Darfur Sudan in The Age of Stone Architecture C Ad 1000 1750 Problems in Historical Reconstruction Andrew James Mcgregor PDF Download
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The World And Darfur International Response To Crimes Against Humanity
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Sudan South Sudan And Darfur What Everyone Needs To Know Andrew S
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Sahara And Sudan Vol 4 Sahara And Sudan Iv Wadai And Darfur Translated
From The Original German Reprint 2019 Allan G B Fisher Humphrey J
Fisher Rex S Ofahey
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BAR S1006 2001
Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology
53
Series Editor: John Alexander
Assistant Editor: Laurence Smith
Darfur (Sudan)
in the Age of Stone Architecture
Darfur (Sudan)
in the Age of Stone Architecture
c. AD 1000 - 1750
Problems in historical reconstruction
BAR
PUBLISHING
Sultanate of Darfur
Table of Contents
1 Introduction 1-2
2 Geography of Darfur 3-4
3 Historiography of Darfur 5-9
4 Oral tradition as a tool in reconstructing Darfur history 10-15
5 The Tora: Mysterious founders of Darfur civilization 16-21
6 The Daju dynasty: origins and historical outline 22-30
7 Daju sites in Darfur 31-39
8 Daju King-lists 40-42
9 Historical outline of the Tunjur kingdom 43-56
10 Tunjur sites in Darfur 57-74
11 The Tunjur: evidence from the south ? 75-76
12 Tunjur sites in Wadai 77-80
13 Tunjur King-lists 81-85
14 Historical outline of the Kayra Fur kingdom 86-90
15 Kayra Fur sites in Darfur 91-97
16 Fur King-lists from Darfur and Kordofan 98-104
17 Correspondences in the Fur king-lists prior to the reign of Sulayman Solong 105-109
18 The ‘Gaoga’ controversy 110-112
19 The Meroitic hypothesis and the African Iron Age 113-115
20 The Meidob hills: The history and archaeology of an isolated culture 116-121
21 Zankor, Abu Sufyan, and the legend of the ‘Anaj 122-131
22 Christianity in Chad ? 132-138
23 Conclusion 139-140
Bibliography: a) Books and periodicals 141-154
b) Archival sources 154
iii
Plates
iv
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my parents, Mr. and Mrs. John and Luciel McGregor, and my sister Suanne
McGregor for their assistance and support, without which this work would not have been possible.
I am indebted to Dr. John Alexander, senior editor of the Cambridge Monographs in African
Archaeology series, and Dr. David Davison for enabling the publication of this work.
In Devon, England, I would like to thank Mr. HG Balfour Paul for his interest, hospitality and access to
his unpublished archaeological field-notes from the early 1950’s.
In the Sudan, I would like to thank all those who facilitated my work or acted as informants. Prominent
among these must be mentioned Mr. Salah Omer Sadiq of the Sudan National Museum, Mr. William Wol,
Mr. Enock Majok Matweny, Mr. Peter de Kuch, and Mr. Albino John Latu.
From the national headquarters of the Canadian Institute of International Affairs I would like to express
my appreciation to Ms. Jennifer McNenly, CIIA Librarian, for her assistance and technical support, as
well as to all my other colleagues at the CIIA who have offered their support through the years.
Special mention must be made of the invaluable help offered by Ms. Maria da Mota, secretary of the
Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations, University of Toronto, as well as the staff of the
Robarts Library Inter-Library Loan department, who never failed to find the most obscure requests.
Thanks must also be made to the University of Toronto School of Graduate Studies for the award of a
Dissertation Fellowship, which assisted greatly in the completion of this project.
The present work is a revised version of my doctoral thesis, and it is appropriate to here acknowledge the
contribution of the members of my examining committee, Prof. K Grzymski (supervisor), Dr. NB Millet,
and Prof. J Boddy, as well as the Graduate Co-ordinator of the Department of Near and Middle Eastern
Studies, Prof. L Northrup. Thanks are also due to Joanne Lynes of the Ontario Institute for Studies in
Education, Toronto.
v
1. Introduction
The old sultanate of Darfur (in the western part of modern investigation. The existing literature will be examined in
Sudan) together with its neighbour and rival, the sultanate depth in an effort to separate fiction from fact, and to
of Wadai (modern east Chad) and a handful of petty border suggest the most promising avenues for further research.1
sultanates were among the last parts of Africa to fall to the
forces of European colonialism, holding out until the early My own research in and about Darfur began with a reading
part of the twentieth century. These sultanates were of Slatin Pasha’s Fire and Sword in the Sudan (1895-6),
centered around a type of divine kingship, and life within fortunately in the first edition, which contained a historical
the kingdoms was focused around an elaborate ritual cycle, summary of Darfur that was excised from later editions. As
rich in Islamic tradition and pre-Islamic survivals. The a student of Nubian archaeology with field experience in
legitimacy of the sultanates was based on their great the Sudan, I was quickly intrigued by the mysterious
antiquity, witnessed by a multitude of stone monuments dynasties of the old sultanate. As I examined the literature
and abandoned cities. The testimony of these ruins was regarding Darfur it became apparent that the meager
enveloped by local traditions in Darfur which provided an primary literature had been supplemented by a mass of
assortment of myth, legend and historical evidence that secondary literature consisting of unrestrained speculation,
spoke of a succession of dominant cultures, beginning with often of a diffusionist and frequently contradictory nature.
the shadowy Tora, typically described as a race of ‘white There was little in the way of scientific archaeological
giants’ who came from the north. Following this group work done in the region before the 1980’s, the finds were
were the Daju, an important and aggressive group poorly recorded, and the evidence used to support often
mentioned by Arab geographers of the 12th century AD. far-fetched theories. Colonial boundaries had also served
By the fifteenth century the Daju had been displaced by the in distorting the literature, as there had been little co-
Tunjur, a warrior group of possible Berber/Banu Hilal operation between French and British archaeologists in the
origins. Power began to shift in the late 16th and early 17th region, working independently of each other on their own
centuries to the indigenous Fur, who established an Islamic sides of the Chad/Sudan border. As in many parts of
state that survived until 1916. It would be false, however, Africa, the artificial colonial divides had deprived
to regard any of these states as homogeneous creations; historical investigations of a regional context that reflected
each of them consisted of a multi-ethnic empire in which historical realities in an often cosmopolitan pre-colonial
intermarriage and conquest drew people from every Africa.
constituent group into a larger society in which
advancement to all levels of administration short of the Though it is clear that Darfur badly needs a programme of
sultanship was open to enterprising individuals of most archaeological surveys and excavations, it seemed obvious
ethnic groups. to me that it was nearly impossible to move forward
without first laying out some sort of reliable groundwork
The lateness of the conquest offered interested colonial from the mass of conflicting evidence and commentaries.
administrators an opportunity to study first-hand a culture Fieldwork cannot exist in a vacuum, but must eventually
that was still rich in its own traditions and rituals, both be measured against the available historical records and
through physical isolation and a jealously guarded political existing oral traditons. There had not, however, been any
independence that bordered on xenophobia at times. Such attempt to examine the traditions, personal accounts and
efforts were, however, scattered and unsystematic, due to archaeological records in a single work, a necessary first
the absence of any official program to study and record the step towards profitable fieldwork. With an unsuitable and
traditions and ruins of the region. Those engaged in these outdated base for further studies, it was necessary to go
efforts were rarely trained in anthropology or archaeology, back to the original sources and critically examine the raw
and the literature they produced was quickly filled with a evidence without the biases of its later interpreters.
bewildering combination of observation, supposition and
personal bias. In this atmosphere certain voices came to be Two major sources were available for this purpose, the
regarded as authoritative by consensus, despite often underused archival papers of Dr. AJ Arkell (held at the
critical weaknesses in their work. School of Oriental and African Studies, London), and the
unpublished field-notes of Mr. HG Balfour Paul (retained
Proper archaeological work has yet to begin in Darfur and by him at his home in Devon, England). The Arkell Papers
a full study of the known physical evidence with the were examined in 1995 and again in 1997, at which time I
associated traditions has yet to be completed. The state of also visited Mr. Balfour Paul to examine his field-notes.
the current body of literature, in which hypothesis is Also of use were the intelligence records of the 1916
frequently presented as fact, is an unsatisfactory base for Darfur Field Force, held at the Sudan Government
further studies. The present work has been written in the
belief that a study of the physical evidence, linguistic 1
The extensive ritual cycle practiced in the Fur sultanate, as well as many
evidence, and oral traditions that takes into consideration other aspects of the complex social life of the sultanate’s inhabitants are
the regional context, would be of great value in treated in detail in O’Fahey’s State and Society in Darfur (1980), and will
establishing a framework for further archaeological not be dealt with at length in the present work, which will instead focus
on the material remains in Darfur and their regional context.
