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 EARLY CHILDHOOD: SOCIAL AND
EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Chapter 8

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

This chapter covers social and personality development in early childhood. The first part
of the chapter examines parental influences on development, including discipline
techniques, transmission of values and standards, and Baumrind’s ideas about the
dimensions of warmth-coldness and restrictiveness-permissiveness. Sibling and peer
influences are discussed next. Then, the topics of play, prosocial behavior, and
aggression (including relations between aggression and violence in the media) are
covered under the section on social behavior. Next, aspects of the development of
personality and emotional development are presented. Developing concepts about the
self, as well as the stage of initiative versus guilt from Erikson’s theory, and early
childhood fears are discussed.
This chapter summarizes the organization of the brain and its contribution to gender
differences. It provides an explanation of the role of sex hormones in gender
differences. There is a description of the social cognitive theory as it relates to “gender
appropriate” behavior. The implications of cognitive-developmental theory on gender
differences during early childhood are explored. Kohlberg’s gender typing theory
(gender identity, gender stability, and gender constancy) is summarized. Gender
identity, gender stability, and gender constancy are defined. Gender-schema theory is
discussed. This chapter concludes with a discussion of the implications of psychological
androgyny on stereotypical feminine and masculine trait development.

CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Having read the chapter, students should be able to:

• Discuss the two parenting dimensions of warmth-coldness and restrictiveness-

permissiveness; relate these dimensions to parenting styles and child outcomes
• Describe inductive, power-assertive, and withdrawal discipline techniques as well
as how these techniques influence children
• Explain Baumrind’s parenting styles (authoritative, authoritarian, permissive-
indulgent, and rejecting-neglecting)
• Explain how siblings influence each other
• Discuss child behaviors that are associated with the birth of a younger sibling

120
• Analyze regression to baby-like behaviors following the birth of a sibling
• Describe how birth order may impact child outcomes
• Describe the importance of peer interactions on social, physical, and cognitive
development
• Explain the importance of child’s play
• Define dramatic play
• Describe the kinds of play identified by Piaget (functional play, symbolic play,
constructive play, and formal games)
• Describe the six kinds of play identified by Parten: (a) unoccupied play, (b)
solitary play, (c) onlooker play, (d) parallel play, (e) associative play, and (f)
cooperative play
• Compare and contrast nonsocial play to social play
• Discuss the gender differences in play
• Discuss the development of prosocial behavior (altruism)
• Describe how empathy develops during early childhood
• Describe how perspective-taking skills change as children mature
• Explain the development of prosocial behavior due to rewards and punishments
• Describe the developmental patterns of aggression
• Compare the different theoretical approaches to aggression in children (genetics,
cognitive, social cognitive, and physical punishment)
• Describe the development of a sense of self or self-concept
• Define the categorical self
• Describe the difference between children with high self-esteem and children
without high self-esteem
• Discuss Erikson’s initiative versus guilt stage and how it relates to early
childhood psychosocial development
• Discuss changes in the fears of children during the preschool years
• Define stereotype
• Define gender role

121
 • Describe the development of gender role for males and females within this
culture
• Discuss the observance of gender differences as children mature
• Explain the role of evolution in gender differences
• Summarize brain organization and its contribution to gender differences
• Explain the sex hormones role with gender differences
• Describe the social cognitive theory as it relates to “gender appropriate” behavior
• Describe the implications of cognitive-developmental theory on gender
differences during early childhood
• Summarize Kohlberg’s gender typing theory: (a) gender identity, (b) gender
stability, and (c) gender constancy
• Define gender identity
• Define gender stability
• Define gender constancy
• Summarize gender-schema theory
• Explain the implications of psychological androgyny on stereotypical feminine
and masculine trait development

CHAPTER OUTLINE

1. Dimensions of Child Rearing

a. Two parenting dimensions of warmth-coldness and restrictiveness-
permissiveness
b. Relationship of two dimensions to parenting styles and child outcomes
explored
i. Children of parents who are warm and accepting are more likely to
develop internal standards of conduct
c. Description of inductive, power-assertive, and withdrawal discipline
techniques as well as how these techniques influence children
i. Inductive methods
1. Aims to teach knowledge for child to generate behavior on
own
2. Main inductive method is reasoning
ii. Power-assertive methods
1. Include physical punishment and denial of privileges
2. Related to parental authoritarianism
iii. Withdrawal discipline

122
 1. Some parents control children by threatening withdrawal of
love
2. Parenting Styles: How Parents Transmit Values and Standards
a. Explanation of Baumrind’s parenting styles: authoritative, authoritarian,
permissive-indulgent, and rejecting-neglecting
i. Authoritative
1. Parents have high expectations for children and also have
high warmth
2. Children show self-reliance and independence
ii. Authoritarian
1. Parents value obedience for own sake
2. Have strict guidelines for children; do not communicate well
with children
3. Sons are relatively hostile and defiant; daughters tend to be
low in independence and dominance
iii. Permissive-indulgent
1. Parents are low in their attempts to control children; are easy
going and unconventional; have high warmth
iv. Rejecting-neglecting
1. Parents are low in demands for mature behavior; low in
support and responsiveness to children
2. Children tend to be neglected; child is less competent in
school and shows more misconduct and substance abuse
b. Effects of the Situation and the Child on Parenting Styles
i. Parenting styles depend partly on situation and partly on the
characteristics of the child
ii. Parents more often use power-assertive techniques when dealing
with aggressive behavior
3. Influence of Siblings
a. How siblings influence each other
i. Siblings give physical care and provide emotional support; serve as
role models
b. Child behaviors that are associated with the birth of a younger sibling
i. Birth of sibling can produce stress; changes in family relationship
ii. Negative reaction to sibling: regression to baby-like behaviors
iii. Positive reaction to sibling: increased independence and maturity
c. Regression to baby-like behaviors following the birth of a sibling
i. Child may increase clinging, crying, and toilet accidents
d. How birth older may impact child outcomes
i. First-borns – more highly motivated to achieve
ii. First-borns and only children – perform better academically
iii. First-borns and only children may show greater anxiety; be less
self-reliant than later-born children
4. Peer Relationships
a. Importance of peer interactions on social, physical, and cognitive
development

123
 i. Peer interactions foster social skills
1. Age 2 years, children imitate one another’s play; show
preference for particular playmate
5. Play – Child’s Play That Is
a. Importance of child’s play
i. Play is meaningful, voluntary, and internally motivated
b. Definition of dramatic play
i. Children learn to try on new roles
ii. Supports the development of cognitive qualities such as curiosity,
exploration, symbolic thing and problem-solving
c. Description of the kinds of play identified by Piaget
i. Functional play
1. Begins in the sensorimotor stage
2. Involves repetitive motor activities (rolling ball)
ii. Symbolic play
1. Also called pretend play
2. Emerges toward end of sensorimotor stage and increases
during early childhood
iii. Constructive play
1. Children use objects or materials to draw or make something
iv. Formal games
1. Games with rules (board games)
2. Involve social interactions and physical activity
d. Six kinds of play identified by Parten
i. Unoccupied play, solitary play, onlooker play, parallel play,
associative play, and cooperative play
e. Comparison of nonsocial play to social play
i. Nonsocial play
1. Consist of solitary play and onlooker play
2. Play in which children do not interact socially
3. Occurs more often in 2- and 3-year olds than in older
preschoolers
ii. Social play
1. Consist of parallel play, associative play, and cooperative
play
2. Children are influenced by others as they play,
f. Associative play and cooperative play are common by age 5
g. Discussion of the gender differences in play
i. Girls are somewhat more likely than boys to engage in social play
h. Development of prosocial behavior (altruism)
i. Prosocial behavior or altruism is shown by the preschool and early
school years
ii. Linked to the development of empathy and perspective taking
6. Development of Aggression
a. Description of how empathy develops during early childhood

124
 i. Empathy promotes prosocial behavior and decreases aggressive
behavior; link seem by second year
ii. Girls show more empathy than boys
b. How perspective taking skills change as children mature
i. Preoperational child has tendency to be unable to see things from
another’s perspective
ii. Perspective-taking and prosocial skills improve with age
c. Development of prosocial behavior due to rewards and punishments
i. Altruistic behavior may be influenced by rewards and punishments
ii. Children who are rewarded for acting prosocially are likely to
continue prosocial behavior
d. Developmental patterns of aggression
i. Aggressive behavior and other social behaviors seem to follow
developmental pattern
1. Aggression of preschoolers tend to be instrumental or
possession oriented
2. By age 6 to 7, aggression becomes hostile and person
oriented
3. Aggressive behavior appears to be generally stable and
predictive of later social and emotional problems, especially
among boys
e. Comparison of the different theoretical approaches to aggression in
children (genetics, cognitive, social cognitive, and physical punishment)
i. Genetics factors
1. Genetic factors may be involved in criminal and antisocial
behavior
ii. Cognitive
1. Aggressive children believe in the legitimacy of aggression
when social provocation occurs
2. Aggressive children show lack of empathy or ability to see
things from another’s perspective
iii. Social Cognitive explanation
1. Focuses on environmental factors such as reinforcement
and observational learning
2. Children who are aggressive get their way
iv. Physical punishment
1. Children who are physically punished are more likely to be
aggressive themselves
2. Aggressive parents serve as models for aggression
7. Personality and Emotional Development
a. Development of a sense of self or self-concept
i. Sense of self emerges gradually during infancy
b. Definition of categorical self
i. Child has self-definitions (certain categories) that refer to concrete
external traits

125
 c. Difference between children with high self-esteem and children without
high self-esteem
i. Children with high self-esteem are more likely to be securely attach
and have parents who are attentive to them
d. Erikson’s initiative versus guilt stage; how it relates to early childhood
psychosocial development
i. Children strive to achieve independence from their parents and
master adult behaviors
8. Fears: The Horrors of Early Childhood
a. Changes in the fears of children during the preschool years
i. Number of fears peak between ages 2 ½ to 4 years; taper off after
that time
ii. Preschoolers fear animals, imaginary creatures, the dark, and
personal danger
iii. During middle school, children become less fearful of imaginary
creatures; fears of bodily harm and injury are common
9. Development of Gender Roles and Gender Differences
a. Definition of stereotype
i. Males as strong; females as weak
ii. Create demands and limit opportunities for both sexes
b. Definition of gender role
i. Cultural stereotypes of males and females are broad expectations
of behavior
c. Development of gender role for males and females within this culture
i. Develop in stages
1. First, children learn to label the sexes
2. Second, at age 2 to 2 and 1/2, child can identify pictures of
girls and boys
3. Third, by age 3, child displays knowledge of gender
stereotypes for toys, clothes, work
d. Observance of gender differences as children mature
i. Between ages 3 and 9 or 10, children become increasingly
traditional in their stereotypical of activities, jobs, and personality
traits,
10. Theories of the Development of Gender Differences
a. Role of evolution in Gender differences
i. Gender differences were fashioned by natural selection in response
to problems in adaptation,
b. Organization of the brain and its contribution to gender differences
i. Brain organization is largely genetically determined
ii. Study by Riepe and colleagues found differences in humans and
rats
1. How males and females used their hippocampus when
navigating a maze
c. Sex hormones role with gender differences
d. Social cognitive theory as it relates to “gender appropriate” behavior

126
 i. Role of rewards and punishments (reinforcements) for gender
typing
ii. Children’s observational learning of gender roles and behaviors
iii. Socialization by parents and teachers
e. Implications of cognitive-developmental theory on gender differences
during early childhood
i. Kohlberg’s cognitive-developmental theory of gender typing
ii. Children form concepts about gender and then fit their behavior to
the concepts
f. Kohlberg’s gender typing theory – three concepts
i. Gender identity
1. Knowledge that one is male or female
2. At age 2, most children can say whether then are a boy or
girl
ii. Gender stability
1. Recognize that people retain their gender for a lifetime
2. Occurs by age 4 or 5
iii. Gender constancy
1. Children recognize that people’s gender does not change
even if they change their dress or behavior
2. Occurs by age 5 to 7 years
g. Summary of gender-schema theory
i. Proposes that children use gender as one way of organizing their
perceptions of the world
ii. Consists of a cluster of concepts about male and female physical
traits, behaviors and personality traits

DISCUSSION TOPICS

Preschoolers’ Behavior
As pointed out in the text, preschoolers more readily comply with a request to do
something than to stop doing something. Thus, when a preschooler is engaged in an
activity you want them to stop, it is more effective to direct them in how you want them
to behave instead of how you don’t want them to behave. For instance, if a child is
yelling inside a classroom, you may instruct them to “Use your inside voice” instead of
“Stop yelling.” However, it is also important to be clear in your directive.

Developments of Self-Concept during Early Childhood: The Self in Time

Although self-recognition is only one facet of early self-concept, it is easily
operationalized into the “rouge test” and thus is often used in empirical studies. In the
rouge test, a dab of red rouge is surreptitiously placed on a child’s face. If a child has
acquired “self-concept”, the child will reach to her own face when they spot the rouge in
the mirror. This is typically achieved when a child is between 18 to 20 months of age.
However, a child doesn’t achieve a sense of self extended in time until about age 3 to 4.
This is typically indexed by video-delay task. In this task, a sticker is placed on the face

127
of a child while being videotaped. After a delay, the tape is played back for the children.
Those that have achieved a sense of self in time will reach to the sticker on their own
face (Howe, 2004).

Howe, M. L. (2004). Early memory, early self, and the emergence of autobiographical
memory. In D. R. Beike, J. M. Lempinen, & D. A. Behrend (Eds.), The self and
memory, (pp. 45-72). New York, NY: Psychological Press.

Gender Differences in Pretend Play

Much research has indicated that girls are more likely than boys to have imaginary
companions. However, recent research has demonstrated that 3- to 4-year old boys are
more likely than girls to impersonate characters (e.g., pretend to be a Power Ranger).
Further, when boys impersonate people, they are “significantly more likely than girls to
act out supernatural beings based on media figures.” This finding was interpreted to
show that these preschool-aged children are already well aware of gender roles, and
even their pretend play is consistent with these roles.

Carlson, S. M. & Taylor, M. (2005). Imaginary companions and impersonated

characters: Sex differences in children's fantasy play. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 51
(5), 93-118.

CLASS ACTIVITIES AND PROJECTS

Parenting Types
Present the following parenting dilemma, and have your students describe how an
authoritative, authoritarian, rejecting-neglecting, and permissive-indulgent parent might
respond. You may pose the question to the whole class or assign one parenting style to
each group. You could even have them present their answers in the form of a short skit.

Your first-grader has been having trouble in math class. Thus, your
child has been meeting with a tutor once a week after school. The tutor
is only available on that day and your child has a math test in coming
up in two days. However, on this particular day, your child’s best friend
that recently moved away is back in town for one day only. Your child
has begged you to be able to play with the friend instead of going to
tutoring…how do you respond?

Program to Reduce Aggression

Assign a small group of students to one of the theories of aggression presented in this
chapter. Based on their assigned theory, have students design an intervention program
to reduce physical aggression in preschoolers. (This will also require your students to
use the material on cognitive and language development they learned in the previous
chapter!) Have each group present to the class. Which does your class think will be the
most effective? (You may want to discuss the I Can Problem Solve curriculum
described above at this point to demonstrate a successful program).

128
Children’s Play
Have students go to local playgrounds and observe children playing. Have them
develop coding sheets prior to the observations or have them take detailed notes on
Parten’s play categories: onlooker, parallel, associative, dramatic, and cooperative play.
Students can also look for instances of aggressive behaviors, child and parent conflicts,
and gender differences. Do they see the developmental trends that Parten described?

Gender and Toys

Have students visit a toy store or find one on the web and examine the toy choices for
preschoolers. They should assess them for how they do or do not reflect stereotypical
male or female behavior (e.g., dolls and trucks). Then have students consider which
toys they would buy for their own children and the degree to which they think they will
buy male stereotypical toys for their sons and female stereotypical toys for their
daughters. Finally, have students consider how society views “sissies” versus “tomboys”
and how this influences parents’ (mothers and fathers) toy choices for their children
(girls and boys).

Reduce Childhood Fear

Have your students work in small groups. Have them pick a fear they personally had in
preschool (or use fear of dogs if they cannot come up with one on their own). Students
should use the information provided in the book to make two specific suggestions to a
parent trying to alleviate this fear in their preschooler. If an adult had this fear, would
you take a different approach? Explain how differences in cognitive abilities relate to
both the existence of fears and the treatment of fears.

Androgynous Behavior
Have students design a preschool to produce androgynous behavior in children.
Students should consider the physical environment, the books and supplies, the games
and toys, as well as teacher behaviors. Then have them comment on the degree to
which such a school would be popular or unpopular and why.

A Letter from a Concerned Mom: A Gender Case Study

Present students with one of four versions of a "Letter from a Concerned Mom." You
may want to assign a particular model of gender role development and ask students to
respond from that perspective, or you can allow students to choose one or more
models. Students should answer the following questions and then compose a reply to
"Concerned Mom."

Questions to be answered:
1. What is gender identity?
2. How do children develop gender stability?
3. How do children develop gender roles?
a. According to the psychoanalytical model?
b. According to the social learning theory model?

129
 c. According to the cognitive developmental theory model?
d. According to the gender schema model?
4. What is the "time table" for children developing gender stereotypes?
5. What are some questions you would want to ask "Concerned Mom" about this
situation?

Version 1: My 4.5-year-old son daily pretends he is female in his play. He adores frilly
things, purses, makeup, jewelry, etc. He is typically a female character when pretending
with his friends. He has many interests but especially dance. I have allowed him to
pretend to be whoever he wants to be. There are many other dress-up costumes
(firefighter, policeman), and he pretends all of these characters as well as animals
regularly, but he chooses female roles most often. When we are playing, he tells me I
can't be king because I am a girl. He always enjoyed playing with girls but has several
male buddies. My husband and I disagree about the normalcy of this play. I believe it is
healthy to let him play whatever he wants. My husband thinks this has gone on too long
and that our son has gone overboard. We have quarreled about this. How concerned
should we be? Is this unhealthy play?

Version 2: My 4.5-year-old daughter daily pretends she is male in her play. She adores
mechanical things, insects and bugs, and generally rough play, etc. She is typically a
male character when pretending with her friends. She has many interests but especially
wrestling. I have allowed her to pretend to be whoever she wants to be. There are many
other dress-up costumes (ballerina, princess), and she pretends all of these characters
as well as animals regularly, but she chooses male roles most often. When we are
playing, she tells me I can't be a prince because I am a girl. She always enjoyed playing
with boys but has several female friends. My husband and I disagree about the
normalcy of this play. My husband believes it is healthy to let her play whatever she
wants. I think this has gone on too long and that our daughter has gone overboard. We
have quarreled about this. How concerned should we be? Is this unhealthy play?

Version 3: My 4.5-year-old son daily pretends he is female in his play. He adores frilly
things, purses, makeup, jewelry, etc. He is typically a female character when pretending
with his friends. He has many interests but especially dance. I have allowed him to
pretend to be whoever he wants to be. There are many other dress-up costumes
(fireman, police), and he pretends all of these characters as well as animals regularly,
but he chooses female roles most often. When we are playing, he tells me I can't be a
king because I am a girl. He always enjoyed playing with girls but has several male
friends. My partner and I disagree about the normalcy of this play. I believe it is healthy
to let him play whatever he wants. My partner thinks this has gone on too long and that
our son has gone overboard. I believe that my partner is concerned that others will
blame our lifestyle on this problem (i.e. What do you expect from a boy with two
Moms?) We have quarreled about this. How concerned should we be? Is this unhealthy
play?

130
Version 4: My 4.5-year-old son daily pretends he is female in his play. He adores frilly
things, purses, makeup, jewelry, etc. He is typically a female character when pretending
with his friends. He has many interests but especially dance. I have allowed him to
pretend to be whoever he wants to be. There are many other dress-up costumes
(fireman, police), and he pretends all of these characters as well as animals regularly,
but he chooses female roles most often. When we are playing, he tells me I can't be a
king because I am a girl. He always enjoyed playing with girls but has several male
friends. I believe it is healthy to let my son play whatever he wants. However, at my
son's preschool the teachers have become alarmed at his play and have advised me
that my son has gone overboard. I believe that the teachers are concerned that since I
am a single Mom, perhaps my son is missing out on important role models by not
having a father. I don't really know how to answer them. How concerned should I be? Is
this unhealthy play?

BEYOND THE BOOK

I Can Problem Solve!

Most effective programs designed to reduce aggression in preschool involve working
with children and parents. However, as not all parents are willing and interested
participants, it is important to have interventions that target only the child. One program
that research has shown is effective is the I Can Problem Solve curriculum for
preschoolers. Children trained in this program, as compared to control children,
demonstrated reduced levels in aggression (physical and verbal), inability to wait and
cope with frustration, and social withdrawal. The program works by teaching children
how to think of non-aggressive solutions to problems. The program uses games,
stories, puppets, and role plays to engage preschoolers. