction within a small space.
The following are the main types of gear trains:

(i) Simple gear train

(ii) Compound gear train

(iii) Reverted gear train

(iv) Planetary gear train

SIMPLE GEAR TRAIN :- A series of gears, capable of receiving and transmitting motion from one
gear to another is called a simple gear train. In it, all the gear axes remain fixed relative to the frame
and each gear is on a separate shaft.

Train Value = Number of teeth on driving gear / Number of teeth on driven gear

COMPOUND GEAR TRAIN :- When a series of gears are connected in such a way that two or more
gears rotate about an axis with the same angular velocity, it is known as compound gear train. In this
type, some of the intermediate shafts.
Train Value = Product of Number of teeth on driving gear / Product of Number of teeth on driven gear

REVERTED GEAR TRAIN :- If the axes of the first and last wheels of a compound gear coincide;
it is called a reverted gear train. Such an arrangement is used in clocks and in simple lathes where
‘back gear’ is used to give a slow speed to the chuck.

Train Value = Product of Number of teeth on driving gear / Product of Number of teeth on driven gear

PLANETARY OR EPICYCLIC GEAR TRAIN :- When there exists a relative motion of axis in
gear train, it is called a planetary or an epicyclic gear train (or simply epicyclic gear or train). Thus
in an epicyclic train, the axis of at least one of the gears also moves relative to the frame.

Consider two gear wheels S and P, the axis of which are connected by an arm a. if the arm ‘a’ is fixed,
the wheels S and P constitute a simple train. However, if the wheel s is fixed so that the arm can rotate
about the axis of S, the wheel P would also move around S. therefore, it is an epicyclic train.

DIFFERENTIAL GEAR :- When a vehicle takes a turn, the outer wheels must travel farther than
the inner wheels. In automobiles, the front wheels can rotate freely on their axis and thus can adapt
themselves to the conditions. Both rear wheels are driven by the engine through gearing. Therefore,
some sirt of automatic device is necessary so that the two rear wheels are driven at slightly different
speeds. This is accomplished by fitting a differential gear on the rear axle.

OBSERVATION & CONCLUSION: -

1. Comparison between simple, compound reverted, epicyclic and differential. Gear train.

2. To calculate the train value.

3. To calculate the speed of any gear.

APPLICATIONS :-
(i) Gear trains are used in automobiles.
(ii) Reverted gear train are used in clock and simple lathe

(iii) Epicyclic gear are used in transmission, computing devices.

(iv) Gears are used in different machinery.

VIVA-QUESTIONS :-
a. Define about gear trains with classification, advantages & disadvantages and applications.

b. Define train value.

c. Define differential gear train with applications.

DETERMINATION OF RADIUS OF GYRATION AND MOMENT OFINERTIA OF

CONNECTING ROD BY OSCILLATION METHOD

AIM:

To determine the radius of gyration & moment of inertia of connecting rod using oscillation
method.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Connecting rod

2. Verniercalliper

3. Stop watch

FORMULA:
Time period tp= time taken / No of oscillation in (sec)

Moment of Inertia I=mk2 (kgm2)

K-radius of gyration(m) K2=h(l-h)

Natural frequency Fn=1/2π (Hz)

L1=Equivalent length of the connecting rod when the system is from the small end.

L1=g(TP1/2Π/)2

h1=Distance of small end from centre of gravity .

Natural frequency Fn2=1/2π 2 (Hz)

L2= Equivalent length of the connecting rod when the system is from the big end.

L2=g(TP2/2Π/)2

L=L1+L2/2

h2= Distance of big end from centre of gravity .

h1+h2=l+d1/2+d2/2

l- Length of connecting rod

PROCEDURE:
1.The experimental setup is taken and stand is fixed for oscillation of connecting rod.

2.The connecting with its small end is hanged on the stand.

3.Connecting rod is passed to a point and then it is released and allowed to oscillate.

4.Time is noted for 5 oscillation of rod.

5.Now some procedure is followed by hanging rod &readings are taken to find radius of gyration &
MOI of connecting rod by using the formula.

I=mk2 (kgm2)

S.No Type of Time for 5 Mean Time Natural Radius of Moment

End oscillation time(s) period Frequency Gyration of Inertia
(t)(s) Tp(s)=t/n (Hz)(1/tp) (k)(m) I(kgm2)

RESULT:
Thus the radius of gyration & moment of inertia of given connecting rod is found out using
oscillation method.

Radius of gyration =

Moment of Inertia =
Questions
1. Define crank effort and crank pin effort .
Crank effort is the net effort applied at the crank pin perpendicular tothecrank , which gives the
required turning moment on the crankshaft.
The component of force acting along connecting rod perpendicular tothe crank is known as
crank-pin effort.

2. Define Piston effort

Net force acting on the piston is termed as piston effort.

3. What is meant by turning moment diagram or crank effort diagram?It is the graphical representation
of the turning moment or crank effort for variosposition of the crank.It turning moment diagram, the
turning moment is taken as the ordinate and crankangle as abscissa.

4. Explain the term maximum fluctuation of energy in flywheels. The difference between the maximum
and the minimum energies is known as maximum fluctuation of energy. Maximum
fluctuation=maximum energy-minimum energy .

