PHYSICS

Magnetism and Electricity

Ideas you have met before

❯❯
Magnets
Magnetic materials are attracted by a magnet. There are
only a few different magnetic materials, including iron and
steel. Most metals are not magnetic.

Using electricity
Many objects need electricity to run them. We call these
‘appliances’ – examples include washing machines and
mobile phones. All appliances either use the mains
electricity supply or a battery to make them work.

Circuits
A simple electric circuit consists of cells, wires, bulbs,
switches and buzzers – these are called components; they
have specific symbols.
Components in a circuit only work if the circuit is complete
and contains a power supply. When the switch is open,
the circuit is not complete and none of the appliances will
work. If more cells are added to a circuit, the brightness of
bulbs or the loudness of buzzers in the circuit will increase.

Insulators and conductors

All metals are good electrical conductors. Materials that
do not allow electricity to pass through them are called
insulators. Examples are wood, plastic, rubber, cloth and air.

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 6 .1
In this chapter you will find out
❯❯
How magnets work
• People used magnets for over a thousand years without
understanding how they work.
• The domain theory explains what happens in magnetic
materials and why only certain materials are magnetic.
• The Earth is magnetic because its core contains
molten iron.
• We can make and test magnets using different methods.

Electromagnets
• When a coil of wire is placed in a magnetic field and
a current is passed through it, the coil moves. This is
because the coil of wire acts as a magnet itself – an
electromagnet.
• In an electromagnet it is possible to switch the magnetic
field off. Metal-recycling plants use electromagnets to
separate iron and steel from aluminium.
• Electromagnetism is the basis of the motors used in
power tools, mixers and cars.

Explaining electric circuits

• The current is a flow of electrons. This depends on
the ‘push’ given by the battery, known as the voltage.
Components in the circuits provide opposition to the
current – we call this resistance. The current, voltage
and resistance are related to each other. Models are a
good way of explaining what happens in a circuit.

Series and parallel circuits

• Components in circuits can be arranged in series,
in parallel or in both. These arrangements have
different effects on the voltage and current, and
provide different applications. Circuit breakers are
arranged in series, but many Christmas tree lights
are arranged in parallel.

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 Physics

Looking at the We are learning how to:

• Summarise historical ideas about
history of magnets magnetism.
• Describe how historical ideas about
magnetism have changed over time.

People have been using magnets for thousands

of years. However, our understanding of how
magnetism works is quite recent, and this
knowledge has made new technologies possible.

Early ideas and discoveries

❯
In the history of scientific discovery, evidence has often
become tangled up with superstitious ideas. This happened
in the development of our understanding of magnetism.
It is reported that about 4000 years ago on the Greek island
of Magnesia there was a shepherd named Magnes. The
nails in his shoes and the metal tip of his staff became firmly
stuck to a large, black rock. He dug up the ground and
found special stones called lodestones.
Chinese people wrote about the mariner’s compass in
Did you know...?
the 11th century. This consisted of a splinter of lodestone
floating on top of some water. They realised the lodestone The Earth itself is a huge
pointed in a north–south direction. magnet. The magnet's
north pole is near
the geographic South
Pole, and the magnet's
south pole is near
the geographic North
Pole. The magnetic
field is very weak but
it extends beyond
the Earth for many
FIGURE 2.6.2a: Lodestones were the first magnets observed.
thousands of kilometres.

At first, some people were superstitious about lodestones

and believed they had healing powers. Many medicines
were made of lodestone because people thought that it had
a soul.

1. Give two pieces of evidence that describe the

properties of lodestones.
2. Why do you think people developed superstitious
ideas about lodestone?

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 The impact of evidence
❯❯
Centuries passed with people using magnets as a means
6 .2
of navigation, but it was not until 1600 that a doctor
called William Gilbert discovered a connection between
magnetism and the Earth. He recorded different ways of
magnetising steel, either by touching it with lodestone or by
long exposure in a north–south direction. He concluded that
the Earth itself must be magnetic.
Gilbert’s finding came about through scientific testing,
ignoring many historical ideas, and drawing conclusions
specifically from experiments. He presented his results
clearly in a scientific paper, so other scientists could repeat
his investigations and debate his work, developing the idea
of peer review. However, in those days published papers FIGURE 2.6.2b: The magnetic compass
were shared only among a select group, often chosen by the has been used by navigators for
scientist conducting the work. about a thousand years. By taking
bearings of visible objects with a
compass, navigators can work out the
In 1820, Hans Christian Oersted observed that a current position of their ship.
flowing through a wire would cause a magnet to move the
wire. After publishing his findings, many scientists of the
time became very excited and began their own research.
Eventually links between current and magnetism were
made and the first electromagnet was produced. Finally, in
the late 1800s, through experiments conducted by Michael
Faraday, magnetism was used to generate electricity.

3. In what ways did the approach to magnetism differ

from the 1600s to the 1800s compared with that in
earlier times?
4. What impact did these new approaches have?

New applications of magnetism

❯❯❯
With the use of models and improved knowledge of atoms,
the way magnetism works is now understood better. Research
is published worldwide and peer reviewed on a global
scale. In the 1970s, this enabled research into new materials
called rare-earth magnets. These are now used in many
technologies, including computers, medical equipment and FIGURE 2.6.2c: Without an
understanding of magnetism,
renewable energy. They are much stronger than conventional research into these rare-earth metals
iron magnets, resulting in energy savings across the world. would not have been carried out.

5. What factors do you think have contributed to the

Key vocabulary
increased speed of technological developments in
today’s world compared to the speed in the Middle magnetism
Ages (1000 to 1500)?
magnet
6. How could scientists in the Middle Ages have worked
differently to improve the speed of their developments? peer review

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 Physics

Exploring magnetic We are learning how to:

• Investigate magnetism in materials.
materials • Explain magnetism using the
domain theory.

We know that magnetic force can attract and repel.

But why can some materials behave as magnets
while others cannot?

Permanent and temporary magnets

❯
A permanent magnet keeps its magnetism for a long period eriod
of time – in the case of lodestone, this can be for thousands
ands
of years. Permanent magnets have their own magnetic field,
which arises from the properties of the material they arere
made from. Iron, cobalt and nickel are the only common n
elements that can show permanent magnetism.
Most permanent magnets we use are man-made from alloys
(mixtures of metals, such as steel), which produce a stronger
magnetic field. Fridge magnets, compasses, computers and
loudspeakers all use permanent magnets.
A temporary magnet is one that is attracted by a magnet
and shows magnetic properties in the presence of a
magnetic field. For example, when a paper clip is attached
to a magnet, it is able to attract another paper clip. Remove
it from the magnet, and magnetic properties are no longer
observed. Electromagnets are special types of temporary
magnets. They are only magnetic when an electric current
passes through them.

1. Are all materials affected by a magnetic field?

2. Predict what you could do to improve the strength of
a temporary magnet.

The domain theory of magnets

❯❯
In magnetic materials like iron, steel, cobalt and nickel,
groups of atoms bind together in a magnetic domain,
aligned in the same magnetic direction. If the material is
unmagnetised, these domains are arranged randomly in
many different directions. The magnetic effect cancels out.
When the material is magnetised, the domains line up
FIGURE 2.6.3a: Which of these
and point in the same direction. This causes one end of magnets is temporary and which
the material to become a magnetic north pole (N) and the is permanent?

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 other end a south pole (S). The greater the alignment of the
domains, the stronger the magnet. 6 .3
3. Use the domain theory to explain why materials such
as copper and aluminium are non-magnetic even
when placed in a magnetic field.
4. Explain what happens, in terms of domains, to a steel
paper clip when it is placed in a magnetic field.

Making permanent magnets

❯❯❯
Iron and steel items can be made into permanent magnets
using a variety of methods:
• Stroke a steel rod with a permanent magnet up to 20
times in the same direction. magnetic domain
• Place a steel rod next to a strong permanent magnet for
a short length of time.
• Put a steel rod in a long coil of wire that has a direct
current passing through it.
• Place a steel rod in a magnetic field, heat it to a high
temperature and then hammer it, holding the steel rod
in the same direction, as it cools.
• Hold a steel bar vertically and strike it with a hammer
several times.
FIGURE 2.6.3b: Which is the
magnetised nail?

