Earth System

Lecturer: Nguyễn Thuỳ Dương

[email protected]
USTH SA2.7
Textbook: Craig F, John B, David B, Dana D, Corliss K, Mary L, Erik O, Kurt R, Julie S. (2009), “Earth
science”, CK-12 Foundation

Recommended reading:

1. Laura Neser (2025), " Introduction to Earth Science - Second Edition", Virginia Tech Department of
Geosciences in association with the Open Education Initiative and Virginia Tech Publishing.
https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/7c0aa36a-ac3a-4d16-90bd-b62b28db576c/content

2. Thomas McGuire (2004), “Glencoe Earth Science: Geology, the Environment, and the Universe,
Science Notebook, Student Edition”, McGraw-Hill Education.

Lecture note 4. Plate tectonics

Plate tectonics is the unifying theory of geology. This important theory explains why Earth’s
geography has changed through time and continues to change today. It explains why some places
are prone to earthquakes and some are not; why some regions have deadly volcanic eruptions,
some have mild ones, and some have none at all; and why mountain ranges are located where
they are. Plate tectonic motions affect Earth’s rock cycle, climate, and the evolution of life. Plate
tectonic theory was developed through the efforts of many scientists during the twentieth
century.
1. Exploring Earth’s Interior
Earth is composed of several layers. On the outside is the relatively cold, brittle crust. Below the
crust is the hot, convecting mantle. At the center is the dense, metallic inner core. How do
scientists know this? Rocks yield clues, but geologists can only see the outermost rocky layer.
Rarely, a rock or mineral, like a diamond, may come to the surface from deeper down in the
crust or the mantle. Mostly, though, Earth scientists must use other clues to figure out what lies
beneath the planet’s surface.
One way scientists learn about Earth’s interior is by looking at seismic waves. Seismic waves
travel outward in all directions from where the ground breaks at an earthquake. There are several
types of seismic waves, each with different properties. Each type of wave moves at different
speeds though different types of material and the waves bend when they travel from one type of
material to another. Some types of waves do not travel through liquids or gases and some do. So
scientists can track how seismic waves behave as they travel through Earth and can use the
information to understand what makes up the planet’s interior.
Scientists also learn about Earth’s interior from rocks from outer space. Meteorites are the
remains of the material that the early solar system formed from. Some iron and nickel meteorites
are thought to be very similar to Earth’s core. For this reason they give scientists clues as to the
core’s makeup and density. An iron meteorite is the closest thing to a sample of the core that
scientists can hold in their hand.
1.1. Crust and lithosphere
Earth’s outer surface is its crust; a thin, brittle outer shell made of rock. The outermost, brittle,
mechanical layer is called the lithosphere. The difference between crust and lithosphere is that
lithosphere includes the uppermost mantle, which is also brittle. The crust varies tremendously;
from thinner areas under the oceans to much thicker areas that make mountains.
Geologists make an important distinction between two very different types of crust: oceanic crust
and continental crust. Each type has its own distinctive physical and chemical properties. This is
one of the reasons that there are ocean basins and continents.
Oceanic crust is relatively thin, between 5 to 12 kilometers thick (3 - 8 miles). This crust is made
of basalt lavas that erupt onto the seafloor. Beneath the basalt is gabbro, an igneous intrusive
rock that comes from basalt magma but that cools more slowly and develops larger crystals. The
basalt and gabbro of the oceanic crust are dense (3.0 g/cm 3) when compared to the average of the
rocks that make up the continents. Sediments cover much of the oceanic crust, primarily rock
dust and the shells of microscopic sea creatures, called plankton. Near shore, the seafloor is thick
with sediments that come off the continents in rivers and on wind currents.
Continental crust is much thicker than oceanic crust, around 35 kilometers (22 miles) thick on
average. Continental crust is made up of many different rocks of all three major types: igneous,
metamorphic, and sedimentary. The average composition of continental crust is about that of
granite. Granite is much less dense (2.7 g/cm 3) than the basalt and gabbro of the oceanic crust.
Because it is thick and has relatively low density, continental crust rises higher above the mantle
than oceanic crust, which sinks into the mantle to form basins. When filled with water these
basins form the planet’s oceans.
Since it is a combination of the crust and uppermost mantle, lithosphere is thicker than crust.
Oceanic lithosphere is about 100 kilometers thick. Continental lithosphere is about 250
kilometers thick.
1.2. Mantle
Beneath the crust, lies the mantle (Figure 1). Like the crust, mantle is made of rock. Evidence
from seismic waves and meteorites let scientists know that the mantle is made of iron and
magnesium-rich silicate minerals that are part of the rock peridotite. These types of ultramafic
rocks are rarely found at Earth’s surface. One very important feature of the mantle is that it is
extremely hot. This is mainly due to heat rising from the core. Through the process of
conduction, heat flows from warmer objects to cooler objects until all are the same temperature.
Knowing the ways that heat flows is important for understanding how the mantle behaves.
Heat can flow in two ways within the Earth. If the material is solid, heat flows by conduction,
and heat is transferred through the rapid collision among atoms. If a material is fluid and able to
move—that is, it is a gas, liquid, or a solid that can move (like toothpaste)—heat can also flow
by convection. In convection, currents form so that warm material rises and cool material sinks
(Figure 2).
1.3. Core
At the planet’s center lies a dense metallic core (Figure 1). Scientists know that the core is metal
for two reasons: The first is that some meteorites are metallic and they are thought to be
representative of the core. The second is that the density of Earth’s surface layers is much less
than the overall density of the planet. We can calculate Earth’s density using our planet’s
rotation. If the surface layers are less dense than the average for the planet, then the interior must
be denser than the average. Calculations indicate that the core is about 85% iron metal with
nickel metal making up much of the rest. These proportions agree with those seen in metallic
meteorites. Seismic waves indicate that the outer core must be liquid and the inner core must be
solid. Moreover, if Earth’s core were not metallic, the planet would not have a magnetic field.
The best conductors are metals that can move, so scientists assume that the magnetic field is due
to convection in the liquid outer core. These convection currents form in the outer core because
the base of the outer core is heated by the even hotter inner core.