1
Andrew James McGregor
Notes:
1) Square brackets within quotations indicate an
insertion by the author
2) The sites examined comprise a selective, rather than
comprehensive list
2
2. Geography of Darfur
Forming the western province of the modern Republic of than at present.4 Low sandstone hills may be found both to
the Sudan, the region of Darfur corresponds roughly to the the east and west of the Marra range.
limits of the old independent Sultanate of Darfur at the
time of its incorporation into the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan Northern Darfur is a relatively dry area, receiving about
Condominium in 1916. With readjustments to the 25cm of rain a year at most. The steppes are broken in
Darfur/Wadai border by the French and British in the places by wadi-s with periodic water flows. The area is
1920’s following their conquest of the small border largely preferred by nomads, especially in the range
sultanates during the Great War,1 and the addition of a between 16° to 17°N. This region, known as the jizzu, is
large quantity of desert to the north in 1952, the present usually covered with succulent plants from the time of the
area of Darfur is approximately 193,000 square miles.2 The autumn rains up until January or even February, providing
people of Darfur are greatly varied in origin, speaking at excellent grazing for the nomads’ herds. The western and
least twelve major languages, with numerous dialects. southern areas of Darfur are generally better watered,
They fall generally within one of three types; sedentary receiving enough rain to grow crops such as cotton (which
indigenous groups, nomadic or semi-nomadic non-Arab in woven form became a major form of currency in the
groups, and the nomadic or semi-nomadic Arab groups, sultanate), tobacco, cucumbers, pumpkins and melons.
who keep camels in the north and cattle in the south.3 During the rainy season and shortly afterwards shallow
wells dug in the wadi-s provide sufficient water for crops
Darfur has historically been regarded as an isolated area and animals. In the southern reaches of Darfur the seasonal
due to the vast desert to the north, the dry sandy hills along wadi-s drain into the Shari river in the west and south-
the Kordofan border to the east, and the tsetse fly ridden west, and into the Bahr al-Arab in the south. The southern
marshes to the south. Darfur is most closely connected to part of Darfur consists largely of a clay plain covered with
the west, though political antagonism with the thick bush, and forms the homeland of the nomadic cattle-
neighbouring sultanate of Wadai frequently served to limit owning Baqqara Arabs.
interaction with this area. The border sultanates of Dar
Tama, Dar Qimr, Dar Sila and Dar Masalit have To the east of Jebel Marra is the vast Qoz region of
historically resisted rule from either Wadai or Darfur, with undulating sand-dunes which stretches across Kordofan to
varying degrees of success. the White Nile. An annual rainfall of approximately 27 cm
annually provides just enough water to support a mostly
Most of Darfur consists of vast plains, undulating in the sedentary agricultural population. Grasses and herbs are
west, and fairly level in the east, where flat-topped usually sufficient to support a number of animals, but with
inselbergs occasionally rise 100-200m above the plain. only one significant wadi in the area (the Wadi Ku) a
The most prominent feature is the Jebel Marra mountain certain inventiveness has been necessary to provide enough
range, a series of volcanic hills that rise up to 3000m above water for the population. To this end deep wells,
the plain. The range is composed mostly of basalt with cultivation of melons, and the hollowing out of the huge
some amounts of phonolite and trachyte. The range is not tebeldi trees (Adansonia digitata) that dot the landscape for
vast, measuring only 50 km east to west and 110 km north water storage are all employed to provide sufficient water
to south, but maintains an immense importance in the year-round.5 A certain security was always provided to
region as it dominates the drainage of the area as the Darfur by the difficulty of finding enough water to support
dividing point between the Nile and Chad basins and is the movement of large numbers of men and animals
regarded as the ancestral homeland of the Fur people who westwards from Kordofan to Jebel Marra. The 1916
succeeded in unifying and ruling the entire Darfur region. Anglo-Egyptian expedition of the Western Field Force
The main crater of this volcanic eruption is in the south- came very close to disaster before a single shot had been
west corner of the Jebel Marra range and contains two fired when it was discovered that many of the wells could
lakes (which will be discusssed in detail below in the not possibly provide enough water for both men and
section on Daju sites in Darfur). The mountains receive up animals. Food was also in short supply, and to some degree
to 75 cm of rain each year which is fully adequate to the expedition was saved by the discovery of a field of
support agriculture in the range. The mountain-sides are onions, which led to a three-day onion feast. The greatest
extensively terraced to prevent soil erosion and to support
irrigation. The large number of unused terraces suggests
4
that Jebel Marra once supported a much larger population Hale (1969)
5
‘The stem of these is hollow by nature, and the hollow it contains can
easily be enlarged into a cavity of considerable capacity. During the rains
water is hauled up from a reservoir dug at the base of the tree in which it
collects, and poured into the hollow stem through a hole cut near the top
of the main bole, and as soon as the tree is filled it is sealed up. When
1
See J Tubiana (1981), pp.113-28; and Grossard (1925). water is required for use it is drawn up out of the hollow stem with a skin
2
Sources for the geography of Darfur include Barbour (1954), pp.172-82, bucket. In a sandy region where there are no wells, Tebeldi trees are of
Barbour (1961), pp.148-58, Theobald (1965), pp.1-11 great value. They grow to a great age, and in some cases have been
3
For the movements of the nomadic groups in Darfur, see fig.58, Barbour known to hold as much as 3000 gallons of water’ (Sarsfield Hall, 1922,
(1961). pp.362-3).
3
Andrew James McGregor
6
MacMichael (1918), p.36
7
See Keding (1998), pp.2-12; and Mohammed-Ali (1981), pp.176-8
8
O’Fahey (1980), p.7
4
3. Historiography of Darfur
Early sources on Darfur* from an epic six year exploration of the central African
interior, during which time he had travelled from Tripoli
WG Browne, an Englishman, arrived in Darfur via a through Fazzan and Tibesti (where he was nearly sold into
grueling trek down the Darb al-Arba’in (‘40 Day’s Road’) slavery) to Lake Chad, and then through Borno, Bagirmi,
from Asyut in 1793. The Fur, well aware of the threat to Wadai and Darfur. Nachtigal’s intellect, curiosity and
their independence from the northern Mamluks and energy resulted in a detailed and generally scientific
Ottomans, had adopted an almost xenophobic attitude to account of these lands, which he began publishing in 1879
foreigners who were not known traders. Even the latter as Sahara und Sudan: Ergebnisse sechsjährigen Reisen in
were generally confined to the merchant’s town of Kobbe Afrika (Berlin). A second volume appeared in 1881, but
at the southern terminus of the Darb al-Arba’in. Browne Nachtigal held off on publishing his notes from Wadai and
came under immediate suspicion, and quickly found that Darfur in the expectation of making further explorations in
leaving Darfur was even harder than getting there. Browne these regions. He was instead appointed Reichskommissar
was kept confined to Kobbé and the capital al-Fashir, and for the German government in the new colonies of
was unable to make extensive enquiries before being Cameroon and Togoland, where he died in 1885. A third
allowed to leave in 1796. His 1799 work, Travels in Egypt, volume of Sahara und Sudan was compiled from his notes
Syria and Africa, provides excellent information regarding on Wadai and Darfur in 1889, but these works remained
the then little-known trade route from Egypt to Darfur and extremely rare for many years until their appearance in a
the commercial communities of Kobbé and al-Fashir, but four-volume English translation by Fisher and Fisher in
the sparse historical information is generally confused and 1971.
unhelpful, mistaking the Tunjur with the Daju, and
describing the Fur sultans as ‘Moors’ in origin. Nachtigal differed from his predecessors in making a
systematic investigation into the history of Darfur, seeking
Another commercial traveller with far greater access to all out both traditions from learned sources and hunting down
parts of Darfur was the Tunisian Muhammad ‘Umar al- the often elusive written sources, of which he succeeded in
Tunisi. Al-Tunisi was from a merchant family, and his reading several (though they proved largely contradictory).
father and uncle plied the routes between Sinnar, Darfur Nachtigal was helped in some degree by establishing
and Wadai.1 Arriving in Darfur at the age of 14 in 1803, al- friendly relations with Sultan Ibrahim (1873-4), but as the
Tunisi spent 8 years there before returning to Tunis sultanate was in a general state of apprehension regarding a
through Wadai. Living in Cairo years later, al-Tunisi met a possible Egyptian invasion (which indeed came shortly
French resident, Dr. Perron, who encouraged al-Tunisi to after Nachtigal’s departure), the doctor was prevented from
record his observations in two works, Voyage au Darfour leaving al-Fashir to explore the countryside, and was often
(1845) and Voyage au Ouaday (1851). The works appeared regarded with the greatest suspicion and even derision
in both Arabic and French, thanks to translations provided from the populace.
by Dr. Perron. Valuable in many ways, these works do
little to enlighten us on historical aspects of Darfur, as al- O’Fahey describes the work of MacMichael and Nachtigal
Tunisi typically took little interest in pre-Islamic history, as ‘open to the criticism of too great a pre-occupation with
and was generally uncritical with the historical information the Arab/non-Arab divide and with descent generally.
he did gather. Al-Tunisi again noted the absence of written Beyond entrapping the reader in the mire of Arab
historical material in Darfur. pedigrees, the genealogical approach has small utility...’.2
The present work deals with such issues in some depth in
Heinrich Barth explored the region between Mali and the belief that ‘the genealogical approach’ may yet provide
Bagirmi between 1849 and 1855, publishing his findings in clues as to the origins of certain cultural groups, reveals the
a three volume work, Travels and discoveries in north and processes involved in the collection and transmission of
central Africa (1857). Barth did not reach Darfur, but made oral tradition (hence providing a critical framework for the
efforts to collect information about its peoples and history. examination of these traditions), and, where the
Barth was disappointed by his failure to acquire written genealogies have been obviously revised or falsified,
documents regarding Darfur, after having had success in allows us to discover who a certain cultural group believed
finding numerous manuscripts regarding Borno. themselves to be, which is in reality as important as an
accurate racial/ethnic identification in reconstructing
Gustav Nachtigal, a former doctor in the Prussian army, regional history. This material is, of course, most useful
spent six months in al-Fashir in 1874 while on his return when examined in conjunction with linguistic evidence,
archaeological remains, and the written works of outside
*Early sources in Arabic are translated and discussed in detail later in the
sources, such as the Arab geographers. For this reason the
text. Only the most important European language sources are given here. term ‘cultural group’ commonly appears in this paper
1
Hasan and Ogot describe Muhammad al-Tunisi’s father, ‘Umar, as one where the term ‘tribe’ may appear in older works; the latter
of a number of foreign ‘jurists and mystics’ encouraged to settle in Darfur
by Sultan ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Rashid (1787-1800), (Hasan and Ogot,
2
1992, p.190). O’Fahey (1980a), p.3
5
Andrew James McGregor
implies a racial or ethnic homogeneity which is not texture of hair’.4 Such pliable criteria made it possible for
compatible with what is known of the social organization proponents of Hamitic penetration and influence in Africa
of the peoples of Darfur. Tracing a lineal history of such to ascribe almost any cultural development in the Sudanic
groups ignores a continual process of assimilation or and Sub-Saharan regions to the presence of ‘Hamitic’
dispersal of peoples of various linguistic or ethnic civilizing traits. The Hamitic theory was clearly stated by
identities in the area. Cultural groups in the one of its greatest proponents, CG Seligman:
Saharan/Sudanic regions also rarely display any egalitarian
traits, being divided into hereditary castes of servile and Apart from relatively late Semitic influence -
superior clans, though individuals and certain cultural whether Phoenician (Carthaginian) and strictly
groups have demonstrated the existence of a large degree limited, or Arab (Muhammadan) and widely
of mobility through these ranks. Nearly every major ‘tribe’ diffused - the civilizations of Africa are the
additionally has divisions within it that are ‘foreign’ to that civilizations of the Hamites, its history the record
group, but which have long been assimilated to the larger of these peoples and of their interaction with the
group, though traditions may remain of the outside origin two other African stocks, the Negro and the
of the smaller groups. Many indigenous pagan groups were Bushman, whether this influence was exerted by
swallowed namelessly through the adoption of nominally highly civilized Egyptians or by such wider
Islamic pedigrees, often inspiring the generally pointless pastoralists as are represented at the present day
practice of colonial administrators sorting out their charges by the Beja and the Somali... The Hamites - who
through determinations of racial purity by the examination are ‘Europeans’, i.e. belong to the same great
of superficial traits such as skin colour, facial features, branch of mankind as the whites - are commonly
head-size, etc. Such practices ignored the importance of divided into two great branches, Eastern and
understanding the interaction between all the inhabitants of Northern.5
Saharan and Sudanic Africa, instead relegating their
studies to an evaluation of how ‘debased’ a certain ethnic Bender describes the ‘Hamitic concept’ as;
group has become through intermarriage with indigenous
peoples. That such fusion may produce a new, creative and The racist idea that African peoples who are seen
vital culture is generally not considered; the as more ‘advanced’ in some terms favored by
accomplishments of such groups are attributed to a racist theorists are so because of admixture by
leavening of lighter-skinned ‘Hamitic’ blood, while those invading ‘Hamites’ (descendants of the Biblical
aspects of a culture found distasteful to the colonial ‘Ham’), making them superior to ‘Negroes’,
historian were chalked up to the degree of ‘native’ heritage although, of course still not up to the standard of
(or simple ‘blackness’) found within that culture. The Caucasians (which includes the theorists,
concept is not a new one; it can be traced back into the naturally). First of all, the terms ‘Hamito-Semitic’
works of some of the oldest Arab geographers. Ibn or ‘Semito-Hamitic’ are linguistically wrong
Qutayba (d. 889), cites an earlier and now lost work of because the division of Arasian into bipartite
Wahb b. Munabbih (d. c.730): branches Semitic vs. all the rest is not supported
by the data... Second, the ‘Hamitic’ concept is
Wahb b. Munabbih said that Ham b. Nuh was a physically unsound: it is a racist thesis which
white man having a beautiful face and form. But must be rejected as unscientific and pernicious.6
Allah (to Him belongs glory and power) changed
his colour and the colour of his descendants The Hamitic theory has also been attacked by Olderogge,
because of his father’s curse. Ham went off, who described it as ‘one form of expression of a
followed by his children. They settled on the reactionary ideology of racialism, which divides people
shore of the sea, and Allah increased them. They into ‘full-valued’ and ‘less-valued’.7 African groups
are the Sudan.3 displaying few traits of the perceived ‘Hamitic’ influence
were often subject to crude generalizations in colonial
literature despite their historical roles and achievements in
The Hamite question the region. One such group was the Daju, who were
described as ‘as decadent and debased a people as may be
The dubious existence of the ‘Hamite’ race and its found in Africa’.8 Elsewhere the mountain Fur, judged to
supposed role in African history rests uneasily upon the
poorly defined concept of just what constitutes inclusion 4
Afigbo (1993), p.43
among the Hamites. Identifying characteristics include 5
Seligman (1966), p.61; See also Seligman (1913), pp.593-705
‘occupational specialisation such as pastoralism, at other 6
Bender (1997), pp.42-3
7
times cultural traits such as language and religion (Islam), Olderogge (1971-2), p.70
8
Henderson (1939), p.56 This appears to be the source for Trimingham’s
and still at other times physical characteristics like skin judgement that the Daju are ‘a very decadent debased type’ (Trimingham,
complexion, physical height, skull measurements and 1949, p.89). The Daju of Dar Sila appear to have have left a much better
impression on the French; Col. Largeau wrote of the Daju in 1912 that
‘L’humeur indépendante des Dadjo, la nature montagneuse de leur pays,
3
Abu Muhammad ‘Abd Allah b. Muslim Ibn Qutayba al-Dinawari; Kitab leur grande aptitude à utiliser les terrains difficiles et les obstacles
al-ma‘arif, Trans. in Hopkins and Levtzion (1981), p.15 naturels, développée par le sport national de la chasse et de la recherche
6
Darfur (Sudan) in the Age of Stone Architecture c.1000-1750 AD
have the least amount of ‘Arab blood’ are referred to as the mallams [mu‘allim-s], and we have to sort out what it was
‘still savage Karakirit Fur’.9 The colonial literature they wanted to convey, from what Palmer made of it; and
abounds with such references, of which these are only then we must de-code the mallams’ data along with their
examples. The Hamite theory has been used in Darfur to ‘mental frameworks’. Simply to discard the data of Palmer
explain the emergence of a powerful kingdom among the (and others like him) is to discard part of oral history
black Fur of Jebel Marra; c.1910: in practice, even the strictest historians do not do
so, despite the disavowals’.13 Musa Muhammad appraised
‘Fur’ apparently (like ‘Sudan’) means ‘blacks’, the work of Palmer and other colonial officials as follows:
and was the name given by the early light-
coloured (?Berber) sultans of Darfur to the Like most of the scholars of their generation, they
original negroid inhabitants of the country (such took a diffusionist standpoint. They looked to the
as the Binga, Banda, etc.), who agreed to become archaeological evidence in the area to show
Moslem and submit to the sultan’s rule, the human migration and cultural diffusion into
alternative being to be attacked and either killed Darfur. The Nile Valley and the West Africa
or enslaved... As the historic dynasty became savannah which were archaeologically better
more and more negroid from intermarriage with known were taken as more ‘civilized’ areas and
black wives and concubines, the appearance of hence the possible sources for the cultural
the sultans darkened correspondingly and they development in Darfur. That assumption led to
became known by the appellation of their black confusion... Despite their failings, they made
subjects, ‘Fur’.10 pioneering attempts to record the archaeology of
Darfur and reported sites which since their visits
A major proponent of the Hamite hypothesis was HR have been much destroyed.14
Palmer, a British administrator in northern Nigeria (1915-
28). Palmer collected manuscripts and commissioned
histories from those versed in local history and tradition,
publishing these works in translation with extensive AJ Arkell
commentaries informed by the author’s belief in
diffusionism and the cultural superiority of the ‘lighter- AJ Arkell’s prolific output of articles regarding Darfur
skinned’ peoples. Nevertheless these works remain an history and impressive career as a colonial administrator in
important repository of the lore and history of Borno, the Condominium government have made him the most
Chad, Kanem, Bagirmi, Darfur and other regions of the influential writer on matters related to Darfur history and
central Sudan. While Palmer’s translations of manuscript archaeology. Born in 1898, Arkell abandoned his studies at
histories are of great value, his commentaries must be Oxford to join the Royal Flying Corps in 1914, serving as
approached with the greatest caution; ‘Palmer’s a fighter pilot until 1919. He returned to Oxford after the
publications in particular are extremely difficult to use. war but again left his studies to join the Sudan Political
They are very confused, having no doubt been hastily Service in 1920. After the usual language training in
produced in the spare time of an exceptionally busy Khartoum, Arkell served as an administrator in Darfur
colonial administrator. Even where clear they tend to be until 1926, a period which saw Arkell develop a strong
misleading because of the author’s prediliction for basing interest in the numerous ruins he encountered in the field.
historiographical interpretation on apparent similarities of
vocabulary in the languages of the peoples studied Following his first posting in Darfur, Arkell served in
extending even to the acceptance of far-fetched parallels White Nile Province until 1929, during which he was
with ancient Egyptian and Greek. But Palmer was not a distinguished for his work in eliminating the cross-border
trained linguist and much of his writing in that field is in traffic in slaves with Ethiopia. After this Arkell was made
fact nonsensical’.11 Bivar and Shinnie remark that ‘These District Commissioner (DC) in Blue Nile Province until
curious works contain, if one can sort it out, a mass of 1932. The first of many publications came with the 1932
information but are uncritical and full of inaccuracies’.12 volume of Sudan Notes and Records. He was promoted to
Last has also come to the defence of a critical reading of Deputy Governor of Darfur, where he served until 1937,
the traditions collected by Palmer; ‘I would suggest that which allowed him to further investigate the antiquities of
much of Palmer’s data is merely what he was told by the region. In 1937, Governor-General Angus Gillan
decided that anthropological research in the Sudan should
du miel, paraissent être les principales raisons qui ont sauvegardé be co-ordinated by the Condominium government to
l’indépendance du Sila. Il ne parait jamais avoir payé au Darfour et au ensure its best application to administrative requirements.
Ouddaï que des tributs irréguliers et peu importants’ (Berre, 1983, Knowing of Arkell’s historical interests, anthropologist CG
pp.122-3).
9
Arkell (1920b), p.24
Seligman suggested to Arkell that he pursue a year of
10
Arkell (1961), p.214 The self-name for the Fur of the northern Kora study at Oxford. Arkell agreed, and obtained a Diploma of
range of Jebel Marra is Korakwa (Kwa means ‘people’). Arkell attempted Archaeology, studying under EE Evans-Pritchard and AR
to demonstrate that Kora meant “blacks’ with the connotation of ‘slaves’’
(Arkell, 1951a, pp.57-8).
11 13
Abdullahi Smith (1971), p.165, fn.17 Last (1985), p.168
12 14
Bivar and Shinnie (1962), p. , fn.2 Musa Muhammad (1986), pp.6-7
7
Andrew James McGregor
Radcliffe-Brown. In 1938 Arkell returned to the Sudan and and the Turuj are the serfs of another royal tribe,
became the first Commissioner for Archaeology and the Daju.18
Anthropology in the Sudan.
As Arkell’s methodology largely consisted of seeking
Though busy with other duties during the war-years, Arkell proofs of his théorie du jour, his works must be read
was, however, able to continue his archaeological pursuits closely, separating the interpretation from the hard data of
in the Sudan during this period, excavating the prehistoric observation, for which we are still reliant upon Arkell in
site on the future grounds of the Khartoum hospital in 1943 many places in Darfur.19 His earliest works, in which
and 1944. The following years also saw the groundwork Arkell was still collecting evidence and drawing
laid for the establishment of the Sudan Antiquities Service interpretations from it, are among his most reliable;
and of a national Sudanese museum. Arkell also served as unfortunately Arkell often dropped his earlier and sounder
editor of Sudan Notes and Records from 1945 to 1948. observations in later years in favour of wilder diffusionist
After excavating Shaheinab in 1949 Arkell left the Sudan, explanations, supported by often subtly manipulated
moving to London, where he became a lecturer in physical and historical evidence. Arkell became intrigued
Egyptology at University College. early by the Hamitic hypothesis, following Palmer in
tracing this supposed influence on the Sudanic kingdoms
In 1955 Arkell brought out the first edition of his back as far as the earliest Egyptian dynasties. The
influential History of the Sudan from the earliest times to culmination of this approach was the 1955 work A History
1821 (a revised second edition appeared in 1961). In 1957 of the Sudan (revised 1961), in which unfounded
Arkell accompanied an expedition travelling by car from speculation is presented as reasoned theory, and an attempt
the Libyan coast to Ennedi and Tibesti, the archaeological to reconcile various diffusion-based approaches results
results of which were published as Wanyanga in 1964. only in a web of contradictions. This work has been
characterized by Trigger as;
Arkell’s life made another turn in 1963, when he retired
from the University of London to become an Anglican a series of pseudohistorical ornamentations such
vicar in a country parish. From this point until his death in as the idea that [traits such as iron-working, brick
1980 Arkell was rarely involved in archaeological matters. architecture, and divine kingship] were carried
westward by the Meroitic royal family fleeing
Arkell has been described as having ‘congenitally from their Axumite conquerors (an idea not unlike
diffusionist views”,15 and accused (with HR Palmer, his the once fashionable one that the Renaissance in
mentor in historical style) of practicing ‘wild amateur Western Europe could be explained as the result
philology’,16 seeking cognates and derivatives through of scholars fleeing the fall of Constantinople).
innumerable and unrelated language groups and dialects, Since that time, Arkell’s theories, both with and
even though some languages used in their philological without such romantic elaborations, have attracted
comparisons (Assyrian, Meroitic, Egyptian, etc.) had been widespread attention and have been repeated, with
dead for hundreds or thousands of years.17 This tendency, few if any caveats, in many general studies of
when combined with the availability of thousands of African prehistory.20
known ethnonyms and countless variants in the Sudanic
regions, could lead to some rather startling conclusions, Arkell’s archaeological writings between 1959 and 1963
usually without any support from historical, traditional or are largely concerned with proving the existence of a
archaeological sources; highly dubious Christian kingdom in Darfur and Wadai,
perhaps reflecting the religious turn in his state of mind
From the reign of Tuthmosis IV (1425-1404 BC) that led to his retirement from archaeology in 1963 to
there is a record at Konosso near Philae of one become an Anglican minister. Nevertheless, many of
successful expedition perhaps into the eastern Arkell’s least reliable speculations regarding Darfur
desert against some tribe that had raided Wawat continue to appear in popular and scholarly literature that
(probably the Wadi Halfa district); and on his deals with the region. Using both his published works and
chariot the royal sphinx treads underfoot three archival notes (held at the School of Oriental and African
Nubians and six foreigners (some of whom are
represented as negroes) with the names Cush,
Karei, Medju (Beja), Irm, Gwršš and Trk. The last 18
Arkell (1961), p.90
three names suggest the country west of the Nile 19
An important corrective to Arkell’s approach is found in the articles of
now known as Darfur, where a section of the once HG Balfour Paul, a British official who carried out extensive exploration
royal tribe of Mima is still called Armi, another of the archaeological sites in Darfur in the early 1950’s. Balfour Paul was
tribe in south-western Darfur is known as Kreish, able to revisit a number of sites previously described only by Arkell, and
in many cases made significantly different observations than did Arkell.
Balfour Paul’s commentaries are more reasoned and based on direct
observation than are Arkell’s and his draftsmanship allowed Balfour Paul
15
Kleppe (2000), p242 In this case for suggesting that the stool of the to produce a large number of important plans and drawings; see in
Shilluk was the throne of Osiris. particular Balfour Paul’s History and Antiquities of Darfur (1955), which,
16
Holt (1963), p.42 though short, is to this day the most reliable work on Darfur antiquities.