5. Define coefficient of fluctuation of energy.It is the ratio of maximum fluctuation of energy to

the work done per cycle .Ce=maximum fluctuation of energy/work done per cycle .

6. Define coefficient of fluctuation of speed. It is the ratio of maximum fluctuation of speed to

the mean speed is called the coefficient of fluctuation of speed.
Cs= (N1-N2)/NWhere,N1=maximum speedN2=minimum speed N=mean speed=(N1+N2)/2.

7. Define coefficient of steadiness.

The reciprocal of the fluctuation of speed is known as coefficient of steadiness'=1/Cs =N/ (N1-
N2).
8. Why flywheels are needed in forging and pressing operations
In both the machines flywheels are required to control the variations in speed during each cycle
of an engine.
9. Define static force analysis. If components of a accelerate, inertia is produced due to their
masses. However, the magnitude of these forces is small compared to the externally applied loads.
Hence inertia effects due to masses are neglected. Such an analysis is known as static force
analysis.

10. Differentiate between static & dynamic equilibrium.

Necessary and sufficient conditions for static and dynamic equilibrium are:1.vector sum of all
the forces acting on a body is zero.2. The vector sum of all the moments of all the forces acting
about any arbitrary pointer axis is zero. First conditions are sufficient conditions for static
equilibrium together with second condition is necessary for dynamic equilibrium
 4. DETERMINATION OF MASS MOMENT OF INTERIA OF COMPOUND PENDULUM

Aim
To find out the moment of inertia of the given body

Apparatus required:
1. Compound pendulum
2. Scale
3. Stop watch

Experimental Setup:
A compound pendulum represents a represents a rigid body supported at ‘O’. So that it can swing in
vertical plane about some axis passing through it.

Formula used:
1. Time period Tp= 2π / √Kexp2+OH2/g xOG
OG-distance between centre of gravity and suspension point
2.Experimental radius of gyration= √ (4 π2 /T xgxOG )-Oh2
Time period observed =time taken/ no. oscillation
3.Experimental Frequency =1/T
4. Theoritical frequency =1/T √ GxOh/g2 +oh2

L-Length of compound pendulum

Moment of Inertia I= mk2
m- mass of the compound pendulum
Procedure:
1. Measure the distance of suspension point O from the center of gravity G of given compound
pendulum
2. Compound pendulum is suspended from the suspension point and is oscillated.
3. Time taken for 10 oscillations is found out using stop watch and three trials are made for the
same suspension point.
4. By varying the distance of suspension point above procedure is repeated.
5. Average time taken for each suspension point is calculated.
6. Using formula Natural frequency, radius of gyration and Moment of inertia are calculated.

OBSERVATION:
Length of compound pendulum L= 1000mm
Mass of the compound pendulum=800mm
Distance of Centre of Gravity=L/2
Mass=760kg
Tabulation

Sl Heig Mean Time Natural Radius of gyration of k Moment of

. ht Time time’ t’ period frequency inertia
N taken for 10 sec T=t/n Kg-m2
o. oscillation sec

Exp Ther Exp Kthe

fn fn

Result :
Thus Radius of gyration of given compound pendulum and moment of inertia are
found out Experimental radius of gyration Kexp=
Theoretical radius of gyration Kth=
Moment of inertia I=
Questions
1. What is free body diagram? A free body diagram is a sketch of the isolated or free body which
shows all the pertinent weight force, the externally applied loads, and the reaction from its supports
connections acting upon it by the removed elements.

2. Differentiate between static & dynamic equilibrium. Necessary and sufficient conditions
for static and dynamic equilibrium are:1.vector sum of all the forces acting on a body is
zero.2. The vector sum of all the moments of all the forces acting about any arbitrary pointer axis is
zero. First conditions are sufficient conditions for static equilibrium together with second
condition is necessary for dynamic equilibrium.

3. Define applied and constraint force. The external force acting on a system of body from
outside the system is called applied force. The constraint forces are the forces existing internally
within the body.

4. Differentiate between static force analysis and dynamic force analysis. If components of
a machine accelerate, inertia forces are produced due to their masses. If the magnitude of
these forces are small compared to the externally applied loads, they can be neglected while
analysis the mechanism. Such analysis is known as static force analysis.

5. Define inertia force.

The inertia force is an imaginary force, which when acts upon a rigid body, brings it in an
equilibrium position. Inertia force = -Accelerating force = -m.a

7. StateD‟Alembert‟sprinciple.
D'Alembert's principle states that the inertia forces and torques, and the and torques acting
on a body together result in static equilibrium.

8.State principle of superposition.

The principle of superposition states that for linear systems the individualresponses to
several disturbances or driving functions can be superposed oneach other to obtain the total
response of the system.

9. What is meant by turning moment diagram or crank effort diagram?

It is the graphical representation of the turning moment or crank effort for variousposition
of the crank.It turning moment diagram, the turning moment is taken as the ordinate and
crankangle as abscissa.

10.Explain the term maximum fluctuation of energy in flywheels.

The difference between the maximum and the minimum energies is known asmaximum
fluctuation of energy.Maximum fluctuation=maximum energy-minimum energy .
 5. TO STUDY THE DISPLACEMENT MOTION CURVE OF CAM

Aim :

To study the profile of given can using cam analysis system and to draw the displacement
diagram for the follower and the cam profile .Also to study the Jump speed characteristics of the cam
follower mechanism .