Figure 1. Earth internal structure Figure 1. Convection within Earth’s mantle

2. Continental drift
An important piece of plate tectonic theory is the continental drift idea. This was developed
in the early part of the 20 th century, mostly by a single scientist, Alfred Wegener. His hypothesis
states that continents move around on Earth’s surface and that they were once joined together as
a single supercontinent.
The idea of continental drift was risen from observation on the world map: continents could fit
together. The easiest link is between the eastern Americas and western Africa and Europe, but
the rest can fit together too! Wegener proposed that the continents were not stationary but that
they had moved during the planet’s history. He suggested that at one time, all of the continents
had been united into a single supercontinent. He named the supercontinent Pangaea, meaning
entire earth in ancient Greek. Wegener further suggested that Pangaea broke up long ago and that
the continents then moved to their current positions. He called his hypothesis continental drift.
Besides the fit of the continents, Wegener and his supporters collected a great deal of evidence
for the continental drift hypothesis. Wegener found that this evidence was best explained if the
continents had at one time been joined together. Wegener’s idea eventually helped to form the
theory of plate tectonics, but while Wegener was alive, scientists did not believe that the
continents could move.
7. Seafloor spreading
Perhaps surprisingly, it was World War II that gave scientists the tools to find the mechanism for
continental drift that had eluded Wegener and his colleagues. During the war, battleships and
submarines carried echo sounders to locate enemy submarines. By knowing the speed of sound
in seawater, scientists can calculate the distance to the object that the sound wave hit. After the
war, scientists pieced together the bottom depths to produce a a bathymetric map and is similar
to a topographic map of the land surface. The bathymetric maps that were produced at this time
were astonishing! Most people had thought that the ocean floor was completely flat but the maps
showed something completely different. As we know now, majestic mountain ranges extend in a
line through the deep oceans. These mountain ranges are named mid-ocean ridges. The mid-
ocean ridges and the areas around them rise up high above the deep seafloor (Figure 4).
Another astonishing feature is the deep sea trenches that are found at the edges of continental
margins or in the sea near chains of active volcanoes. Trenches are the deepest places on Earth.
The deepest trench is the Marianas Trench in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, which plunges
about 11 kilometers 35,840 feet (35,840 feet) beneath sea level. Near the trenches, the seafloor is
also especially deep.