17 20
For a more scientific approach to such work, see Ehret (1971), pp.10-25 Trigger (1969), p.25
8
Darfur (Sudan) in the Age of Stone Architecture c.1000-1750 AD
21
Anyone planning to do fieldwork in Darfur would also be well advised
to examine Musa Mohammad (1986), section 1.6 ‘Problems encountered
in the 1978-1981 surveys’, pp.15-16
22
Musa Mohammad (1986), pp.7-8
9
4. Oral tradition as a tool in reconstructing Darfur history
It is perhaps misleading and possibly even irrelevant to multiple monarchs who actually reigned concurrently over
judge oral traditions in the sense of being ‘correct’ or different parts of what later or earlier formed a kingdom.3
‘incorrect’, ‘accurate’ or ‘inaccurate’. The oral
transmission of culture history is never designed to As historical events recede into a foggy past, it will often
preserve a record of a group for historical purposes; it is nevertheless be felt necessary to elaborate upon the deeds
instead a living creation, recalling events that have a of a community progenitor, leading to the development of
functional purpose in the present for a cultural group, an eponymous ancestor. Again the tradition satisfies the
particularly in the role of legitimation. The traditions need to know ‘why’; in this case why a cultural group is
usually serve to explain why present conditions exist; the known by a certain name. The distance between the
question of ‘how’ is important only insofar as it serves to eponymous ancestor and the present is easily telescoped as
support the answer to ‘why’ - hence the ‘discrepancies’ the question of time is not only largely irrelevant, but may
that exist in the early portions of narratives of different in fact impede the function of the oral narrative in
traditions that end the same way. In the value system of substantiating claims to land, lineage, or political
oral traditions each route to a result is as valid as another; leadership.4 Oral tradition is, moreover, subject to
the purpose is served when a set of events determines a formulaic and mnemonic devices employed by the keepers
desirable conclusion. In this process the mythical event is of community memory. Historical personalities may
as legitimate as the historical event, so long as it is integral undergo conflation with other historical characters or even
to the world-view of the giver and the hearer of the mythic individuals. The cultural evolution of a group may
tradition. ‘Whereas it was once thought one might attain a also lead to the assimilation of the memories of an
better understanding of ‘what really happened’, now it is absorbed or displaced community in order to legitimize the
more clearly realised that we can understand only the claims of the new power (the apparent transference of the
various ways in which different peoples and different Ahmad al-Ma‘qur variation of the ‘Wise Stranger’ myth
groups understood their past: in short, that there is for us from the Tunjur to the Kayra Fur comes to mind); as
no History, only histories.’1 Richards notes, ‘Historical events are not unique in our
sense of the phrase; they are, on the contrary, as identical
The traditions exist in a constant state of flux, evolving in as possible’.
reaction to the events around them. The dispersal or
concentration of populations, the arrival of alien groups, Reference to time in the collected accounts is either wholly
the departure of community members or the introduction absent or given in the most general terms in most cases.
of new religious ideas will all either expand or diminish Fixing chronological points is not a concern in the oral
the importance of certain traditions and therefore directly tradition, and for events known from traditions prior to the
affect the will to remember. ‘Since myths and legends are 17th century in Darfur, it is necessary to look for
used to support political claims it follows that they are correspondences from the Arab geographers (whose works
most numerous and complex where the claims are are themselves often compendiums of uncritically gathered
contested or the population mixed’.2 Tradition also information). They nevertheless have the benefit of a fixed
responds to the needs of the present, enduring date for their completion. The reliability of these
modifications or omissions to validate the needs, geographers needs to be examined on an individual basis,
pretensions or vanity of those who call upon it. Entire as they habitually borrowed and embellished earlier
lineages can fall at one fell swoop according to the desire accounts, and often did not hesitate to retail third-hand
for a community to confirm their rights or orthodoxy information to fill in gaps in their works. Other problems
through the introduction of a new version of their culture
history. It is typical, however, for elements of the willfully
forgotten past to percolate back into a record so flexible as 3
Many efforts have been made to extract chronological information from
oral tradition. In the Sudanic states the pagan heroes of a king-lists by deriving a mean length of reign and applying it to an entire
list in order to estimate the total length of a dynasty’s rule. Such attempts
barbaric past may be reduced to an Arabicized name in a will not be made here, as the author is in agreement with Henige that
lineage list, but something in the memory of an individual ‘This approach has obvious weaknesses. It assumes that the concept of
refuses to perish. The deeds of the individual may be ‘average’ has real relevance in historical reality. It further assumes that
forgotten, but something in his or her life compels the succession system under study has not undergone changes from its
inception. Finally, it presupposes that the kinglist/genealogy itself is
memory, often regardless of its role in validating or accurate’ (Henige, 1974, p.4).
reinforcing the world-view of a community. Conversely, a 4
An excellent demonstration of the process of ‘telescoping’ can be found
process of lengthening can often be found in genealogies from Tanzania. An historical chronicle was produced for the Kilwa
and king-lists, occurring through the addition of tribal or people of the Tanganyika coast in the early sixteenth century, but appears
to have been consulted rarely if ever since then. When Kilwa oral
clan chiefs who never ruled, or through the inclusion of traditions were collected in the twentieth century, it became possible to
compare the development of the traditions concerning events earlier than
the sixteenth century with a written control. It was found that the oral
traditions had closely retained the origin story with the same names and
1
Last (1985), pp.168-9 places. After this event, however, seven hundred years of history was
2
Richards (1960), p.177 telescoped into the reigns of only six rulers (Levtzion, 1972, p.58).
10
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år tillsatts, afsatts, strypts, spetsats eller sönderslitits af vilda hästar.
Eders excellens, den åttonde, afbidar samma öde, om ej alla tigrar
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Dardanellerna och att fyrtio fästen förlorats i Bosnien! Icke ens eders
excellens’ oförlikneliga snille skall utan penningar lyckas bevara den
unge sultanen på kalifernas tron.[5]
— Unge man — inföll storvesiren med rynkade ögonbryn — huru
många lif har du att förlora, när du vågar tala till mig ett sådant
språk?
— Eder underdånige tjenare har endast ett, men det kan blifva
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förvaltaren af profetens arf, om icke eders excellens’ företrädare
Achmed pascha blifvit söndersliten af hundar och stycken af hans
fett blifvit sålda för tio asper som botemedel mot gikt. Minns, att det
gäller återupprättelsen af osmanernes herravälde öfver världen.
Eders excellens är den man, som profeten utkorat till detta höga
värf, och den ende som förmår utföra det. Men äfven ett lejon kan
kämpa förgäfves utan en droppe lifgifvande vatten, och eders
excellens behöfver penningar, mycket penningar. Värdigas inse hvad
det innebär att i hvarje fara kunna anlita Ruben Zevis outtömliga
tillgångar, att med hans guld kunna tämja de grymmaste
motståndare och att med detta samma guld kunna uppställa ständigt
nya härar till tronens försvar eller till utvidgandet af halfmånens
makt. Det hemliga och viktiga anbud, som jag sist velat tillägga å
Ruben Zevis vägnar, är, att han bjuder eders excellens öppet kreditiv
på sin agent i Konstantinopel, grekiska bankirhuset Argyropulos, mot
pant af tullinkomsterna i Smyrna, Aleppo och Alexandria.
Kuprili pascha var den störste statsman som de barbariske
osmanerne dittills frambragt. Han öfverlade och fann skälen
bindande. Så mycket hade Venedig ej kunnat bjuda honom. Han
antog tillbudet.
När kreditiv och pantförskrifning utväxlats, lade storvesiren sin
hand på den frimodige tolkens skuldra, såg honom skarpt i ögat och
sade:
— Du är icke en man, du är en kvinna!
— Eders excellens säger det, svarade Hagar, aftagande
lösskägget. — Jag är Ruben Zevis dotterdotter och syster till denne
hans budbärare.
Hon kunde ej undgå att rodna. Hennes för en muselmans ögon
alltför smärta, men behagfulla gestalt röjde sig under karldräkten.
Hennes österländska drag med de mörka, blixtrande ögonen
framträdde som genom en förvandling, när hon bortlagt lösskägget.
Storvesiren betraktade henne, lika förvånad öfver hennes skönhet,
som nyss öfver hennes klokhet.
— När du ombytt dräkt, sade han, vill jag föreställa dig för min
son Achmed.[6]
Hagar gjorde en djup vördnadsbetygelse, utan att svara. Hon
kände ingen håg att blifva slafvinna i ett turkiskt harem.
[5] Sistnämnda fakta tillhöra hvälfningarna i Konstantinopel under åtta år, från
1648 till 1656, då Kuprili blef storvesir.
[6] Achmed pascha blef 1661 storvesir efter sin fader. Desse två store
statsmän lyckades för en tid återupprätta sultanernes sjunkande makt.
12. Slafvens slafvinna.
Hvad skulle drottning Kristina
säga?
Ryttaren på den röda hästen fortfor att rida. Han hade 1647 sett de
stridande härarna utsvälta hvarandra i Böhmen, hade med
grinande välbehag räknat tusen och åter tusen offer för
hungersdöden. Han hade sett landtbefolkningen smyga sig ut vid
nattens inbrott från sina gömställen i skogarna och kasta sig öfver
döde och halfdöde vid lägrens utkanter, icke mer för att plundra,
utan för att som vilddjur gnaga en rest från de dödas afmagrade
ben. Han log; han hade sett mera omänskliga uppträden, sett
barnen uppäta sina döda föräldrar och halfmultnade lik uppgräfvas
ur kyrkogårdarna. Sådant är kriget, det kommer aldrig allena;
svärdet och kulan äro barmhärtiga i bredd med hungern och
farsoterna. Pesten var hemma här, han kom, han gick och kom åter
som korpen öfver ett slagfält. Hvad hade icke denne ryttare sett i de
usla baracker, hvilka under trettioåra kriget tjenstgjorde som
fältlasaretter!
Men han red vidare, han hade ej nog, han får aldrig nog. Han
skulle vid sidan af nöden och döden äfven se hatet. Han följde
hessiske öfverlöparen Melander på dennes härjningståg genom
Hessen. Götz hade blifvit öfverträffad: sjutton städer, trettio slott och
trehundra stora byar uppgingo inom få veckor i lågor. Sista spillran af
Hessens välstånd var ödelagd, och Melander belönades med titeln
grefve von Holzapfel.
Ryttaren fann behag i denne skicklige härförare, såsom han funnit
behag i Wallenstein, i Banér, i Altringer, i Götz, och följde med nöje
hans vidare fälttåg. Där var att hoppas något mer än vanligt af
mänskligt elände. När Melander år 1648 förenat bajerska hären med
den kejserliga, räknade han under sitt befäl 33,000 krigare — där
fanns ännu något att slakta — och dessutom 127,000 lösdrifvare,
kvinnor och barn. Hvilket utsökt byte för mordängeln, om denna här
led ett nederlag! Lifvad af förhoppningar, följde ryttaren hären till
närheten af Augsburg i Bajern.
Wrangel och Turenne tågade Melander försiktigt i spåren och
uppnådde honom vid Zusmarshausen, just när han bortskickat
bajrarne för att lätta återtåget och stod kvar med de kejserlige. Det
var en skön majnatt. Allt doftade i vårens första fägring, och
sylviorna, som ej kände annat än kärlekens och svartsjukans krig,
sjöngo i lindarnas kronor sina drillar för de tyst i mörkret
marscherande svenske och franske krigarne. En ung öfverste, Gustaf
Kurck, som vuxit från sina älskogsgriller, sporrade i spetsen för
åttahundra ryttare sin häst till det första anfallet. Han högg in, mötte
skarpt motstånd, kastades tillbaka, högg åter in och lyckades bättre.
Tre gånger höllo de kejserlige stånd, tre gånger veko de. Sårad, lät
Melander bära sig på pikar i hetaste kulregnet, genomborrades af en
ny kula och föll. Motståndet bröts, den kejserliga hären blef slagen
på flykten, och de 127,000 ... Här var något att göra för ryttaren på
den röda hästen. Han red in bland dessa flyende, värnlösa, trasiga,
uthungrade människoskaror, hvilka betäckte fält, vägar och höjder,
så långt ögat såg. De redos omkull, trampades ned, kastades öfver
hvarandra och sönderklöste hvarandra, där de blödande lågo på
marken för att frånrycka hvarandra ett stycke bröd. De, som blefvo
vid lif och förmådde fly, skingrades hemlösa och roflystna kring
bygderna, gifna till pris åt alla lustar och alla eländen. Svenskarne
ryckte in i Bajern och härjade så grundligt, att ännu efter tvåhundra
år deras namn blef en buse för ostyriga barn.
Ryttaren öfvergaf Wrangel och följde Königsmark, då denne en
varm sommarnatt tog genom öfverraskning Lilla sidan af Prag. Här
var icke så mycket blod, som icke mera byte att vinna. Allt hvad
vida, angränsande nejder lyckats bärga undan vänners och fienders
rofgirighet räddades hit bakom starka murar och sköflades här, när
murarna blifvit öfverstigna. Hvarje svensk, hvarje finsk höfding blef
rik till en tid. Königsmark efterlämnade millioner, drottning Kristina
fick sitt lystmäte af dyrbara handskrifter, och Upsala universitet fick
Codex argenteus. Pfalzgrefven Carl Gustaf kom med höstens dimmor
för sent att dela de svenska vapnens segrar och byten.
Ryttaren på den röda hästen kände sig trött efter trettio års ridt
och rastade några ögonblick i den segrande härens läger. Här firades
segern med dryckeslag och rullande tärningar. Det ungerska vinet
döfvade alla samvetskval på samma gång som alla minnen af mödor
och umbäranden. Hvarför skulle ej krigaren stjäla åt glädjen och
glömskan en timme eller en natt af den korta tid han ännu hade
öfrig att lefva? Tärningarnas rassel öfverröstades af vilda
dryckesvisor, skallande löjen och, för ombyte, stundom ett okväde,
följdt af ett svärdshugg. Insatsen i spelet var det byte man tagit i
dag och skulle förlora i morgon. Flitens sparpenning och ockrarens
snöda guld gingo lika lätt ur en hand i en annan. Ett röfvadt
silfverkrucifix vägdes i handen och hölls som insats mot en skön
fånge bland de 127,000. Ryttaren hånlog: det var icke nog med blod,
tårar, elände, hat och sköfling: kriget skulle ännu därtill förvilda den
sista återstoden af religion och seder.
Vid det att ryttaren fortsatte sin färd öfver igengrodda åkrar och
brända städer, egnade han en flyktig blick åt ett stort förfallet hus,
som händelsevis kvarstod och varit begagnadt till stall. Hans blick
ljusnade; han fann åter ett spår efter föregående ridter. Detta hus
hade tjenat en fordom blomstrande skola, anlagd af Luthers
samtida. Lärarne hade dött af svält, lärjungarne hade förskingrats
och blifvit soldater eller röfvare eller båda delarna. Det
protestantiska Tyskland hade före kriget organiserat ett utmärkt
skolväsende. Detta var nu förstördt; det släkte af ungdom, som nu
skulle taga arf efter sina fäder, hade fått sin uppfostran bland de
127,000 eller deras gelikar.
Ändtligen kom ryttaren till två städer i Westfalen, hvilka ännu hade
tak öfver hufvudet för fredsunderhandlingarna, Münster för
fransmännen, Osnabrück för svenskarne och båda för deras
motståndare. Han skådade från sadeln in genom fönstren på
rådplägningarna; han nästan önskade, att dessa skulle leda till
någon påföljd, ty han behöfde samla nytt bränsle, förutan hvilket
äfven den skönaste eld småningom utslocknar. Denna oväntadt
fromma önskan blef länge besviken. I sju år hade man mäklat om
fredsvillkoren. I början af kriget hade nödropen från förödda länder
blifvit med hvarje år högljuddare, sedan åter allt vanmäktigare,
tilldess att de slutligen liknade en döendes suckar. De studsade
ohörda tillbaka frän stenmurar. Hvarför skulle furstarne afsäga sig
sina anspråk, diplomaterne sin ärelystnad, krigarne sitt byte? Makt
stod mot makt, tro mot tro, anspråk mot anspråk; ingen ville ens
gifva sig skenet att behöfva fred. Tron var den envisaste. Ingen fred
mellan jungfru Maria och kättarne! Ingen fördragsamhet mellan
lutheraner och calvinister! Intet pris var för dyrt för den eviga
saligheten. Kurfursten Maximilian af Bajern, som lät gissla sig alla
dagar, ansåg gåfvan af ett helgons hufvudskål fullt uppväga hans
lands ödeläggelse och hundra tusen människors undergång.
Sändebuden fördröjde sina resor, ministerråden sina svar. När
svaren efter månader anländt, hade nya frågor uppstått och måste
åter vänta på svar med kurirer. Huru man tvistade om fullmakter,
titlar och företräden i rang! Skulle Venedigs sändebud hedras eller ej
med titeln af excellens? Skulle ett sändebud besöka ett annat eller
först vänta besök? Huru skulle de kläda och uppföra sig vid detta
besök för att ej nedsätta sin rang? Skulle man sitta till höger eller till
vänster vid rådsbordet, åka före eller efter en medtäflare i
processionen? Skulle kejsaren representera det heliga romerska
riket, eller skulle hvar liten landtgrefve hafva sin röst vid besluten?