Did you know...?

The world record for

the strongest pulse
magnet (in which the
magnetic field lasts for
a short period only) was
FIGURE 2.6.3c: One way to make a magnet set in 2012 in the USA.
To remove the magnetism from a permanent magnet, the It is two million times
domain alignment must be disrupted, returning to a random stronger than the Earth’s
arrangement. This can be done by dropping, hammering, magnetic field!
heating or stroking the magnetised material randomly with
another magnet. Key vocabulary

5. Explain, using the domain theory, why stroking a steel permanent magnet
rod with a magnet is likely to make it magnetic, but
hammering it randomly will remove its magnetism. temporary magnet

6. Summarise and explain all the factors that affect the electromagnet
domains within a magnet. domain

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 Physics

Testing the strength We are learning how to:

• Compare different methods of
of magnets testing magnets.
• Collect data to investigate the
strength of magnetism.

There are different ways to test the strength of

magnets. Do all these methods give the same
results, or are some better at comparing magnets?
How can you evaluate each method to determine
which is the most effective?

Ways to measure magnetic strength

❯
The strength of a magnet can be tested simply by the
following methods:
• Measure the number of objects, such as steel paper clips,
that a magnet can hold, adding one at a time – the
stronger the magnet, the more paper clips it will hold.
• Investigate the distance at which an object, such as a FIGURE 2.6.4a: Testing the strength of
paper clip, is attracted to a magnet – the stronger the a magnet

magnet, the farther the distance from which it will

attract an object.
• Investigate the magnetic field using iron filings to ‘see’
the field lines. The closer the iron filings bunch together,
the stronger the field. A diagram can be used to
represent the field – the stronger the magnetic field, the
closer together the field lines are drawn. N

S
1. Which method in Figures 2.6.4a and 2.6.4b is likely to
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
provide the most reliable results?
2. Which method involves making the most accurate
measurements?

Comparing methods
❯❯
Table 2.6.4 shows the results from two different ways to
N

compare the strengths of magnets: counting the number of

S
paper clips the magnet can hold, and measuring the distance
from which a paper clip can be attracted to the magnet.
Some methods of making measurements are, however,
subjective. This means that different people may interpret the
results differently. Examples of this are judging the distance
FIGURE 2.6.4b: Two other ways of
between magnetic field lines with the eye, or estimating the testing a magnet’s strength. Which
number of paper clips held by a magnet simply by looking at method is best?

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 them instead of counting them. In a scientific method, it is
better to choose some kind of measurement that provides a
reading. This improves the reliability of the data.
6 .4
TABLE 2.6.4: Results of two different ways of comparing the strengths of magnets

Number of paper Distance from which it

clips held attracts a paper clip (cm)
Magnet 1 100 20
Magnet 2 100 25
Magnet 3 100 28
Magnet 4 100 30

3. What is wrong with subjective measurements in science?

4. Can you think of at least one reason why the results
in one column of Table 2.6.4 are the same but those in
the other column are different?

Evaluating scientific methods

❯❯❯
To evaluate different methods of measuring magnetic strength,
we need to compare the repeatability, reproducibility, accuracy
and precision of the data from the different methods
Repeatability
The same person carries out repeat tests of the investigation.
The closer the readings are to each other, the more repeatable Did you know...?
the data. Ideally readings should be taken, outliers identified
and eliminated, and then the mean calculated from three close The strongest magnetic
values. force in the Universe
is produced by a type
Reproducibility of neutron star. It has
If the method can be repeated exactly and the same results can a magnetic field of
be obtained by another person, then it is reproducible. about 108 tesla (about
Accuracy and precision 1011 times that of a
fridge magnet).
Data close to the true values are accurate. This depends greatly
on the way you conduct your investigation and the type of
equipment used. Taking readings of finer measurements can Key vocabulary
result in greater precision. For example, using a metre rule
marked in centimetres to measure the distance over which an subjective
object is attracted by a magnet will not be as precise as using a reliability
measurement ruler marked in millimetres.
repeatability
5. Look at the data in Table 2.6.4. How repeatable do
reproducibility
you think this investigation is?
accuracy
6. Is a repeatable investigation always reproducible?
Explain your answer. precision

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 Physics

Describing the We are learning how to:

• Explain evidence for the Earth’s
Earth’s magnetic magnetic field.
• Explain the impact the Earth’s
magnetic field has on our planet.
field
Without the Earth’s magnetic field there would be
no life on this planet. It protects us from deadly
charged particles carried in solar winds from the
Sun. How does it do this and what causes the
Earth’s magnetic field to exist?

Evidence of the Earth’s magnetic field

❯
All compasses respond to magnetic fields. The fact that
they all line up in a north–south direction (when not near
a magnet) is evidence that the Earth must have its own
magnetic field.
The N pole of a magnetic compass needle points in a
geographical north direction, wherever it is on Earth. This is
evidence that the Earth’s geographic North Pole is actually the
Earth’s magnetic S pole, or very close to it (look back at Figure
2.5.3c in Chapter 5).
We also know from magnetic rocks that the poles of the
Earth’s magnetic field are not fixed, but reverse every few
hundred thousand years.

1. Summarise the evidence for the Earth’s magnetic field.

2. Use your understanding of how magnets are made
to suggest how lodestone (see Topic 6.2) was first
magnetised. FIGURE 2.6.5a: Using the Earth’s
magnetic field

The geodynamo theory

❯❯
Evidence about the structure of the centre of the Earth has
largely come from earthquakes, volcanoes and rocks.
Scientists believe the centre of the Earth is made from a
core of solid iron, surrounded by a liquid core of iron and
nickel. The spinning action of the Earth causes the liquid
core to spin in a regular way. This movement causes charged
particles to move, forming small currents. Electric currents
produce magnetic fields and so magnetic domains within
the liquid develop, lining up to create a weak magnetic
field. This is called the geodynamo theory.

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 3. Why can we not be certain about how the Earth’s
magnetic field works? 6 .5
4. Draw a diagram to show how the magnetic fields in
the Earth might arise.

Impact of the Earth’s magnetic field

The magnetosphere is the magnetic field around the Earth.
❯❯❯
It extends out into space and is shaped by the solar wind
caused by the Sun’s activity. Figure 2.6.5b shows this.

On the day side of On the night side

Earth – the field of Earth – the solar
is compressed and wind stretches the
measures 6 times magnetosphere
the radius of Earth out to 1000 times
Earth’s radius

FIGURE 2.6.5b: The effects of the solar wind on the shape of the Earth’s magnetosphere

The magnetosphere prevents deadly cosmic rays and the

highly charged particles in solar winds from reaching the
Earth. Without this protection, it would be impossible for
life to exist here.
Energy and highly charged particles from the Sun create
magnetic storms in the magnetosphere. Most damage is
deflected by the magnetosphere, but sometimes the storms Did you know...?
are so strong they disrupt GPS systems and other satellites,
The planet Mercury also
and cause the need for aircraft to find alternative routes.
has its own magnetic
Geologists study rocks in different layers in the Earth. The field. However, it is
deeper the rocks are, the older they are. By testing the not as strong as the
magnetic field of magnetic rocks, scientists can determine Earth’s and, because it is
which is the N pole and which is the S pole. Evidence for closer to the Sun, solar
over 170 pole reversals in the past 71 million years has been winds cause much more
reported. A reversal occurs roughly every 400 000 years – the damage to its surface.
most recent took place 780 000 years ago and geologists
believe another is due in the next few thousand years.
Key vocabulary
5. Why is the magnetosphere larger on the night side of
the Earth? geodynamo theory

6. Describe an experiment you might carry out to test magnetosphere

the magnetic polarity of different rocks. solar wind

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 Physics

Investigating We are learning how to:

• Describe what an electromagnet is.
electromagnetism • Investigate the factors affecting the
strength of electromagnets.

