Mineral evaluation

Techniques

Joseph Banda
[email protected] / +265992105655 /+265887359904
Sampling
Sampling & Sampling methods
• Basis for all geological evaluation is sample.
• Poor sample collection results in unreliable evaluation.
• Sampling is a scientific, selective process applied to a large mass or
group (a population) in order to reduce its bulk for interpretation
purposes.
• Identifying a component part (a sample) which reflects the characteristics of
the parent population within acceptable limits of accuracy, precision, and cost
effectiveness.
Sampling & Sampling methods
• Average grade or a tonnage of mineralized rock (the population) is
estimated by taking samples (kilograms or tonnes of assay)
• Systematic and adequate sampling of all the material is required in
mineralogical investigations to avoid losing valuable material
Sample acquisition
• Understand the geology before field visit
• Consider Safety
Steps in Sampling
• Sampling consists of three main steps:
i. Sample extraction
ii. Preparation of the assay portion to a few grams for chemical analysis
iii. The analysis of the assay portion

• In all stages errors (variances) are generated which need to be

accounted for e.g. Global estimation error, total sampling error
Sample Extraction
• This is taking sample from an in-situ materials (i.e. the population),
including its delimitation and collection. Samples need to be taken carefully
to avoid contamination.
• Samples should be representative of the material (crush and mix/ to
harmonize)
• Depending on type of deposit, the material to sample can be
• Rock chip
• Soil
• Sediments
• Relate the deposit type and material to be sampled
Types of sampling techniques
1. Random sampling
a. Sampling technique that involve random selection of each sample from the
population.
b. This is mainly associated with regional exploration.
c. This is helpful if the minerals are randomly distributed , ELSE you can miss to hit
the targeted minerals.
d. Preferred most during early stages of exploration. why?
2. Systematic sampling - is a probability sampling method in which samples
are selected from population at a regular interval determined in advance
1. preferred in the advanced stage of exploration and actual mining
• Sample volume–variance relationship: Preferably samples should be of
equal volume on similar cross-sectional area
Sampling procedures
• Well planned sampling procedures reduces variance
• Sample location records (GPS)
• Sample the flesh part of an outcrop
• Record visual description of the sampled rock noting the main rock
types and percentage minerals present
• Assign each sample unique sample number
Types of geological sampling
• Channel sampling
• Channel is cut in an outcrop, usually the same diameter as the core
• Chip sampling
• Chip samples are obtained by collecting rock particles chipped
from a surface, either along a line or over an area
• Grab sampling
• Samples of mineralized rock are not taken in place, as are channel
and chip samples, but consist of already broken material
❖ Chip Sampling
• Chip sampling involves breaking off
small chips or fragments of a rock or
mineral specimen.
• Chip samples are obtained by
collecting rock particles chipped
from a surface, either along a line or
over an area
• This method is commonly used for
hard rocks and provides a
representative sample of the
material's composition.
❖ Channel Sampling
• In channel sampling, a sample is
collected by chiselling or cutting a
groove or channel into an exposed
rock face or soil deposit.
• This method is useful for obtaining
continuous samples along a linear
feature, such as a mineralized vein or
sedimentary layer.
The process involves the following steps
i. The exposure is cleaned first and remove the unwanted materials
ii. If necessary, the rock face may be trimmed at cutting point of the deposit.
iii. The location of channel is marked by set of parallel lines
iv. The inner part is excavated keeping a constant channel cross section
v. Finally excavated material is collected. Crush carefully and sampling site
is labeled. The cutting of channels depends on ore body or metal deposit
❖Grab Sampling
• Grab sampling involves collecting a
small, isolated sample from a specific
location without systematic
randomization.
• This method is suitable for quickly
assessing the composition of rocks or
minerals at a specific outcrop or
location. It is often used for
reconnaissance work.
• Which mineral deposit type can you use
chip and grab sampling?
Sample preparation
• This involve the reduction in mass and grain size of the original
sample to an assay portion for chemical analysis.
• Systematic reduction of mass and grain size as an inevitable prerequisite to
analysis
• Samples are reduced by crushing and grinding
• The resultant finer grained material is split into discrete mass components for
further reduction
• Sample reduction system is a sequence of stages until the assay portion is
obtained for chemical analysis
• Sometimes involves preparing thin sections cutting etc
Analysis of the Samples
• In chemical analysis of the assay portion different analysis types can
be done
• XRD, SEM, Petrographic microscopy, etc.
• Ultimately all mineral exploration & evaluation techniques will end
with chemical analysis.
Analysis of sample
• Hand specimen: Using naked eye ,hand lens or stereo binocular microscope
• Determine the ore types
• Select representative specimens for thin and polished section preparation
• Petrographic analysis: Mineral identification using petrographic microscope
• X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) is used to identify clay mineral structure and
properties
• Powdered rock sample
• packed in an aluminium holder
• Placed in the diffractometer and bombarded with X-rays
• rays are collected by a detector and
• the information relayed to a computer where it is converted to d-values of
specific intensities
• Electron and ion probe microanalyzers
• Produces high energy electrons focused on to about 1–2 μm of the
surface of a polished section or a polished thin section
• Reflected electrons provide a photographic image of the surface

• Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

• Three-dimensional examination of surfaces at magnifications
• In-situ textures, porosity and individual grains can be analysed.
Drilling
Drilling
• Method of obtaining information (exploration & mining) beneath the
earth’s surface.
• Drilling program are mostly employed at the advanced stage of exploration and
development
• Obtain information needed to compute the grade and tonnage,
• Rock structural data are important for pit slope design
Drill plan
• Drilling is very expensive assignment: need proper planning
• Location
• Accessibility: Roads
• Drill pad: platform for the drilling machine
• Human resources; Drillers, geologist, technicians
• Equipment: drill rig, accessories
• Mobilisation
• Source of water
• Waste management
Types of Drilling Techniques
Auger Drilling
• Auger drilling are hand-held or truck-
mounted drills, which have rods with spiral
flights to bring soft material to the surface.
• The truck mounted can go as deep as 60m,
But depth of less than 30m are common
• Hole diameter are 5- 15 cm
• They are used to sample placer deposits
• Power auger are best used where pitting is
not practicable (Barrett 1987)
Rotary Drilling
• This is non coring method, used to drill
through soft to medium hard rocks such as
limestone, chalk, talk, or mudstone.
• Samples come out as rock chips, flushed by
drilling fluid.
• Can drill up 100 m per hour
• Mostly used in OIL drilling with wide dimeter
hole (> 20 cm)
• Limitations: Large size of equipment hence
mobility problem.
Percussion Drilling
• This it uses hammer unit that is driven by
compressed air hitting rapid blows to
drill rods.
• Then the rotary motion takes out the
samples.
• Suitable for drilling in hard rocks and
concrete.
Reverse Circulation (RC)

• Can be used on unconsolidated

sediments such as alluvial deposits and
also for drilling rocks
• The methods collects rock chippings
and core depending on the need.
• Can drill up to 40m per hour
• Little sample contamination
Diamond Drilling
• The sample is cut by diamond –armoured bit and the sample is
retrieved as a core.
• Uses drill bits of different sizes
• The sample is collected into core barrels
Aspects of drilling in mineral Evaluation
1. Exploration and Resource Assessment

• Drilling is used to identify the presence, location, and size of

mineral deposits beneath the earth's surface.
• It helps confirm whether a mineral resource exists in sufficient
quantity to justify further exploration and development
2. Resource Estimation
• Drilling is used in estimating the quantity and quality of mineral
reserves.
• It provides samples (cores or cuttings) that are analyzed to
determine the grade, size, and distribution of minerals within
the deposit.
• This data is used in resource estimation models.
3. Mine Planning and Design
• Drilling assess Ore Body Geometry
• Which helps to determine the shape, size, and depth of the ore body,
which is important for designing efficient mining operations and
understanding the spatial distribution of the mineralization.
4. Grade Control
• Drilling within an active mine helps monitor and control the
quality and quantity of extracted ore.
• This is important for maintaining the desired grade and minimizing
waste.
5. Environmental Impact Assessment
• Drilling is used to monitor groundwater quality and quantity to
assess potential environmental impacts associated with mining
activities.

• It allows for the collection of hydrological data to assess

groundwater conditions in and around the mineral deposit.
• This is important for managing water-related issues during mining,
such as dewatering and environmental impact..
Look into advantages and disadvantages of
each drilling techniques