Det sistnämnda gällde dock öfverhögheten; betänkligare voro de
budskap kurirerne medförde från kriget. Hvarje framgång ökade på
en sida fordringarna och kom den andra sidan att tveka. Nej, ännu
borde man vänta, där kunde ännu inträffa ett gynnande omslag. Och
under allt detta, hvilken afund, hvilka ränker, hvilka hemliga
instruktioner och listiga smygvägar i denna myrstack af
underhandlare!
Historien om fredsunderhandlingarna i Münster och Osnabrück,
som mer eller mindre berörde alla Europas stater, utom Turkiet och
Ryssland, fyller sex digra band. Ryttarens fruktade stund var dock
ändtligen kommen, när krigslågan måste slockna af brist på bränsle.
Kejsar Ferdinand III hade offrat sina sista härar och sista skatter,
hans arfländer hotades, hans bundsförvanter afföllo. Helgonets
hufvudskål hade ej kunnat rädda största delen af Bajern. Detta
medan Sverige ryckte i fält med 70,000 man, Frankrike med 40,000.
Westfaliska freden undertecknades den 10 Oktober gamla stilen
1648 i Osnabrück och kort därefter i Münster. Villkoren äro kända:
samvetsfriheten garanterad, det heliga romerska riket upplöst i en
konfederation af trehundrasextioen suveräna småstater, åtta
kurfurstendömen och en namnkejsare, som behöll titeln;
landvinningar för Frankrike, Sverige, Hessen-Kassel och
Brandenburg; fem millioner riksdaler åt Sveriges besoldade härar.
Spanien fortsatte ännu i fyra år sitt krig mot Frankrike.
Ett så omfattande fredsfördrag hade världen icke bevittnat sedan
Roms lysande dagar. Trettioåra kriget började för tron, men slutade
för makten. Kyrkan, som ville vara allt, blef därefter föga mer än
staternas tjenarinna. Påfven Innocentius X, som protesterade mot
Westfaliska freden, förstod ej själf huru berättigad hans protest var
ur högre synpunkter än hans påfliga maktlystnad. Ty med kampen
för tron försvunno ur världen de högsta lifsfrågor, hvilka dittills
förmått elda och samla Europas folk sedan korstågens tider. I den
tomhet de efterlämnade inrusade alla lägre lidelser och begynte
kifvas om makten. Furstarne framdrefvo de omyndiga folken som
fårahjordar i kamp för sin politiska maktställning. Där furstar ej
styrde, uppreste sig folkens afund i krig om handelns öfvervikt och
enskilda fördelar. Man slogs, men man slogs icke mer för det högsta
i lifvet eller för den eviga saligheten; man slogs i ett och ett halft
århundrade framåt för makt, guld och ära, intill dess att
samvetsfriheten ur sig aflat tankefriheten och denna åter ur sig
framfödt folkfriheten, som famlade efter sitt mål i det konstitutionella
statsskickets och nationaliteternas tidehvarf.
Ryttaren på den röda hästen sadlade af och unnade sin trogne
följeslagare ett ögonblicks rast.
— Hvad? sade han. Redan trött och ännu så mycket ogjordt i
världen! Din hof är sliten, dina länder betäckta med lefradt blod. Vet
du icke, att mycket återstår och att vi ännu hafva långt till tidernas
ände? Välan, rasta här ett ögonblick i askan af den förstörda staden
och beta grafvarnas gräs, medan jag uppstiger till bergstoppen och
öfverskådar mitt verk!
Han behöfde uträta sin långa kropp, som domnat vid
sadelbommen. Med några steg stod han på höjden af Finsteraarhorn
och skådade ut kring Europa. Midtens riken, de, som äro hvarken
nord eller söder, hvarken ost eller väst, voro fruktansvärdt ödelagda.
Två tredjedelar af deras befolkning hade fallit för svärdet, hungern
och pesten; de kvarlefvande sågo sig för hvarje steg skyggt tillbaka,
om icke tilläfventyrs härjaren åter stod bakom deras rygg. Bättre,
men långtifrån lyckligt lottade, voro världsdelens öfriga riken. I öster
uppstego mörka hotande moln, genom hvilka man såg bojarerne
spjärna mot dynastin Romanov, de polske småfurstarne slamra med
sina sablar mot en maktlös konung och ett hotande horn af
halfmånen dunkelt framglimta ur skyn. I söder skälfde det solbelysta
Neapel i raseri mot Spanien, som, själf angripet af Frankrike, ej ville
släppa sitt byte. I väster bevakade britternes upproriska ö sin fångne
konung, medan Nederländerna stolt utvecklade på hafven sin fria
flagga. I norr hamrade vapensmedjorna utan hvila, hvarannan arm
togs från plogen, men handeln blomstrade, segrarna aftorkade
många tårar. Sverige och Finland kände ej själfva huru betänkligt de
blödde; det besegrade Danmark kände det desto mer.
Freden kom. Freden, det var gamle kung Göstas tid, som hade
upphört med klockljuden öfver hans graf. I Sverige och Finland fanns
numera knappt den man eller kvinna, som kunde minnas en fredstid.
Det ena släktet efter det andra hade födts, uppvuxit, lefvat och dött i
ofred. Huru många fiender? Detta var frågan. En — det var icke att
tala om, det gällde mest gränsbygden. Två — då gällde att hålla
ryggen fri. Tre eller flera — för dem fanns endast en bot: segern.
Och nu, nu skulle man ej vänta någon fiende mer. Huru förunderligt!
Att kunna förlikas med hela världen, att icke mer behöfva skicka sina
söner till döden i fält, att icke behöfva gifva den ena brödkakan af
två till härens underhåll, den enda hästen till trossen, den enda
dalern till det omättliga kriget! Detta kändes ovant. De gamle trodde
det icke, de hade så ofta blifvit svikne förr; de unge trodde det icke
heller och skyndade att uttaga lysning till bröllop, innan en ny
utskrifning kom att rycka fästmannen bort ur hans fästmös armar.
Tacksägelse hölls i kyrkorna; en del städer, som ännu hade talgljus
och själtran, illuminerade, andra hade det icke och förblefvo mörka i
sena höstkvällen. Folket i bygderna förstod sig icke på sådan
grannlåt. Visst funnos många som tackade Gud, men äfven de
underläto icke att ännu, för säkerhets skull, läsa litanian och
fredsbönen efter tacksägelsen.
Stockholms stad lefde i festjubel: där hade man sörjt för att rätt
åskådligt upplysa menige man om fredens betydelse. Gudstjenster i
alla kyrkor, skådepenningar, fyrverkerier vid slottet och strömmen,
folkförlustelser af alla slag på torg och i trädgårdar. Nu hade
drottning Kristina anledning att slösa. Det var höjdpunkten af hennes
och rikets makt, men det var äfven höjdpunkten af hennes ära, ty
alla visste, att det var hon som påskyndat den ärofulla freden, och
utan hennes maktspråk hade denna sannolikt ännu hängt på udden
af fältherrarnes svärd. Första ilbudet fick en guldkedja om sexhundra
dukater, budbäraren adlades, belöningar utdelades med frikostig
hand, och fredstraktaten inlades i en kupa af guld.
Var glädjen icke lika odelad vid kejsar Ferdinand III:s hof, så var
man dock mån om att bevara glädjens sken. Äfven där sjöngs
tedeum, folket förlustade sig, klockorna ringde, mässorna ljödo natt
och dag, processioner af munkar genomtågade Wiens gator med
fladdrande standar och helgonens ben i granna relikskrin. Jungfru
Maria erkändes icke slagen: himlens drottning hade, mäktigare än
den jordiska däruppe i snölandet, bedt för freden.
En af kejsarens undersåtar, en gammal jude i Regensburg, mottog
fredsbudskapet en höstdag i sitt kontor. En lätt ryckning i
öfverläppen under det hvita skägget liknade nästan ett melankoliskt
smålöje. Han visste allt detta förut; det var ju han som gjort freden;
där fattades hittills endast underskrifterna.
— Israels borgarerätt ännu uppskjuten! mumlade han tyst vid sig
själf. — Tålamod! De må nu hvila en stund mellan Östersjön och
Donau. Det är sörjdt för att bolagen Habsburg och Bourbon
öfverbjuda hvarandra. Mitt konto ... hm ... Jerobeam!
Förste kontoristen inträdde.
— Kejsaren får de begärda tre millionerna mot säkerhet af
Frankrikes skadestånd åt ärkehertig Ferdinand Karl. Kurfursten af
Bajern får en million mot säkerhet af öfre Pfalz. Nu är det icke värdt
100,000, men om tio år skall det gifva oss kapitalet i ränta. De öfrige
tyske furstarne få betala åttio procent i förskott eller reda sig utan
mig.
— Prins Carl Stuart förnyar enträget sin begäran om penningar till
en landstigning i England. Det är det enda och sista medlet att rädda
konungens, hans faders, lif, rapporterade kontoristen.
— Carl I må falla. Han har svikit mig, som han svikit sitt folk. Gå!
Jag uppsätter Oliver Cromwell på Englands tron.
Tio minuter därefter återvände Jerobeam, medförande ett litet
tunt, ytterst tätt skrifvet pappersblad, som nyss anländt med
dufvopost från Konstantinopel. Ruben Zevi påtog sina glasögon och
genomstafvade med orubbligt lugn papperets miniatyrskrift.
— Jag vet, jag vet, sade han vid sig själf. — Venedig har denna
gång lyckats försvara Kandia. Gör ingenting, dess kredit är uttömd,
konkurrensen motad ... Janitscharerne vunne ... Muhamed IV är
befäst på tronen ... mina nya underhandlingar lyckligt afslutade,
turkiska makten beredd att, på min vink, kasta sig öfver kejsaren ...
Ännu vill jag hejda halfmånen ... O, min kloka Hagar, jag igenkänner
din hand! Du förmår allt ... Israels Gud, du vet hvilken strid det
kostade Abraham att offra sin Isak! Men jag måste ju offra henne för
ditt stora verk; hon skall fullborda det! ... Hon omgifves af spioner i
sultanens palats: hvarje slafvinna lyssnar, hvarje eunuk är beredd att
förråda henne. Men hon har vunnit validé Tarchan, ryssinnan; agan
för lifvakten är henne blindt tillgifven ... Det stackars barnet sultanen
ser i henne sin enda beskyddarinna och anförtror henne allt. Kuprili
själf har böjt sig för hennes inflytande ... han behåller skenet af
makten, men det är hon som styr alla rådslag. Båda inse, att de
förenade skola förmå allt, och detta bevarar vänskapen. O, min
dotter, min dotter, du håller nu osmanernes hela makt i din hand! ...
Benjamin återvänder öfver Smyrna och Medelhafvet ... Jerobeam!
— Mästare!
— Benjamin återförväntas endera dagen från Smyrna. Intet
uppseende! Sextio man af våra knektar posteras spridda vid
flodstranden, redo att skydda honom, om folksamlingar hota. I
borgen utbredes en guldtygsmatta från porten och upp till trappan af
öfra våningen. Här skall han mottagas med kungliga ärebetygelser.
Ryttaren återvände till sin röda häst. Han hade sett allt och hört
allt från toppen af Finsteraarhorn. När en osynlig vibrerande ljudvåg
förde till hans öron den gamle judens ord vid Donaustranden,
förvredos hans drag till ett hånande löje.
— Sultaninnor och konungar! Och jag skulle skona dagsländorna!
14. Den triumferande Parnassus.
Den gyllene tiden skall
återkomma.
— Han förtäljer oss världens sed, och han torde ej hafva så orätt,
genmälde ärkebiskopen.
Bland riksrådets närvarande ledamöter saknades rikskanslern, som
föreburit opasslighet. Presidenten Kurck och amiral Ryning delade sin
uppmärksamhet mellan baletten och politiken. Det hängde nu på ett
hår, om Mazarin skulle hålla stånd mot fronden i Frankrike. Ryning
lät undfalla sig skarpa ord om drottningens egenmäktiga försök att
ställa svenska trupper och skepp till kardinalens förfogande. Kurck
log ett af sina diplomatiska löjen.
— En svensk patriot kan vara lugn, han har en stor drottning, men
denna drottning är kvinna.
— Tyvärr! mumlade Ryning med sin ärliga sjömansgrimas.
— Säg lyckligtvis. Näst Alexander och Cesar, beundrar vår nådiga
drottning ingen högre än den store prinsen af Condé, och Condé har
numera öfvergått till kardinalens fiender. Var lugn för vår flotta!
Kurck hade förlorat sin, i början af denna berättelse omtalade
första gemål, den älskvärda Sofi De la Gardie, och var sedan
halftannat år omgift med Kristina Horn. Denna nya regentinna i det
furstliga Kurckska huset hade bland åskådarinnorna fått sin plats
bredvid riksrådinnan Ryning och undfägnade under mellanakterna
sin granne, som nyss kommit från landet, med dagens löpande
hofskvaller.
— Ers nåd kan tänka sig huru vi blifvit till mods, om vi oförmodadt
fått ett blodbad här i Stockholm midtunder kröningsfesterna.
— Gud bevare! inföll trohjärtadt den fromma gamla frun från
Riseberga. — Sådana hedniska spektakler och ännu därtill ett
blodbad! Har det varit uppror mot hennes majestäts helgade
person?
— Nej, men ers nåd kan föreställa sig en sådan insolens! Här
komma turkiske människoätare i turbaner och vidbyxor och
öfverlämna åt hennes majestät en lyckönskan på mesopotamiska
från en för detta kammarpiga vid namn Hagar, som nu lärer vara
sultaninna åt stora Mogul och understår sig att kalla drottningen du.
Hennes majestät skall ha varit så upptänder af vrede, att hon gaf
befallning på ögonblicket låta afhugga turkarnes hufvuden. Men
ärkebiskopen bad om nåd för dem, så att de fingo behålla lifvet,
med villkor att strax blifva kristne.
— Hagar? genmälde frun från Riseberga, som i detta hofskvaller
råkade hänga sig fast vid ett kärt namn. — Hvem kan den Hagar
vara, som förut varit kammarpiga?
— Hon skall hafva varit här i Stockholm förut och heta Rydin eller
Rönning, jag minns ej så granneligt. Hon har varit fröken Kerstins
bokstäderska. Och nu har hon gifvit sig åt turken för att försmäda
drottningen och allt hvad kristeligt är.
— Undskyll, ers nåd ... jag mår icke väl ... jag måste tala med
drottningen! utbrast den olyckliga fromma frun och uppstod,
darrande i alla leder.
I detsamma gick förhänget upp öfver Grekelands sju vise, allas
ögon riktades ditåt, ingen vågade röra sig af fruktan att störa
drottningens nöje. Ännu en kvart timme måste den bästa bland
fostermödrar lida alla ovisshetens kval. O, denna ståt, dessa utstyrda
masker, som kunna så tjusa de glada, de lyckliga, de lättsinniga,
huru kunna de ej martera ett ångestfullt modershjärta; huru antaga
de ej för hennes ögon gestalten af ett demoniskt hån, som gäckar
och söndersliter hennes innersta!
Ändtligen föll åter förhänget. Riksrådinnan Ryning uppstod och
hviskade sin man, riksrådet, något i örat. Han förde henne till
presidenten Kurck, som kände Hagars öden bättre än han funnit för
godt att anförtro sin nya gemål. Kurck dolde icke den omkastning i
dessa öden, som så nära och så smärtsamt berört honom själf.
— Ers nåd, sade han, vi hafva funnit ett örnägg och sett därur
framgå en stackars liten kyckling, hvilken vi trodde oss kunna
uppfostra till en dufva. Vi sågo vingarna växa och skarpa ögon skåda
ut öfver världen, men vi trodde oss kunna hålla denna ovanliga fågel
i bur och klippa dess vingar. Vi hafva bedragit oss, ers nåd.
Örnungen i dufvohamn har brutit sig ut genom gallret och flugit mot
solen. Dit når hon ej, arma barn; förr eller senare skall hon träffas af
jägarens pil. Men sådan var hennes medfödda art; vi kunna ej
ändra, endast beklaga hennes öde. Gifve Gud, att ej detta afspeglar
en annans, som står högre än hon!
Åter gick förhänget upp öfver de nio muserna och de tre gratierna,
dragna i en försilfrad vagn, förspänd med lejon, som kördes af Amor.
Ännu en kvart måste frun från Riseberga stänga inom sig suckar och
hjärtesorg. Därefter frågade hon, om den tatariska beskickningen
ännu var kvar, och fick veta, att vildarne ändtligen skulle resa i
morgon. Rädd att bemärkas, smög hon sig bort för att tillbringa hela
den följande natten i bön och mot morgonen skrifva ett bref, så
uppfylldt af tårar och kärlek, som endast en ängel kan hviska till sin
fallande skyddsling, eller en moder skrifva till sitt förlorade barn.
Men den triumferande Parnassen fortfor att förherrliga drottning
Kristina under åskådarnes jubel. Världens fyra hörn öppnade sig, ur
fyra hufvuden framsprungo fyra konungar, som bekrönte Dygden,
hvilken, dagen till ära, hette Kristina.
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