If you pass a current through any wire, a weak

magnetic field is produced. This link between
electricity and magnetism has been thoroughly
investigated, enabling us to make very powerful,
controllable electromagnets.

What is an electromagnet?
❯
In 1820, a Danish scientist, Hans Oersted,
passed a current through a single wire. Placing
a compass near the wire, he noticed that the
needle moved, proving that a magnetic field
was present. When the current was switched
off, the needle returned to its normal position.
Oersted had taken the first steps towards
understanding electromagnetism.
Any wire with a current passing through it will
produce a magnetic field. When the current
is switched off, the magnetic field disappears.
FIGURE 2.6.6a: When the switch completes the circuit, the
Any magnet that uses electricity to produce a compass needle moves – the current in the wire is acting
magnetic field is called an electromagnet. like a magnet.

1. How is an electromagnet different from a permanent

magnet?
2. Describe two different ways to prove that an
electromagnet is magnetic.

Making electromagnets stronger

❯❯
Oersted made a very weak electromagnet because he used a
Did you know...?

single wire and a small current. There is a limit to how

strong you can make an
The strength of an electromagnet can be increased by: electromagnet. Once
• increasing the current passing through the wire all the domains within
• making the wire into a coil the iron core are lined
• increasing the number of coils in the wire up, the strength of
the magnet cannot be
• putting an iron core in the centre of the coil.
increased, no matter
how much more current
is applied.

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 Figure 2.6.6b shows a simple electromagnet consisting of
a battery and a coil of wire surrounding an iron nail. The
wire is covered by electrical insulation so that it does not
6 .6
connect electrically with the iron nail. When a current is iron nail
passed through the wire, it causes the iron nail to become
magnetic. battery

3. Remind yourself of the domain theory described in

Topic 6.3. How do you think the current affects the
domains in the iron core? coil of
insulated
4. Draw an electromagnet you might use to attract a wire
steel paper clip. Explain how you could modify your
electromagnet so that it could attract and lift a car.
5. How would you drop the car? switch

Magnetic fields around electromagnets

If plotting compasses are placed around a wire with a
❯❯❯ FIGURE 2.6.6b: A simple
electromagnet, here made using an
iron nail

current flowing through it, they show that the magnetic current magnetic
field shape around the wire is circular, as shown in Figure direction field
2.6.6c. Iron filings can be used to show this.
The shape of the magnetic field around a long coil of
current-carrying wire is similar to that of a bar magnet, as
shown in Figure 2.6.6d. One end of the coil is the N pole
and the other end is the S pole. Reversing the direction of
the current reverses the magnetic field – the S pole becomes wire paper with
the N pole and vice versa. Increasing the number of coils iron filings
increases the magnetic field around the loops, resulting in a FIGURE 2.6.6c: The shape of the
stronger field. Using a magnetic material, like iron, as a core magnetic field around a wire carrying
a current
strengthens the field.

S N

FIGURE 2.6.6d: Coils with many turns of wire are used in electromagnetic devices.

6. What would happen to the magnetic field lines if the Key vocabulary
current in Figure 2.6.6d was increased?
current
7. Why are the coils of an electromagnet placed in line
and not in a random way? magnetic field

8. Explain the advantages of an electromagnet over a electromagnet

permanent magnet for devices that require a magnet. iron core

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 Physics

Using electromagnets We are learning how to:

• Describe different applications
of electromagnets.

The main advantage of using electromagnets over

ordinary magnets is that the magnetic field can
be switched on or off at will, making them easier
to control. This has resulted in a wide range of
applications.

Common uses of electromagnets

❯
Electromagnets are used in many different devices.
• In your computer hard drive, tiny electromagnets are
used to help store information on a disk.
• Separating iron and steel from non-magnetic metals,
such as aluminium and copper, is one of the main uses
of electromagnets. Switching the current off allows the
magnetic objects to fall from the electromagnet.
• Electromagnets are used in loudspeakers – the
magnetic field moves a diaphragm to amplify the sound
vibrations.

1. Give two advantages of using electromagnets.

2. Give one disadvantage of using an electromagnet
compared to an ordinary magnet in the applications
listed above. FIGURE 2.6.7a: How is this
electromagnet being used?

The electric bell

❯❯
The circuit inside an electric bell is shown in Figure 2.6.7b.
When the switch is closed at A, a current flows. The iron
core of the electromagnet at B becomes magnetised. Did you know...?
The iron bar, called the armature, at C is attracted to
Electromagnets are used
the electromagnet and moves towards it. The hammer,
to remove tiny pieces of
connected to the armature, moves to strike the gong.
metal that accidentally
The springy steel strip at D moves away from the contact enter the eye. They
screw as the hammer strikes the gong, breaking the circuit. offer greater control
than ordinary magnets,
Because the current no longer flows through the
so there is less risk of
electromagnet, it loses its magnetism. The armature is no
injuring the eye.
longer attracted and moves back to its original place.

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 The steel strip is once again in touch with the
contact screw and the circuit will complete again as
long as the switch remains pushed.
6 .7
3. What must be done to stop an electric bell push-button low-voltage
from ringing? Explain your answer. switch battery

4. What would happen if the electromagnet in A

an electric bell was replaced with an ordinary
magnet?
springy

❯❯❯
steel strip
electro- D
The circuit breaker
magnet C iron
A circuit breaker is designed as a safety device. armature
iron
It breaks a circuit if too much current is drawn core contact
from the mains, and so protects appliances. B
screw
Household appliances and lighting are protected make and break
attraction
with circuit breakers. occurs here
(normally contact
Figure 2.6.7c shows how a circuit breaker works. closed)
In normal operation, a low current passes through
the appliance and the electromagnet. Because the hammer
current is low, the electromagnet is weak and so is
not strong enough to separate the iron contacts. If
the appliance malfunctions and too much current
passes through the wire, the electromagnet
becomes stronger, attracting the iron contacts. This
breaks the connection between the iron contacts
and breaks the circuit, protecting the appliance. The FIGURE 2.6.7b: How an electric bell works

spring prevents the contacts from reconnecting.

iron contacts circuit breaker

N S

pivot

live wire to appliance

spring

FIGURE 2.6.7c: How an electromagnetic circuit breaker works

Key vocabulary
5. In a circuit breaker, why is it important for the
contacts, once broken by the electromagnet, armature
to remain unconnected?
contact
6. What advantages do circuit breakers have
over ordinary switches? circuit breaker

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 Physics

Exploring D.C. motors We are learning how to:

• Describe the magnetic effect
of a current and how this is
applied to D.C. motors.

In certain applications, magnetic energy can

be harnessed and transferred to energy by
movement. The world of motors relies on this
energy transfer. Motors are used in many ways,
from small electric drills to giant stone cutters in
deep mines.

Uses of electric motors

❯
Electric motors are devices that use electromagnets or
permanent magnets. They transfer energy by electricity
and use a magnetic force to cause movement and do
useful work.
Electric motors are used in many common appliances, such
as food mixers, vacuum cleaners, cars, washing machines and
electric drills. Every electrical device that transfers energy by
electricity to energy by movement uses an electric motor.

1. Name three other devices that use electric motors.

2. Draw an energy transfer diagram to summarise the
energy transfer in an electric motor.

Discovering the motor effect

❯❯
We have learnt that a wire with a current passing through
it produces a magnetic effect. In 1831, after the discovery,
Michael Faraday found that when a wire carrying a current
was placed in a magnetic field, it moved. It moved in a
direction at right angles to both the field and the current.
If the direction of the current was reversed, the direction of
the movement was also reversed. The magnetic effect of a FIGURE 2.6.8a: Which appliance does
not have an electric motor?
current was being transferred to energy by movement.
In Figure 2.6.8b, when the permanent magnet is placed
over the wire and the current passes through, there are two
magnetic fields – one from the permanent magnet and one
from the wire. These two fields will attract or repel, causing
the wire to move. This is called the motor effect.
A ‘D.C. motor’ works using the motor effect arising from
a direct current (D.C.), which means a current that always
flows in one direction.

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 3. In Figure 2.6.8b, when the
current is switched on, the 6 .8
wire moves downwards. field
switch
What would happen if the battery
battery were connected the
current
other way around?
4. Can the set-up shown in
Figure 2.6.8b produce any force
useful work? FIGURE 2.6.8b: The motor effect. What happens if the battery
is disconnected?

Stronger electric motors

❯❯❯
The amount of movement of the wire can be increased by:
• Increasing the current, which direction of movement
increases the strength of the magnet coil
magnetic field around the wire.
This causes a bigger repulsion
or attraction.
• Increasing the strength of the N
magnetic field of the permanent
magnet. This can be done by using S
a stronger magnet, or changing
the material the magnet is made
from, so more domains within the
material are lined up.
• Making the straight wire into
a coil with many turns. This
increases the strength of the
FIGURE 2.6.8c: A simple D.C. motor
magnetic field around the wire.
Figure 2.6.8c shows how these measures work. The
permanent magnet (or electromagnet) surrounds a coil of
wire. The coil is able to spin freely. When a current passes Did you know...?
through the coil, a magnetic field is produced. This interacts
with the magnetic field of the magnet, which causes the coil The tiniest motor built
to turn upwards. In order to allow the coil to spin, the poles works on the atomic
of the magnetic field must be reversed. The brushes reverse scale, enabling atoms to
the polarity of the current and so reverse the magnetic field be moved.
due to the coil. In this way, the coil is able to keep spinning,
enabling useful work to be done.
Key vocabulary
5. What would happen if the magnetic poles due to the
electric motor
coil were not reversed?
motor effect
6. Motors can have different speeds. How can the speed
of the motor be controlled? direct current (D.C.)

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 Physics

Applying key ideas

You have now met a number of important ideas in this chapter. This activity gives an
opportunity for you to apply them, just as scientists do. Read the text first, and then have a
go at the tasks. The first few are fairly easy – then they become a bit more challenging.

How can magnets be used to operate trains?

Technology that uses magnets to operate trains,
called Maglev trains, is in use in some parts of the
world. The first commercial Maglev train ran between
Birmingham airport and the railway station – it
operated from 1984 to 1995. In 2004, China installed
the first high-speed commercially operated train in
Shanghai, followed closely by Japan in 2005. Germany
has also been active in developing this technology.
Maglev trains do not have a conventional engine,
which runs on diesel – they rely on the use of
FIGURE 2.6.9a: The speed reached by a Maglev
electromagnets. There are three main parts to train relies on electromagnetic propulsion and
the system: streamlined design.

• a large electrical power source (in China and Japan much of their electricity is
produced by nuclear power, which means they do not rely on fossil fuels for their
energy source)
• metal coils lining the guideway
• large guidance magnets underneath the train to cause repulsion between the train
and the rail.
When a current flows through the coils in the guidance magnets, a magnetic field
is produced. This field repels large magnets on the undercarriage of the train. The
effect of this is to lift the train up (make it levitate) so that it no longer touches the
rail underneath. It can rise between 1 cm and 10 cm. Other electromagnets in the
propulsion coil, situated in the guideway walls, then propel the train forwards.
As a result of this design, when the Maglev trains are in operation there is no friction
between the train and the track. With a sleek aerodynamic design, speeds of over
500 km/h (310 mph) can be reached!
A special type of electromagnet is used, known as superconducting magnets. These
are made of materials such as niobium and titanium, and they must be kept at a very
low temperature during operation. This enables them to transfer much higher currents
through the coils compared to those transferred through normal wires. Magnetic fields
of up to 15 teslas are possible with this system.
The setting up of a Maglev system is highly technical and very expensive. In addition,
large amounts of electricity are needed to keep the trains in operation. These are some
of the reasons why the technology is not more widespread. The advantages it holds,
however, are very significant. With the ability to travel at such high speeds comfortably,
the time for travelling between places is significantly reduced. As a result, there would
be less traffic on the roads. The problem with noise as the air rushes past the train at
such high speeds is still to be addressed.

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 6 .9

Task 1: Types of magnets

Maglev trains use electromagnets in order to operate. Describe the main
differences between electromagnets and ordinary bar magnets.

Task 2: Levitation
Draw a simple diagram, including ideas about magnetic polarity, to
show why Maglev trains levitate.

Task 3: Making the magnetic field stronger

Explain the main factors that can increase the strength of an
electromagnet. How has the design of the electromagnets in the
Maglev trains been further modified to make the field even stronger?

Task 4: Benefits of superconducting electromagnets

You are a salesperson for superconducting electromagnets. Design a
sales poster outlining all the benefits of using electromagnets to move
trains compared to ordinary rail systems.

Task 5: Effect of field reversal

The Earth’s magnetic field can reverse every few hundred thousand
years. Use ideas about the domain theory to explain whether or not this
event is likely to affect the electromagnets in the Maglev trains.

Task 6: What are the disadvantages?

Explain all the disadvantages of the Maglev system and suggest reasons
why this technology has not been adopted, so far, in other countries.

215

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 Physics

Investigating We are learning how to:

• Describe the link between chemical
batteries energy and electricity.
• Investigate how fruit batteries work.

We have learnt how electricity and magnetism are

linked. There is also a link between electricity and
chemical energy, which we now explore.

Different types of battery

❯
There are many different types of batteries in the world.
They all have one thing in common – energy is transferred
by chemical reactions to electrical energy. The amount of
chemicals and types of reactions involved determine how
much energy can be transferred.
The first battery was developed by Alessandro Volta, who FIGURE 2.6.10a: Alessandro Volta and
placed brass and copper plates in a salty solution. The brass his battery, in about 1800
contains zinc, which enables the battery to work.
By using different metals and solutions, more or less
electricity can be transferred.

1. Why do you think batteries become hot if they are

used for long periods of time?
2. Draw an energy transfer diagram to show the changes
taking place in a battery.

How do batteries work?

❯❯
In Topic 5.5 you learned about static electricity – the transfer
of charged particles by rubbing different materials together.
The resulting force of attraction or repulsion leads to the
transfer of energy by movement.
Charged particles are also involved in current electricity.
In a battery, negatively charged particles, called electrons,
move as a result of chemical changes in the battery. They
build up on the negative terminal of the battery, causing
electrons within the metal wires in all parts of the circuit
to move away from the negative terminal. The flow of
electrons forms the electric current – this can be used to
transfer energy that makes appliances work. The bigger FIGURE 2.6.10b: Charged particles
the difference in charge between the negative and positive move through the solution between
the copper plate and the zinc plate.
terminals of the battery, the greater is the energy that can This creates an electric current in
be transferred by the current. the circuit.

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 The disadvantage of using batteries, compared to
generating electricity from movement energy using a
dynamo, is that the energy is transferred out of the battery
6 .10
and the battery needs to be replaced or recharged.
Did you know...?
3. Summarise in a bullet list how a battery works.
The first rechargeable
4. What are the advantages of using batteries, compared
battery was made in
with a dynamo, to make an electric current?
1836. It was a lead–acid

❯❯❯
battery, a system still in
Explaining fruit batteries use today.

Figure 2.6.10c shows a fruit battery in operation. Two

different metals are placed, a distance apart, at the same
depth within the fruit. Wires connect the two metals in a
circuit containing a meter that shows a voltage is produced.
The liquid inside the fruit enables charged particles in the
fruit to take part in the chemical changes – a battery will
not work with dried fruit.

potassium most K
sodium reactive Na
calcium Ca
magnesium Mg
aluminium Al
FIGURE 2.6.10c: A fruit battery
carbon C
Different combinations of metals will produce different
zinc Zn
results. Table 2.6.10 shows the voltages from an
investigation of different combinations of metals. iron Fe
TABLE 2.6.10: Results from an investigation of different combinations of metals tin Sn
lead Pb
Metal 1 Metal 2 Voltage produced (V)
hydrogen H
copper zinc 0.75
copper Cu
copper magnesium 1.37 silver Ag
copper iron 0.49 gold least Au
zinc magnesium 0.67 platinum reactive Pt
zinc 0.31 FIGURE 2.6.10d: Reactivity series of
iron elements
iron magnesium 0.95
Key vocabulary
5. Look at Table 2.6.10 and Figure 2.6.10d. Can you see a
pattern between the metals that produce the highest battery
voltage and their reactivity? electron
6. Apart from changing the metals, can you think of electric current
two other ways of increasing the voltage from a fruit
battery? Explain how each one works. voltage

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 Physics

Describing electric We are learning how to:

• Describe and draw circuit diagrams.
circuits • Explain what is meant by current.
• Explain how materials allow current
to flow.

A light bulb in an electric circuit lights up

instantaneously. Even if the circuit were the size of
a football pitch, there would be no time delay for
the light to come on. What is actually going on in
the circuit for energy to be transferred so quickly?

Components in electric circuits

❯
An electric circuit is a loop of wire with its ends connected to
an energy source, such as a battery or cell. Strictly, a ‘battery’
switch cell battery
is two or more cells together.
When a circuit is complete, energy is transferred from the
V A
battery to the wires by an electric current. Devices such as
light bulbs, motors and buzzers are components that can lamp voltmeter ammeter

make use of the energy transferred from the battery.

The components in the circuit need an electric current to M
pass through them. If there are any gaps in the circuit, the resistor variable motor
current will not flow and energy cannot be transferred. A resistor
material that allows current to pass through it is called an FIGURE 2.6.11a: Circuit symbols for
common components
electrical conductor. These have electrons that are free to
move within the conductor. An electrical insulator does not
have any free electrons and cannot allow a current to pass.

FIGURE 2.6.11b: How circuit symbols are used to represent components in a

circuit diagram

1. If pencil lead is placed in a circuit with a light bulb,

the bulb lights up. What conclusion can you draw
about this material?
2. Draw a circuit diagram for a circuit with one cell and
three bulbs.
3. Why is it important to represent components with
symbols?

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 Using models to explain current
❯❯
Current is the rate of flow of charge (electrons) in the
6 .11
circuit, and is given the symbol I. It is measured by an
ammeter in amperes (symbol A), after the French scientist
Andre-Marie Ampere.
Models and analogies are often used to explain complex
phenomena like current. One analogy is to compare electric
current to water flowing in a stream. The charges are the
water particles, and the current is the flowing stream.

FIGURE 2.6.11c: In the analogies

Another analogy used to represent current is that of a pictured in the photos, what
convoy of coal trucks. The trucks represent the charged represents the charge and what
particles, the movement of the trucks represents the current, represents the current?

and the coal they carry represents the energy they transfer.

4. Using first the water analogy and then the coal-

truck analogy, draw diagrams to show the difference
between a low current and a high current.
5. Which analogy is better at explaining that current
transfers energy to different components? Explain
your answer.

Scientific explanation of current

❯❯❯
When the battery is connected, the electrons in all parts
Did you know...?

A current of 1 amp
of the wires within the circuit move at the same time, in means there are
the same direction and at the same rate. This movement 6 250 000 000 000 000 000
constitutes the current. In this way, no matter where the electrons flowing past a
components are in the circuit, they will all conduct at the point every second!
same time – there is no delay because all the electrons in the
circuit move simultaneously.
Key vocabulary
Current is not used up in the circuit. It has the same value
before and after each component in the circuit – indeed, it is component
the same everywhere in the circuit.
conductor
6. Explain the strengths and limitations of the two insulator
analogies above, in light of the scientific explanation
for current. ammeter
7. Explain why current is not used up in a circuit. ampere

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 Physics

Understanding We are learning how to:

• Describe what the voltage does in a
energy in circuits circuit.
• Explain voltage using different analogies.

We know that an electric circuit

gets its energy from a battery.
The amount of potential energy
within a battery is measured by the
number of volts it has. Volts are the
measurement of voltage.

What is voltage?
❯
We can think of voltage as a measure of the size of ‘push’
FIGURE 2.6.12a: What do we mean by
voltage?
that causes a current to flow around a circuit. Because the
current is a flow of charge, something is needed to make
the charges move.
If there is no voltage, then there can be no current flowing
because there is nothing to cause the charges to move. A
V
The larger the voltage, the bigger the ‘push’ and the more
current that can potentially flow.
The symbol for voltage is V and the unit is volts (V).
1.5V
The energy source for the voltage is usually a battery or cell,
but it can also come from a mains socket. A large energy
source, like a big car battery of 12 V, will provide more ‘push’
or voltage and hence more current than a small cell of 1.5 V. B
V
If two cells are connected together side-by-side, the voltage
across them is the sum of the voltage of each cell. This is
because both cells are ‘pushing’ the same way.
4.5V
1. Why does no current flow if there is no voltage?
2. Figure 2.6.12b shows two circuits, one with one cell
and the other with three cells. If, instead, there were FIGURE 2.6.12b: Measuring the
two cells, what reading would the voltmeter give? voltage across cells

Voltage and components

❯❯
If there is a higher voltage, there will be more current
Did you know...?
flowing and therefore more energy being transferred to Electric eels can produce
the components. A light bulb will be much brighter if it electrical discharges of
is connected to a 6 V battery rather than to a 3 V battery around 500 V in self-
in a similar circuit. Voltage is measured using a voltmeter defence.
(Figure 2.6.12d).

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 Figure 2.6.12c shows how the voltmeter must be connected
across a component (here a bulb) to measure the energy
difference in the current either side of the component.
6 .12
3. In which of the circuits in Figure 2.6.12b will the light
bulb be the brightest? Explain your answer.
4. What might happen to a motor if it were connected
to the 230 V mains electric supply rather than to a
12 V battery?
V

Using analogies to explain voltage

Imagine blowing gently through a straw. The air flowing
❯❯❯ FIGURE 2.6.12c: Measuring the
voltage across a bulb

through the straw is like a current and the amount of push

given to the air is like the voltage. If you blow harder (more
voltage) there is more air flow (more current).
A very high waterfall is also like a large voltage. It will
transfer a lot of energy to the water (charge), making the
river flow very fast (a large current). The difference in height
makes the river flow. In a circuit, the difference in charge
across the battery provides the push for the current. This is
why voltage is also known as potential difference.

FIGURE 2.6.12d: A voltmeter

connected to measure the voltage
of a cell

FIGURE 2.6.12e: The difference in height makes the water move.

Key vocabulary
5. Compare a circuit with a 12 V battery and one light
bulb with one that has a 1.5 V cell and one light bulb. voltage
Use the two analogies in this topic to explain how
volt
they will be different.
voltmeter
6. Explain one limitation for each of the analogies
outlined. potential difference

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 Physics

Explaining We are learning how to:

• Explain what resistance is and how it affects the circuit.
resistance • Investigate and identify the relationship between
voltage and current.

All materials offer some opposition to the flow

of current – we call this ‘resistance’. The amount
of resistance can vary widely, even in different
metals. Why are some metals, like gold, better at
conducting electricity than other metals, like tin?

What is resistance?
❯
The word ‘resistance’ means to oppose. In electric circuits, Circuit 1
electrical resistance opposes the ‘push’ provided by the
voltage. The overall current flowing through the circuit, 9V
therefore, depends on both the voltage and the resistance.
If there is a high voltage and a low resistance, then a large M
current will flow. This is because there is not very much fast-spinning motor
opposition to the ‘push’ given by the voltage. Imagine a
motor in a circuit. The current through it causes it to spin. If Circuit 2

the motor is swapped with one of higher resistance, there

9V
will be more opposition to the flow of charge and, for the
same voltage, the current will be smaller. The motor with a
higher resistance will spin more slowly. M
slow-spinning motor
All components in a circuit provide some resistance.
FIGURE 2.6.13a: The resistance in
circuit 1 is low, so there is a bigger
1. A buzzer is an electrical device that transfers the current; what can you say about
energy of an electric current to sound energy. circuit 2?

a) A circuit, A, has a 6 V battery and a buzzer. Another

circuit, B, has a 6 V battery and a buzzer with higher fixed metal particle free electrons
resistance. In which circuit will the buzzer be louder? –
+ + + + +
b) Explain your answer to a) using ideas about –
– –
resistance and current. –
+ + + +

❯❯
– – – –
Conductors and insulators –
+ + + + +
– – –
Resistance depends on the type of material an object –
– + + + +
is made from. Materials that are very good conductors
– – –
of electric current have a very low resistance. Electrical
insulators have a very high resistance, and do not allow FIGURE 2.6.13b: Conduction in metals
depends on free electrons
current to flow easily.

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 All metals conduct electricity well because they have many
free electrons that can move when a voltage is applied. 6 .13
As the electrons move, they will collide with other atoms.
This is the cause of resistance in most ordinary metals. It is
why even the best electrical conductors, like platinum, will
have some resistance.
In an insulator, the electrons are more tightly bound than in
a conductor; far fewer electrons flow and so there is much
less current.

2. As an analogy, think of an obstacle race. Which parts Did you know...?

of a circuit do the obstacles represent? Which parts of
the circuit do the people represent? Special components
3. What would happen to a light bulb if the copper called resistors, with
wires in a circuit were replaced with platinum? Explain high resistance, are
your answer. often made from
nichrome or tungsten.

❯❯❯
They are used
Working out resistance deliberately to transfer
electrical energy to
Resistance is measured with the unit ohms (Ω) and is light and heat in the
represented by R. All the components in a circuit will surroundings.
have their own resistance. It is possible to investigate the
relationship between voltage (V) and current (I) across a
component, as shown in Figure 2.6.13c.
The definition of resistance is:
voltage
resistance =
current
V
R=
I
power pack ammeter length of
nichrome Key vocabulary
resistance wire
INS
MA

VO
LTA
G E

resistance
free electron
heatproof mat ohm
crocodile clip

V
FIGURE 2.6.13c: As the voltage supplied is changed using the power pack, the
current is measured using the ammeter. The resistance of the length of nichrome
wire between the crocodile clips can then be determined.

9V
4. What is the resistance of the circuit shown in
Figure 2.6.13d? A
5. Give two ways you might increase the resistance of 3 amps
the circuit. Explain your answers. FIGURE 2.6.13d

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 Physics

Investigating factors We are learning how to:

• Describe some uses of resistance.
affecting resistance • Investigate and explain factors
affecting resistance.

Wires of different resistance have different

purposes. High-resistance wires are used in light
bulbs, whereas in some electronic applications
it is essential that there is minimal electrical
resistance. There are different ways in which the
properties of a circuit may be changed.

Types of resistor
❯
Increasing the resistance in a circuit reduces the amount of
current passing. If too much current passes through a laptop
computer, for example, it can cause damage to the circuits.
Components called fixed resistors are used in circuits to
enable a specific amount of current to pass through the
components.
Other types of resistors, called variable resistors, allow you
to change the amount of current flowing through a circuit
by turning a knob or using a slider. Dimmer-light switches
use this type of resistor to control the current and hence
vary the brightness of the bulb.
FIGURE 2.6.14a: Fixed resistor (top)
and variable resistor (bottom)
1. Name at least one appliance that may contain
a variable resistor and one that may contain a
fixed resistor. Did you know...?

2. Give one advantage of a variable resistor. In 1910 William Coolidge

❯❯
invented the tungsten
Advantages and disadvantages of resistance filament light bulb, still
in use today.
Resistance is the property that makes a filament in a light
bulb work. Such a light bulb uses a very thin tungsten wire,
with a high resistance. As the voltage pushes the electrons
through the thin wire, there are collisions with atoms that
transfer energy to heat. The tungsten wire heats up to a
very high temperature and begins to glow, transferring
energy to light.
In the transport of electricity across long distances, it is
important for the resistance to be kept as low as possible to
avoid energy losses through heating. The properties of the FIGURE 2.6.14b: An early tungsten
filament light bulb
transporting cables enable this to be achieved.

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 3. Do electric heaters need a high or a low resistance in
order to work? Explain your answer. 6 .14
4. Mains household electricity has a voltage of 230 V.
A hairdryer needs 15 A to work and another needs
12 A. Suggest one difference in the circuits of the
two hairdryers.

Explaining how factors affect resistance

There are three main factors affecting the resistance of a
❯❯❯
wire:
• The material that the wire is made from. Table 2.6.14
lists the resistance values of some materials, for the FIGURE 2.6.14c: How does turning
same length and cross-sectional area. This value the knob affect the circuit inside the
depends on the number of free electrons that are radio?

available in the material.

• The length of the wire. In a longer wire, the electrons
meet with more opposition because there are more
atoms to collide with during their flow. Large resistors,
such as those used in electric cookers or heaters, use
long lengths of wire made from nichrome – long
lengths are often coiled. TABLE 2.6.14: Comparing the
resistance of different materials
In a variable resistor, the length of the wire included
in the circuit can be changed. This idea is used in the Material Resistance
volume control of radios and televisions. value
(Ω × 10–8 m)
• The thickness of the wire. In a thin wire it is harder
for the electrons to push their way through so they aluminium 2.82
experience more resistance. Also, there are fewer ‘free’ copper 1.72
electrons in a thinner wire.
gold 2.44
thin wire
– – – – – –
nichrome 150
– –
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +
– – – – – silver 1.59
tungsten 5.6
thick wire iron 9.71
– – – – – – – – –
– platinum 0.11
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +
– – – – – – –
– – – –
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + –
rubber 100 000
– – – – –

FIGURE 2.6.14d: Comparing thick and thin wires

Key vocabulary
5. Explain how the volume of a radio can be changed
using a variable resistor. resistor

6. Describe the type of wire you would choose in an variable resistor

overhead power cable. filament

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 Physics

Explaining We are learning how to:

• Describe how the voltage, current
circuits using and resistance are related in
different circuits.
• Use a model to explain the relationship
models between voltage, current and resistance.

You have learned about what voltage, current and

resistance are. Now you will see how they interact
in a circuit. The ‘rope model’ is a useful analogy –
it explains most features of current, voltage and
resistance in circuits.

Relating voltage, current and resistance

❯
The size of the voltage and the size of the resistance both
determine how much current flows. Look at the three
different circuits in Figure 2.6.15a.

Circuit 1 Circuit 2 Circuit 3

3V 3V 3V 3V

3Ω 3Ω 3Ω 3Ω 3Ω
FIGURE 2.6.15a

In circuit 1, there is a voltage of 3 V and one light bulb of

resistance 3 Ω.
In circuit 2, there are two identical light bulbs in series,
providing twice as much resistance, but supplied with the
same voltage as in circuit 1. The current flowing through
the circuit is now less, because there is the same ‘push’
(voltage) but twice the opposition to the flow of electrons
(resistance). The light bulbs are not as bright as in circuit 1.
In circuit 3, there are now two cells and the same two light
bulbs, each with a resistance of 3 Ω. The light bulbs will both
be just as bright as in circuit 1. This is because the resistance
and the voltage are both doubled compared to circuit 1, so
the current will be the same.

1. What is the voltage and the resistance of the circuit in

Figure 2.6.15b?
2. Explain whether the light bulbs in Figure 2.6.15b are 3V 3V 3V
dimmer or brighter than in:
a) circuit 1 b) circuit 2 c) circuit 3
3Ω 3Ω 3Ω
of Figure 2.6.15a. FIGURE 2.6.15b

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 Using the rope model to explain circuits
Figure 2.6.15c shows the rope model.
❯❯ 6 .15
It is an analogy of a circuit consisting
of a long rope that is held by a group
of students:
bulb
• The battery is represented by one
person pulling the rope round
with one hand and feeding it out
through the other.
battery
• The bulb is represented by a student
gripping the rope more tightly than
the others. This provides resistance
to the flow of current – the students
feel their hands warming up as
friction transfers energy from the
current by heat.
• The electric current is represented
by the rope moving around.
FIGURE 2.6.15c: The rope model
3. Where are the electric charges in the rope model?
4. How is gripping the rope more tightly similar to
resistance in the circuit?

Applying the rope model

❯❯❯
Applying the rope model can explain the way the voltage,
current and resistance work in circuits. Look again at the
circuits in Figure 2.6.15a.
For circuit 2, two students should be used to represent the
light bulbs, gripping the rope more tightly than in circuit 1 –
this represents the increased resistance. The speed of the
passing rope will decrease, compared to the set-up in circuit
1, and less energy is transferred to the light bulbs. Did you know...?
Applying the model to circuit 3, there should be a bigger Scientists use a range
pull on the rope by the teacher. This will have the effect of models to describe
of increasing the speed at which the rope passes around abstract ideas. By
the circuit, demonstrating an increase in current. The two applying models we
students will also be gripping the rope more tightly, to can understand what is
provide the increased resistance. This will show that the happening more easily.
same current is flowing as in circuit 1.

5. What needs to happen to the rope for it to represent Key vocabulary

two components with different resistances?
model
6. How could you use the rope model to represent a wire
with less resistance? analogy

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 Physics

Describing series We are learning how to:

• Understand how voltage and
and parallel circuits current vary in a series circuit.
• Understand how voltage and
current vary in a parallel circuit.

The way in which components are arranged in

a circuit can affect how well they work and how
useful they are. The two arrangements are called
series and parallel.

Series circuits
In a series circuit:
❯
• All the components are connected, one after the other,
in a complete loop of conducting wire.
• There are no branches in the circuit.
• There is only one path that the current can take.
• The voltage is shared between the components.
Figure 2.6.16a shows a series circuit with two light bulbs.

1. What would happen to the components in a series

circuit if one of the bulbs stopped working?
FIGURE 2.6.16a: How can you tell that
2. a) Draw a circuit diagram showing a motor, a light the components in this circuit are
connected in series?
bulb and a buzzer in a series circuit.
b) What would happen to the current in your circuit if
the motor stopped working?
3. Draw two circuits – one with just one bulb, and
the other with three identical bulbs in series. Both
circuits should have just one cell of the same voltage.
Compare:
a) the voltage in each circuit
b) the current in each circuit
c) the brightness of the bulbs in each circuit.

Parallel circuits
In a parallel circuit:
❯❯
• Each component is connected separately in its own loop
between the two terminals of a cell or battery.

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 • There are different branches for the current to follow.
• The full voltage is supplied to each loop. 6 .16
• The current from the battery is divided between the
A
loops.
A parallel circuit is rather like separate series circuits
connected to the same energy source. B
The different components are connected by different wires.
Therefore, if a bulb blows or is disconnected from one
parallel wire, the components in the other branches keep
working because they are still connected to the battery in a
complete circuit.
If more bulbs are added in parallel, all the bulbs light
A
up with the same brightness as before. There could be a
hundred bulbs in parallel, all equally bright, and just as
bright as if there were just one bulb. The battery, however,
will not last as long! B

4. a) Draw a parallel circuit with four bulbs.

b) Explain how this is different from a series circuit
with four bulbs.
FIGURE 2.6.16b: What happens to
bulb A in this parallel circuit if bulb B

❯❯❯
‘blows’?
Explaining series and parallel circuits
When two light bulbs are connected in series, the resistance
in the circuit is increased compared to that with one light Did you know...?
bulb. The thin (filament) wire in each light bulb has a high
resistance. The increased resistance opposes the flow of Most circuits used are
current, so fewer electrons pass per second, transferring less combinations of series
energy. The light bulbs are therefore not as bright as in a and parallel parts. These
circuit with the same voltage but only one bulb. are called series–parallel
circuits.
However, when two light bulbs are connected in parallel,
each branch behaves like a separate circuit. The resistance
in each branch is the same as if there were just one light
bulb in the whole circuit. The same energy is transferred to
each branch from the battery, so the bulbs light up with the
same brightness as in the single-bulb circuit. The battery is,
however, transferring twice the amount of energy to the
bulbs and will run out faster than when in a series circuit. FIGURE 2.6.16c

5. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of

arranging components in series or in parallel. Key vocabulary

series circuit
branch
parallel circuit

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 Physics

Comparing series We are learning how to:

• Investigate and explain current and
and parallel circuits voltage in series and parallel circuits.
• Explain the circuits in our homes.

The arrangement of components in either series or

parallel affects the amount of voltage they receive
and the amount of current flowing through them.
Why does the arrangement make this difference?

❯
6V
Current and voltage in series and parallel circuits V

Figures 2.6.17a and 2.6.17b show a series circuit and a 2A

parallel circuit with light bulbs of the same resistance. A

Series circuit
The ammeter shows the same readings in different parts of A
the circuit. 2A
However, the voltage is divided between the components. V V
See how the voltage across each of the components adds up 3V 3V
to the total provided. We can write this as:
FIGURE 2.6.17a: A series circuit
Vtotal = V1 + V2 + V3
If the components have the same resistance, the voltage is 6V
divided equally.
V
Parallel circuit
The voltage in all parts of the circuit is the same regardless A
of how many branches there are.
2A
However, the current splits up between each branch. Adding
up the current in each branch gives the total current flowing A
from the battery. We can write this as: 1A
V
Itotal = I1 + I2 + I3
6V
If the resistance in each branch is the same, the same current
will flow through each. A
1A
1. If another light bulb is added to the series circuit in V
Figure 2.6.17a, what will happen to the voltage across 6V
the other light bulbs? Explain your answer. FIGURE 2.6.17b: A parallel circuit
2. A 12 V battery is connected in a circuit with ten
identical light bulbs in parallel. Compare this with the
circuit in Figure 2.6.17b. What will the current be in
each individual loop?

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 Modelling series and parallel circuits
❯❯
The circuits in Figures 2.6.17a and 2.6.17b can be modelled
6 .17
using the rope model you used in Topic 6.15.
Series circuit
With three light bulbs, three students hold the rope more
tightly than the other students. Because there is a higher Did you know...?
resistance than with just one bulb, the current is reduced
and the rope moves more slowly through the components. After World War 2
The speed is the same throughout the circuit. there was a shortage
of copper. In 1942 the
Parallel circuit ring main helped to
This circuit behaves as if there were three separate circuits reduce the amount
fed by the same battery. The rope model shows that triple of household wiring
the amount of charge is passed through the battery because needed. This needed
it is feeding three branches. All the branches are given the more length, but it
same ‘push’, so the same amount of energy is transferred to could be thinner.
each branch.

3. How would you change the rope model to include a

fourth bulb in parallel?
4. What would happen to the current and voltage in
series and parallel circuits with two bulbs that had
different resistances?

Household circuits
Figure 2.6.17c shows how
❯❯❯
the household electricity
supply is connected in the
UK. It is an arrangement
known as the domestic
ring main.

All the plug sockets in the

ring main are connected
in parallel. This has the
following advantages:
FIGURE 2.6.17d: Each socket has 230 V
• If one of the electrical applied to it.
FIGURE 2.6.17c: Arrangement of sockets
appliances should in a domestic ring main
stop working, other
appliances are not affected.
• The mains supply of 230 V is applied across all the Key vocabulary
sockets.
ring main
• Switches can be used to turn the current on and off
within each branch. appliance
mains supply
5. Suggest disadvantages with this arrangement.

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 Physics

Applying circuits We are learning how to:

• Describe how circuits are arranged
in common appliances.

We have learned about the different features of

electric circuits and how they work to transfer
energy. In which ways are circuits useful to us?

Common household circuits

❯
Any object that is plugged into the mains supply or that uses
a battery contains at least one electric circuit. By altering the
current, voltage and resistance within a circuit, the amount
of energy transferred to different components can be
controlled.
Most circuits are connected in parallel, including household
lighting, Christmas tree lights and overhead train cables.
This is because the lights or trains all need the same
voltage, and if one fails the others will still keep working.
Also, using switches, the appliances can be switched on and
off individually.

FIGURE 2.6.18a: Parallel circuits are very useful.

Series circuits are less common. Connecting batteries in

series will increase the voltage available because the total
voltage is the sum of the individual batteries. A series
arrangement is used when an appliance needs to be
controlled carefully. For example, circuit breakers are safety
devices that switch off an appliance because of a fault. The
appliance and circuit breaker are placed in series.

1. What would happen if household lights were

arranged in series?
2. What would happen if a circuit breaker was arranged
in parallel to an appliance?

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 More examples of series and parallel circuits
❯❯
Water heaters use a series circuit with a temperature control
6 .18
switch, called a thermostat. When the temperature reaches
the set value, the thermostat will turn off the current.
Because there are no other pathways to follow, the current power
supply
is removed from the heater.
Hairdryers contain a parallel circuit, as shown in Figure
2.6.18b. In this way, if the heater needs to be switched off,
the fan can still work to blow cool air instead of hot air – M
but the heater cannot be used without the motor working.

3. Name another appliance that needs a controlled

temperature and may therefore be connected in series
with a thermostat?
heater
4. Would you use a parallel circuit or a series circuit to FIGURE 2.6.18b: In the hairdryer
connect the electrical appliances in a kitchen? Explain circuit shown here, why are the
your answer. motor and the heater arranged
in parallel?

Series–parallel circuits
❯❯❯
Most circuits are combinations of series and parallel circuits.
These are called series–parallel circuits. Figure 2.6.18c shows
an example.

variable resistor

battery Did you know...?

FIGURE 2.6.18c: A series–parallel circuit
In the 1920s just 10%
This is a simple series–parallel circuit used in a car to dim the of UK houses had an
lights on the instrument panel. The variable resistor controls electricity supply. The
the amount of current that can pass. When its resistance is main appliances in use
high, less current passes and both the lights on the panel are were lights, irons and
dimmer. To increase the brightness of the lights, the variable radios.
resistor can be turned so that it is low. More current passes
and the lights are brighter.
Key vocabulary
5. Describe the path of the current in the series–parallel
circuit in Figure 2.6.18c. circuit breaker

6. Can you think of one other application in which a thermostat

series–parallel circuit might be used? series–parallel circuit

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 Physics

Checking your progress

To make good progress in understanding science you need to focus
on these ideas and skills.

■ Describe differences ■ Describe and compare ■ Use the domain theory

between permanent different methods to explain how materials
and temporary magnets. to make permanent become magnetised and
magnets. demagnetised.

■ Describe some effects ■ Describe the geodynamo ■ Explain evidence

of the Earth’s magnetic theory. for how the Earth’s
field. magnetic field works.

■ Describe how to ■ Design investigations ■ Use models and

test the strength of to compare different analogies to explain the
a magnet and an methods of making factors that affect the
electromagnet. magnets and testing strengths of magnets
the strength of and electromagnets.
electromagnets.

■ Describe different ■ Explain the advantages ■ Compare and contrast

applications of magnets and disadvantages of the use of magnets
and electromagnets. using electromagnets. and electromagnets in
different applications,
such as a circuit breaker.

■ Describe and investigate ■ Analyse and interpret ■ Explain how a battery

different types of data to explain how to works using ideas about
batteries, including fruit make the most effective charge.
batteries. fruit batteries.

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 6 .19

■ Describe what is meant ■ Apply a range of ■ Evaluate different

by current, voltage and models and analogies to models and analogies
resistance. describe current, voltage for explaining current,
and resistance. voltage and resistance.

■ Describe the ■ Use data to identify ■ Use data and a

relationship between a pattern between mathematical
current, voltage current, voltage and relationship between
and resistance in a resistance. current, voltage and
qualitative way. resistance to carry out
calculations.

■ Make measurements ■ Use models and simple ■ Use calculations to

of current and voltage calculations to explain make predictions about
in series and parallel and compare what current and voltage
circuits. happens to the current in series and parallel
and voltage in series and circuits.
parallel circuits.

■ Describe different ■ Make comparisons ■ Explain the advantages

domestic uses of series between components of using series or
and parallel circuits. in series and parallel parallel circuits,
circuits. including the domestic
ring main.

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 Physics

Questions
Questions 1–7

See how well you have understood the ideas in the chapter.

1. What is the unit of current? [1]

a) volt b) ohm c) amp d) joule
2. Which one of the following materials is magnetic? [1]
a) copper b) cobalt c) chlorine d) calcium
3. Which of the following uses an electromagnet? [1]
a) a compass b) a fridge magnet c) a torch d) a metal-sorting plant prior to recycling
4. What is the name of the magnetic material that was discovered first? [1]
a) lodestone b) iron c) steel d) nickel
5. Give two differences between a magnet and an electromagnet. [2]
6. Explain how a series circuit is different from a parallel circuit. [2]
7. Draw a circuit diagram to explain how a circuit breaker works – include ideas about
electromagnets and why the circuit is arranged in a particular way. [4]

Questions 8–14

See how well you can apply the ideas in this chapter to new situations.
8. Figure 2.6.20a shows four circuits A–D. Which of the following shows the correct order
from the circuit that gives the brightest bulbs to the one that gives the dimmest? [1]
a) A, B, C, D b) D, C, B, A c) C, D, A, B d) C, B, D, A
A B C D

FIGURE 2.6.20a

9. A food mixer has a low setting and a high setting. Which of these is true? [1]
a) the low setting has a lower current passing
b) the high setting has a stronger magnet inside
c) the low setting uses more coils around the motor
d) the high setting has a lower current passing.
10. Which of the following will the make the strongest electromagnet?
a) using one coil with a low current b) using 100 coils with a low current
c) using 100 coils with a high current d) using one coil with a high current.

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 11. Venus does not have a magnetic field. Which of the following statements
is false? [1] 6 .20
a) Venus does not have an iron core
b) Venus is protected against dangerous charged particles from solar winds
c) A compass will not work on Venus
d) Venus does not have a magnetosphere.
12. A student drops a magnet on the floor. It no longer works. She puts it between two
strong magnets for some time. Use the domain theory to explain why the magnet no
longer works and how it becomes remagnetised. [2]
13. Figure 2.6.20b shows a model of a circuit. energy source
(e.g. battery or power supply)
How would you change this model to show
an increased voltage and resistance? [2] complete circuit of
conducting material

FIGURE 2.6.20b

14. Figure 2.6.20c shows Circuit 1 V ? V? Circuit 2

a series circuit (1) V V
and a parallel I? I? A I? A
circuit (2). Calculate A

the missing voltages 6V V V V? V V?

and currents. Explain A
3A
the reasons for your 3A
A
values. [4] V
6V FIGURE 2.6.20c

Questions 15–16

See how well you can understand and explain new ideas and evidence.

15. Two fruit batteries are placed side by side. They are connected to identical bulbs. One
bulb is much brighter than the other. What possible reasons could there be between
the batteries to account for the difference? [2]
16. Table 2.6.20 gives some TABLE 2.6.20
data from an investigation Length of Average Average Average
comparing the resistance wire (cm) voltage (V) current (A) resistance (Ω)
of different wires. The
values of resistance have 10 0.47 0.23 2
been calculated using 20 0.59 0.17 3.47
V/I = R. Sketch a graph of
the values. A wire from an 30 0.64 0.13 4.92
electricity distribution line 40 0.69 0.11 6.27
is now tested. Sketch a new
graph to predict how the 50 0.72 0.09 8
resistance will be different. 60 0.76 0.07 10.9
Explain the reasons for
your sketch. [4] 70 0.82 0.06 13.67

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