Apparatus required :
Cam analysis system and dial gauge .

Description :
A cam is a machine element such as cylinder or any other solid with a surface of contact so
designed as to give the follower . A cam is a rotating body imparting oscillating motor to the follower
. All the cam mechanisms are composed atleast of 3 links .

 Cam
 Follower
 Frame which guides the follower

Procedure :
1. Cam analysis system consists of cam roller follower . Pull the rod and guides of pull rod .
2. Set the cam through 10 degree and note the projected length of the pull rod above the guide .
3. Calculate the life by subtracting each reading with initial reading .
Jumpspeed :
1. The cam is run at gradually increasing speed at which the follower jumps off .
2. The jump speed is observed for the different loads of follower .
 Tabulation
Linear displacement of the
Angular Follower in mm
Displacement of cams in Linear displacement of the follower in mm
degree Circular Arc Cam

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

220

240

260

280

300

320

340

360
Graph: TodrawangulardisplacementsofthecamVsthelineardisplacementsofthe
FollowerbygraphicalandPolarchart.
Result: Thus by measuring the follower lift cam profile was drawn and jumping speed was
observed for the different loads of follower.
Questions
1. Define unbalance.:
A disc cam produces unbalance because its mass is not symmetricalwith the axis of rotation

2. Define windup.
Twisting effect produced in the camshaft during the raise of heavy loadfollower is called as windup.

3. What are the effect and causes of windup?

The effect of windup will produce follower jump or float or impact.
Causes of windup are:
When heavy loads are moved by the follower,
When the follower moves at a high speed, and
When the shaft is flexible.

4. Flywheels are needed in forging and pressing operation?

In both forging and pressing operation, flywheels are required to control the variations in speed during each cycle
of an engine.

5. What is cam dynamics?

Cam dynamics is the study of cam follower system with considering the dynamicforces and torques
developed in it

6. How jump of the follower is reduced in cam follower system

In cam follower system the jump is reduced by using retaining spring

7. What is the remedy for camshaft windup?

Camshaft windup can be prevented to a large extend by mounting theflywheel as close as possible to the cam.

8. What is Spring surge

Spring surge means vibration of the retaining spring.

9. What are the types followers used in cam mechanism

Flat, Mushroom, roller
 6. EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF GYROSCOPIC COUPLE

Aim:
To determine the active and the reactive gyroscopic couples and compare them.
Apparatus required:
Gyroscopic, tachometer, variable voltage transformer, rotating disc with a light reflecting sticker
to scraboscope speed measurement.

Procedure:
1.The disc is made to rotate at a constant speed at a specific time using variable voltage transformer.

2.the speed of the disc(N) is measured using a scraboscope or tachometer.

3. a weight/mass is added on the extending platform attached to the disc .

4.this causes an active gyroscopic couple and the whole assembly (rotating disc, rotor and weight
platform with weight) is standing to move in a perpendicular plane to that of plane rotating disc. This
is called gyroscopic motion.

5.the time taken(t) to the transverse a specific angular displacement(Ø) is noted.

Formula used:

1. Mass moment of inertia of the disc(I)

I= md2/8

M-mass of disc

d-diameter of disc

2. Angular velocity of disc(ω)

ω =2∏N/60 rad/sec

N- speed of disc

3. Angular velocity of precession

ωp = (Ø/t)*( ∏/180) rad/sec

4. Reactive gyroscopic couple

Cr =IωωpNm
 5. Active gyroscopic couple

Ca=wL

w- weight added mg in N

L- Distance between centre of weight to the centre plane of disc.

Graph: between active and reactive and gyroscopic couples are obtained.

Active couple vs reactive couple

Weight added vs reactive couple

TABULATION:

S Speed Weight Angular Time for Angular Angular Active Reactive

no added displacement angle turned revolution velocity couple couple
of of disc (N/m)
M W (θ) (t) (N/m)
precession (r/s)
Kg (N) (r/s)

Result :

Thus the above characteristics curves are drawn in graph and the comparison between
active and reactive and gyroscopic couples are obtained.
Questions
1. What is the effect of gyroscopic couple on rolling of ship? Why?
We know that, for the effect of gyroscopic couple to occur, the axis of precession should always
be perpendicular to the axis of spin. In case of rolling of a ship, the axis of precession is alwaysparallel
to the axis of spin for all positions. Hence there is no effect of the gyroscopic couple acting on
the body of the ship[ during rolling.

2. What is the principle of inertia governors? In inertia governors, the balls are so arranged that the
inertia forces caused by an angular acceleration or retardation of the shaft tend to alter their
positions.

3. Define power of a governor? The power of a governor is the work done at the sleeve for a
given percentage change of speed. It is the product of the mean value of the effort and the
distance through which the sleeve moves. Power=Mean Effort Lift of sleeve

4. What is meant by isochronous condition in governors? A governor with zero range of speed
is known as an isochronous governor. Actually theisochronisms is the stake of Infinite
sensitivity.

5. Give the applications of gyroscopic principle. It is used:(i) In instrument or toy known as

gyroscope.(ii) In ships in order to minimize the rolling and pitching effects of waves, and(iii)
In aero planes, Monorail cars, gyrocompasses, etc.

6. What so you mean by governor effort? The mean force acting on the sleeve for a given
percentage change of speed for lift of the sleeve is known as the governor effect.

7. What is controlling force diagram? When the graph is drawn between the controlling force as
ordinate and radius of rotation of the balls as abscissa, the graph so obtained is called
controlling force diagram.

8. What is a gyroscope
Gyroscope is a spinning body rotating about its own axis and is able to move on other directions

9. What is meant by axis of precession

The spinning axis of a body will precess about an axis perpendicular axis when a moment is
applied on spinning body, this perpendicular axis is known as axis of precession.
 7. DETERMINATION OF MASS MOMENT OF INTERIA USING
TURN TABLE APPARATUS

AIM:

To determine angular velocity ,angular acceleration moment of inertia ,centrifugal force of turn
table.Experimental setup:

*rotary disc: 390mm dial×12 thick with central bush ,weight hanger

*motor: variable spur 0-800rpm,0-30VDC,compact 2.5amps mount vertically top plate and shaft is extended
on top

*control panel: it is combined panel and section at hours DC motor, inside meter /control comprises
following

*variac: 0-2A, 0-230v,heavy duty

*RPM meter: digital 0-9999rpm, led display

*fuse: 2A and main switch

*rectifier: bridge rectifier

*sliding weight: it is mount on 2set,2 brackets one side

*weights: 3numbers for each side

*dial weights: 1NO

OBSERVATION:

(DISC) axial load W: 0.1kg

FORMULA:

Initial velocity v1= D1N/60

D1=2r1

Final velocity v2= πD2N/60

D2= 2r2

Angular acceleration = (r2v2-r1v1)/t m./sq.sec

Centrifugal force f= [ m(v2)²]/v2

Moment of inertia I= m×(v2)² kgm²

V2= final velocity v1= initial velocity M=mass of disc with weight added

PROCEDURE:

1. Weight were added on each side of table.

2. Switched on the motor to turn the table.
3. The voltage 24 volts was set on the voltage regulation
4. Time taken for the sliding of weight is measured by stopwatch.
5. Speed of disc is measured by tachometer.
6. Step 3,4,5, were repeated for adding move masses on each side.

TABULATION:

Weight Weight Speed of Time Moment Angular C.F=MV2²/V2

added Of a the taken of Accerlation (N)
on disc disc(rpm) In R1 V1 R2 V2 inertia R2v2-
each (m+2m) changing m/s m/s (kgm²) r1v1/t
side(m) position(t)
In kg sec (Rad/s)

RESULT:

Thus the angular velocity ,angular acceleration mass moment of inertia centrifugal force of
theturn table are observed and calculated.
Questions
1. Define linear momentum
Linear momentum= mv
m- mass of the body
v- velocity of the body
2. Define angular momentum
Angular momentum= Iw
I- Moment of Inertia
w- Angular velocity of the body
3. What is mass moment of Inertia
Second moment about an axis due to mass is termed as Mass moment of Inertia
4. Significant of mass moment of inertia
Mass moment of inertia of a body will resist rotational effects
5. What is area moment of inertia
Second moment about an axis due to area is termed as area moment of inertia
6. Significant of area moment of inertia
Area moment of inertia of a plane will resist bending effects
7. What is general plane motion
The motion which has both the effect of translation as well as rotation
8. What are the types of motion
Rectilinear motion, curve linear motion, pure rotation, General plane motion
9. Give examples for general plane motion
The motion of connecting rod in a reciprocation mechanism, The motion of rope over a
cylindrical pulley
10. Define Inertia force
It’s a property of matter by virtue of which a body resist any change in velocity.
 8. DETERMINATION OF RADIUS OF GYRATION USING
BIFILAR SUSPENSION
AIM:

To determine the radius of gyration and the moment of inertia of a given rectangular plate.
APPARATUS USED:
1. Main frame
2. Bifilar plane
3. Weight
4. Stop watch
FORMULA:
Time period T=t/n

Natural Frequency fn =1/T

Radius of gyration K=T/2π in mm

a- distance of string from Centre of Gravity

T-Time period

L-Length of spring
N-No of oscillation
t- time taken for N oscillations

Fexp=1/T (HZ)

Fth= 1/2π( K2th

Kth=L/2

a=13.5cm a=13.5*10-2m
PROCEDURE:
1. Select the bifilar plane.

2. With the help of chuck tighter the spring at the top.

3.Adjust the length of spring to desired valve.

4. Give a small horizontal displacement about vertical axis.

5. Start the stop watch and note down the time required for N-oscillation.

6. Repeat the experiment by adding weight and also by changing the length of the spring.

7.Do the model calculation.

S.N Length of Time taken Mean Time Fexp= Experimental Theoritical Fth
O spring for 10 time(t) period 1/T Kexp(COG) radius of (Hz)
oscillation (m) gyration
(m) (s) (sec) (T=t/n) Kth(m)

RESULT:
Thus radius of gyration and moment of inertia are calculated by using Bifilar suspension.
Questions
1. Define logarithmic decrement. Logarithmic decrement is defined as the natural logarithm of the
amplitude reduction factor. The amplitude reduction factor is the ratio of any two successive
amplitudes on the same side of the mean position.

2. Specify the importance of vibration isolation? When an unbalanced machine is installed on the
foundation, it produces vibration in the foundation. So, in order to prevent these vibrations or to
minimize the transmission of forces tothe foundation, vibration isolation is important.

3. What are the functions of Governor? The function of a governor is to maintain the speed of an
engine within specified limits whenever there is a variation of load. Governors control the throttle
valve and hence the fuel supply to carter the load variation on engines.

4.How governors are classified?1. Centrifugal governors.(a) Pendulum type: Example: Watt
governor(b) Gravity controlled type: Example: Porter and proell governors) Spring controlled type:
Example:Harnell and Hartung governors

5.Differentiate between governor and flywheel?

governor is provided on prime movers such as engines and turbines It is provided on engine and fabricating
machines rolling mills, punching machines, shear machines, presses etc.flywheel works
intermittently, i.e., only when there is change in load. It works continuously from cycle to cycle.

6. What is meant by sensitiveness of governors?

The sensitiveness is defined as the ratio of the mean speed to the difference between the maximum
and minimum speeds. A governor is said to be sensitive, when it really toa small change of speed.

7. What is gyroscopic torque?

Whenever a rotating body changes its axis of rotation, a torque is applied on the rotating body.
State different method of finding natural frequency of a system.1. Equilibrium method,2. Energy
method,3. Rayleigh method.

8 What is meant by free vibration and forced vibration? Free (or) natural vibration: When no external
force acts on the body, after giving it an initial displacement, then the body is to said to be Free (or) natural
vibration Forced Vibration: When the body vibrates under the influences of external forces, then the
body is said to be under Forced vibration.

9. Define resonance.
When the frequency of external forces is equal frequency of a vibrating body, the amplitude of
vibration becomes excessively large. This phenomenon is known

10. What is meant by degrees of freedom in a vibrating system?

The number of independent coordinate required to completely define the motion of a system is known as degree
of freedom of the system
 9. TRANSVERSE VIBRATION OF FREE BEAM SETUP

AIM:
To study transverse vibration of a beam subjected to uniform load and concentrated load. The setup
is as follows.

Main Frame;

Turnion: 2 brackets of turnion bearing with slots to insert at approx 1metre apart

Weighs; 100 gms * 5nos

Specification:

Length of beam = 1300mm

Width of beam =25mm

Weight of beam =1.6 kg

Procedure:

1. fit beam into both the slots of turnion bearing and tighten them rigidly

2. add weights, either concentrated at center or uniformly

3. Give a swing to beam

$. Note down the time required for 5 oscillation.

5. repeat experiments for different weights

6. Change the position of weights

7. repeat the experiments

8.Find out the deflection for different weights

FORMULA:

1. Theoritical frequency Fth= 0.4985/

W-Weight applied
 L= length of beam

E= 200x10^9N/m^2

I= bh^3/12

b- breadth of beam

H- thickness of beam

w- weight of beam = bhl x p x g = 1.6kg

c-density of beam material = 8000kg/m^3

b,h- breadth & thickness beam g= 9.81 m/s^2

Time period T = Time taken/no.of. oscillation

Experimental frequency Fexp =1/T

OBSERVATION
length of beam = 109cm

breadth of beam =2.5cm

thickness of beam =0.5cm

TABULATION :
sl.no. weight Time mean Time Experimental Deflection Theoritical frequency
added taken for time period frequency Fth=
gm n=5 (t) T=t/n Fexp =1/T Measured 0.4985/
oscillation actual

Result

Thus the transverse vibration of the beam subjected to uniform and concentrated load is studied
Questions
1. What are the causes and effect of vibration?The causes of vibration are unbalanced forces, elastic
nature of the system, selfexcitation, wind and earthquakes.The existence of vibration elements in any
mechanical system produces unwantednoise, high stress, poor reliability and premature failure of one or more of
the parts.

2. Define frequency, cycle, period.Frequency: It is the number of cycles described in one

secondCycle: It is defined as the motion completed during one time periodPeriod: It is the time interval after
which the motion the motion is repeat itself.
2. Define free vibration.
Free vibrations: if the periodic motion continues after the causes of original disturbance is removed,
then the body is said to be under free vibrations.

3. What are the different types of vibrations?

1. Free vibrations,2. Forced vibrations,
3. Damped vibrations.

4. State different method of finding natural frequency of a system.1. Equilibrium method,2. Energy
method,3. Rayleigh method.

5. What is meant by free vibration and forced vibration? Free (or) natural vibration: When no external
force acts on the body, after giving it an initial displacement, then the body is to said to be Free (or) natural
vibration Forced Vibration: When the body vibrates under the influences of external forces, then the
body is said to be under Forced vibration.

6. Define resonance.
When the frequency of external forces is equal frequency of a vibrating body, the amplitude of
vibration becomes excessively large. This phenomenon is known as resonance.

7. What is meant by degrees of freedom in a vibrating system? The number of independent coordinate required to
completely define the motion of a system is known as degree of freedom of the system.
8. What is the natural frequency of simple spring mass system?
Natural Frequency, fn=1/2π
√

S=Stiffness of the spring M= Mass of the body suspended from the spring,
δ = Static deflection of the spring due to the weight.

9. Give examples for the desirable effects of vibration

Alarms, toys

10. What type of dampers are provided in two wheelers?

Viscous damping
 10. DETERMINE NATURAL FREQUENCY OF TORSIONAL VIBRATION IN TWO
ROTOR SYSTEM

AIM:
To determine period and frequency of turned vibration of two rotor system and compare it with
theoretical value.

APPRATUS REQUIRED:

Shaft, measuring tape, stopwatch, chuck key, weight

FORMULA:

Time period T= t/n (sec)

n- no of oscillation

Natural frequency fn: 1/T (HZ)

Theoretical frequency :Fth= 1/2π√GJ/IaLa

G- modulus of rigidity (24×10⁹ n/m²)

J- polar moment of inertia πd⁴/32 mm⁴

Ia- ma d²/8

Ib- mb d²/8

L= la+lb

L= Ia/Ib× La+Lb

PROCEDURE:

1. Fix the disc A and B to the shaft and fix it shaft in bearing.
2. Deflect the disc A+B in opposite direction
3. Notedown the time acquired for N=5 osscilation
4. Fit the cross to the disc
5. Repeat the procedure
TABULATION:

Weight Time for Time Experimental Moment Moment Distance Distance Theoretical
of disc oscillation perio natural of of inertia of node of node frequency
(kg) (sec) d frequency inertia of disc B disc A of
T=t/n Fn(HZ) Disc A (Ib) La(m) disc(ῳ)
(Ia) La(m)

RESULT:

Thus the period and frequency of torsional vibration of two rotor system is determined
Questions
1. What is node in a multi rotor system
Node is section at which the shaft will not undergo any twist
2. Define torsional equivalent shaft
A shaft having variable diameter for different lengths can be replaced by an equivalent uniform
dia such that they have same total angle of twist when equal opposing torques are applied.
3. What are the conditions to be satisfied for an equivalent system that of geared system in
torsional vibrations
1. the kinetic energy of the equivalent system must be equal to the kinetic energy of the original
system.
2. the strain energy of the equivalent system must be equal to the strain energy of the original
system.

4. What is the relation between damped and undamped vibration

Undamped frequency=(1-E2)damped frequency
E- Damping factor
5. Define free vibration.
Free vibrations: if the periodic motion continues after the causes of original disturbance is
removed, then the body is said to be under free vibrations.

6. What is meant by free vibration and forced vibration? Free (or) natural vibration: When no
external force acts on the body, after giving it an initial displacement, then the body is to said to be
Free (or) natural vibration Forced Vibration: When the body vibrates under the influences of
external forces, then the body is said to be under Forced vibration.

7. Define resonance.
When the frequency of external forces is equal frequency of a vibrating body, the amplitude of
vibration becomes excessively large. This phenomenon is known as resonance.

8. What type of motion is exhibited by a vibrating system when it is critically damped? A periodic
motion is exhibited

9. What is the limit beyond which damping is detrimental and why?

When the damping factor £=1.the aperiodic motion is resulted .That is ,aperiodicmotion means
the system cannot vibrate due to over damping. Once the system isdisturbed, it will take infinite time
to come back to equilibrium.

10. Differentiate between transverse and torsional vibrations.

In transverse vibration, the particles of the shaft approximately perpendicular tothe the axis
of the shaft.Due to transverse vibration, tensile and compressive stresses are induced
Due to torsional vibration, torsional shear stresses are induced in the shaft.
 11.DETERMINATION OF WHIRILING OF SHAFT
AIM:
To study the winding of shaft and to determine the critical speed of the shaft

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Meter scale

Whirling of the shaft set ups

DESCRIPTION:

The speed at which the shaft runs so that the additional deflection of shaft from the axis of rotation
becomes infinite is known as critical speed. Normally the shaft will always displacement from axis
of rotation although the amount of displacement may be very small as a radius of shaft rotates.

FORMULA USED:

Critical speed of the shaft (radian)

where,

g = 9.81 m/s² (acceleration due to gravity)

δ = 5wl^4/384EI (deflection)
Young‟s modulus, E (for stainless steel) = 1.8 x 1011 N/ m2
E = 200*10^9 N/m^2(Steel)(young’s modulus)

I = π/64 (D^4) ----- Intertia ,ρ = 8000 kg /m^3

Mass=ρ*area*L, Area=π/4 *D2*L

W=Mass*9.81/length

Fn= √5×g/384δ

V = π/4×d²l

Theoretical whirling speed, Nctheo = {0.4985 / [sqrt (δs / 1.27)]} x60

NC=60×Fn
 OBSERVATION:
Young‟s modulus, E (for stainless steel) = 1.8 x 1011 N/ m2
Length of the shaft, L = 1 m
Shaft 1 (stainless steel) Shaft 2 (stainless steel)
m1 = 0.075 kg, m2 = 0.085 kg, m3 = 0.150 kg
d1 = 0.003 m
d2 = 0.004 m
d3 = 0.008 m

GRAPH:

Deflection vs critical speed

PROCEDURE:
1. Take the given rod specimen rod and fix it in the chuck.
2. Using various speed measure the deflection of the rod in mm.
3. Tabulate the reading for different speed and note down the deflection.
4. Calculate the critical speed by using given formula.

TABULATION:
Diameter of Distance Deflection Speed Critical speed Theoretical
the shaft between δ observed Critical speed
(cm) chuck & free
end
(cm)

RESULT:

Thus the critical speed of the shaft has been obtained.

Questions

1 .What is the limit beyond which damping is detrimental and why?

When the damping factor £=1.the aperiodic motion is resulted, a periodic motion means the system
cannot vibrate due to over damping. Once the system is disturbed, it will take infinite time to come back to
equilibrium.

2. What is meant by critical damping? The system is said to be critically damped when the damping
factor £=1.If then system is critically damped, the mass moves back very quickly to its equilibrium
position within no time.

3. What type of motion is exhibited by a vibrating system when it is critically damped? A periodic motion is
exhibited

4. Define critical or whirling speed. The speed at which resonance occurs is called critical speed of the shaft.
In other words ,the speed at which the shaft runs so that the additional deflection of the shaft from the axis
of the rotation becomes infinite ,is known as critical speed.

5. What are the factors that affect the critical speed of a shaft? The critical speed essential depends
on;The eccentricity of the C.G.of the rotating masses from the axis of rotation of the shaft.
Diameter of the disc
Span (Length) of the shaft,
Type of supports connections at its ends.

6. What are the causes of critical speed? The Critical Speed occurs due to the one or more following reasons:1.
Eccentricity mounting like gear, flywheel, pulleys, etc2. Bending of the shaft due to own weight3.
Non-uniform distribution of the rotor material,etc

7. Differentiate between transverse and torsional vibrations.

In transverse vibration, the particles of the shaft approximately perpendicular to the the axis of the
shaft.Due to transverse vibration, tensile and compressive stresses are induced
Due to torsional vibration, torsional shear stresses are induced in the shaft.

8. What are the causes and effect of vibration? The causes of vibration are unbalanced forces, elastic
nature of the system, self excitation, wind and earthquakes. The existence of vibration elements in any
mechanical system produces unwanted noise, high stress, poor reliability and premature failure of one or more of
the parts.

9. Define frequency, cycle, period. Frequency: It is the number of cycles described in one second
Cycle: It is defined as the motion completed during one time period
Period: It is the time interval after which the motion the motion is repeat itself.

10. Define free vibration.

Free vibrations: if the periodic motion continues after the causes of original disturbance is removed,
then the body is said to be under free vibrations.
 12. FREE VIBRATION OF SPRING MASS SYSTEM

AIM:
To determine the natural frequency of spring mass system.

Appratus required:
1. Spring mass setup
2. Masses
3. Stop watch
4. Scale
Experimental setup:
Spring mass system is a setup used to determine the experimental frequency. The body whose
frequency is to be determined is suspended by two springs. When the body is moved througha small
distance along a vertical axis through the centre of gravity, it will acclelerate in a vertical plane, then
by taking the following readings with the single mass system we can determine the frequency of a
body.

Formula
1. Time period Tp=n/t
n- no of oscillations
t- time taken
2. Natural frequency Fn= 1/ Tp
3. Theoritical frequency Fn=1/2π√ k/m
k-Stiffness of spring= load /deflection N/m
m- mass suspended

Procedure
1. Take the reading for free vibration by manual jerk
2. Note down the time period
3. Now switch on the motor
4. Regulate the required speed
5. Take the reading for forced vibration.
 Tabulation

Mass Length of the Deflection Time Experimental Theoretical

Sl Spring L Stiffness Timefor10
added (mm) periodfor natural natural
(mm) oscillation
no M k (N/m) one tp frequency, frequency
T(sec)
(kg) Initial Final Initial Final (sec) f n(exp), Hz fn(the), Hz

Graph:
Load vs Deflection
Load vs Theoretical natural frequency

Load vs Experimental natural frequency

Result:
Thus the Natural frequency of the spring mass system is found out.

Questions
1. Determine the natural frequency of mass of 10kgsuspended at the bottom of two springs (of
stiffness: 5N/mm and 8N/mm) in parallel.
Natural Frequency ,fn=1/2π√ k/m
fn=1/2π√ 13/10 =.74 Hz
2. What is the effect of inertia on the shaft in longitudinal and transverse vibrations? In longitudinal vibrations,
he inertia effect of the shaft is equal to the that of a mass one third of the mass of the shaft concentrated
at its free end.11. State the expression for the frequency of simple pendulum. Natural Frequency, fn
=1/2π√ k/m

Where L = Length of the string.

3.Give the expression for natural frequency of water, which oscillates in a „U‟tube
manometer?
Natural Frequency, fn =1/2π√ g/L
Where L = Column length of the liquid.

4. What are the different types of damping?

Viscous damping,
Coulomb or dry friction damping
Solid or structural damping
Slip or interfacial damping

5. What is meant by Dynamic magnifier

It is the ratio of maximum displacement of forced vibration to the deflection due to the static
force.
1. What is the equivalent stiffness when two springs are in series and are in parallel
In series Seq= 1/s1+1/ s2
In parallel Seq= s1+ s2

7. How the mass moment of inertia is related with natural frequency of the system

fn=1/2π√ s/m
I= mk2
m- Mass of the body
s- stiffness of spring
k- radius of gyration

8. What is amplitude of vibration

Maximum displacement of vibrating body from the mean position.
9. Define Natural frequency
Frequency of free vibration of the system
10. What is longitudinal vibrations
When the particles of the shaft or disc moves parallel to the axis of the shaft then the vibrations are
known as longitudinal vibrations.
 13. DETERMINE NATURAL FREQUENCY OF TORSIONAL VIBRATION IN
SINGLE ROTOR SYSTEM
Date:
Aim
to determine the natural frequency of torsional vibration in single rotor system .

Appratus required
1. Single rotor set up
2. Steel rule
3. Stop watch
4. Chuck key.

Procedure:
1. Length of the shaft is adjusted by loosening the chuck using chuck key and the length of the
shat is measured.
2. The rotor is deflected in angular direction
3. The time taken for 5 oscillations are noted
4. Three trials are made and the reading are noted.
5. For different lengths of shaft by adjusting length of shaft, the readings are noted
6. The above procedure is repeated for various shaft material.
Formula:
1. Natural frequency of the shaft Fn=1/2π√GJ/Il
G-Modulus of rigidity= 2x109
Polar moment of inertia J=πd4/32
Torsional stiffness =GJ/2
T theo =2π√ I/Kt

Length Of
Sr. Shaft No. of oscillation Time K Tth Texp Fnth Fnexp
No.

10mm

Steel 20mm
30mm
10mm

Copper 20mm
30mm

Result:

The natural frequency of the torsional vibration in single rotorsystemis -------------------------------------------------------- Hz

 14.UNIVERSAL GOVERNOR APPARATUS
AIM:

To determine the radius of rotation, Centrifugal force, Sensitivity, effort, power and draw the
characteristics Curves of Watt, Porter, Proell and Hartnell governor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Proell,Porter and Hartnell Governor

Digital Electronic Control Unit
Tachometer
FORMULA:

Where,

Governor Height (h) = ho – X/2 (mm)

Radius of Rotation (r) = √l 2-h (mm)
Centrifugal Force (f)= mω2r (N)
Sensitivity (s) = 2(N2-N1)/(N2+N1)
Percentage Increase in Speed (c) = (N2-N1)/ N1×100
Governor Effort (e) = [c(m+M)g] (N)
Governor Power (p) = ex (N-mm)

N2, N1 are maximum and minimum speed respectively

x= Sleeve displacement, m=mass of the ball in kg, r=radius of rotation

DESCRIPTION:

The drive unit consists of a DC electronic motor connected through belt and pulley
arrangement. Motor and test set up mounted on a M.S fabricated fram.The governor spindle is driven
by motor through V-belt and is supported in a ball bearing.

The optional governor mechanism can be mounted on spindle. Digital speed is controlled by
the electronic control unit. A rpm indicate with sensor is to determine the speed. A graduated scale is
fixed to the sleeved and guided in vertical direction.
 The centre sleeve of the porter, proell and Hartnell governors incorporates a weight sleeve to
which weights may be added.
 14A Determination of Range Sensitivity, Effort Etc., for Watts Governor
DIAGRAMATICAL REPRESENTATION OF WATT GOVERNOR:

TABULATION:

Height of Radius of
Sleeve the Speed rotation Centrifugal Sensitivity (s) Effort Power (P)
S.No Displacement Governor (N) (r) force ‘F’ (e) ‘N’ ‘Nmm’
(X) ‘mm’ (h) ‘mm’ ‘rpm’ ‘mm’
 14B Determination Of Range Sensitivity, Effort Etc., for porter Governor

DIAGRAMATICAL REPRESENTATION OF PORTER GOVERNOR

Sleeve Height of Speed Radius (r) Power (P)

Displacement the (N)
S.No Governor ‘mm’ Centrifugal Sensitivity (s) Effort ‘Nmm’
(X) ‘mm’ ‘rpm’ force ‘N’
(h) ‘mm’ (e) ‘N’
Graph:
Speed Vs

Sleeve

Displaceme

nt

Centrifugal
 Force Vs

Radius of

Rotation

Questions

1. What are the functions of Governor?

The function of a governor is to maintain the speed of an engine within specified limits
whenever there is a variation of load. Governors control the throttle valve and hence the fuel
supply to carter the load variation on engines.

2. How governors are classified?

1. Centrifugal governors.(a) Pendulum type: Example: Watt governor(b) Gravity controlled
type: Example: Porter and proell governors) Spring controlled type: Example: Harnell and
Hartung governors

3. Differentiate between governor and flywheel?

governor is provided on prime movers such as engines and turbines It is provided on engine
and fabricating machines rolling mills, punching machines, shear machines, presses etc.
flywheel works intermittently, i.e., only when there is change in load. It works continuously
from cycle to cycle.

4. What is meant by sensitiveness of governors?

The sensitiveness is defined as the ratio of the mean speed to the difference between the
maximum and minimum speeds. A governor is said to be sensitive, when it really to a small
change of speed.

5. What is gyroscopic torque?

Whenever a rotating body changes its axis of rotation, a torque is applied on the rotating
body.
6. What is the effect of friction on the governor
The effect of friction on the governor is to increase the range of speed, governor effort and
power of governor

7. What is stability of governor? Governor is stable if there is only one radius of rotation for all
equilibrium speeds of balls within the working range

8. What is controlling force in a governor?

Centripetal
force acting on the flyballs is known as controlling force of a governors

9. What is meant by hunting of governor.

The phenomenon of continuous fluctuation of engine speed above and below the mean speed
is termed as hunting.
10. What is meant by isochrnous governors
A governor with zero range of speed is known as isochronous governor. It is the stage of
infinite sensitivity.