Figure 3. A ship sends out sound waves to create Figure 4. Mid-ocean ridge systems
a picture of the seafloor below it.
Besides mid-ocean ridges, ocean trench, scientist discovered some similarities in magnetism,
sediments of rocks reflection in the mid-ocean ridges (Figure 5, 6).
 Figure 5. Magnetic polarity in the Figure 6. Similarities in age of rocks reflection in
seafloor. the mid-ocean ridges

Scientists brought all of these observations together in the early 1960s to create the seafloor
spreading hypothesis. They suggested that hot mantle material rises up toward the surface at
mid-ocean ridges. This hot material is buoyant and causes the ridge to rise, which is one reason
that mid-ocean ridges are higher than the rest of the seafloor. The hot magma at the ridge erupts
as lava that forms new seafloor. When the lava cools, its magnetite crystals take on the current
magnetic polarity. The polarity is locked in when the lava solidifies and the magnetite crystals
are trapped in position. Reversals show up as magnetic stripes on opposite sides of the ridge axis.
As more lava erupts, it pushes the seafloor that is at the ridge horizontally away from ridge axis.
This continues as the formation of new seafloor forces older seafloor to move horizontally away
from the ridge axis. The magnetic stripes continue across the seafloor. If the oceanic crust butts
up against a continent, it pushes that continent away from the ridge axis as well. If the oceanic
crust reaches a deep sea trench, it will sink into it and be lost into the mantle. In either case, the
oldest crust is coldest and lies deepest in the ocean.
8. Theory of plate tectonics
Due to Cold War, scientists set up seismograph networks to see if enemy nations were testing
atomic bombs. Seismographs record seismic waves. While watching for enemy atom bomb
tests, the seismographs were also recording all of the earthquakes that were taking place around
the planet. From these seismographs, scientist found that Earthquakes areassociated with large
cracks in the ground, known as faults. Rocks on opposite sides of a fault move in opposite
directions. Earthquakes are not spread evenly around the planet, but are found mostly in certain
regions. Scientists noticed that the earthquake epicenters were located along the mid-ocean
ridges, trenches and large faults that mark the edges of large slabs of Earth’s lithosphere (Figure
7). They named these large slabs of lithosphere plates. The movements of the plates were then
termed plate tectonics. A single plate can be made of all oceanic lithosphere or all continental
lithosphere, but nearly all plates are made of a combination of both.
The lithosphere is divided into a dozen major and several minor plates. The plates’ edges can be
drawn by the connecting the dots that are earthquakes epicenters. Scientists have named each of
the plates and have determined the direction that each is moving (Figure 8). Plates move around
the Earth’s surface at a rate of a few centimeters a year, about the same rate fingernails grow by
mantle convection.
 Figure 7. Preliminary determination of Figure 8. The lithospheric plates
epicenters, 1963-1998
The edges where two plates meet are known as plate boundaries. Most geologic activity,
including volcanoes, earthquakes, and mountain building,takes place at plate boundaries where
two enormous pieces of solid lithosphere interact.
Relative motion of plates defines the three types of plate boundaries:
• Divergent plate boundaries: the two plates move away from each other.
• Convergent plate boundaries: the two plates move towards each other.
• Transform plate boundaries: the two plates slip past each other.
9. Mountain building
Mountain building, or orogeny, is a geological process by which mountains are formed,
primarily due to the movement and collision of tectonic plates. This process plays a crucial role
in shaping the Earth's surface, influencing climate, and creating diverse ecosystems. Orogeny is
typically associated with convergent plate boundaries, where two tectonic plates collide and
interact, leading to the deformation of the Earth’s crust.
There are several types of mountains formed through different orogenic processes: fold
mountains, fault-block mountains, volcanic mountains, and dome mountains. Among these, fold
mountains are the most common and are formed when two continental plates collide, causing the
crust to buckle and fold. The Himalayas, for instance, are classic examples of fold mountains
formed by the collision between the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. Fault-block mountains,
on the other hand, occur when large blocks of the Earth's crust are tilted, uplifted, or dropped
downward between faults. Examples include the Sierra Nevada in the United States. Volcanic
mountains result from magma rising from beneath the Earth's crust and erupting onto the surface,
building up layers of lava and ash over time, as seen in the Andes and the Cascade Range.
Mountain building is not a rapid process; it occurs over millions of years. The forces involved
include compression, tension, and shearing. These forces can lead to folding, faulting, and
metamorphism of rocks, which all contribute to the growth and uplift of mountain ranges. In
addition to plate tectonics, other factors such as erosion, weathering, and isostasy (the balance of
the Earth's crust floating on the mantle) also play roles in shaping and maintaining mountains.
Orogenic events often coincide with seismic activity and the formation of metamorphic rocks
due to intense pressure and heat. They are not only significant for understanding Earth's dynamic
systems but also for human civilization, as mountain ranges affect climate patterns, serve as
water sources, and contain valuable mineral resources.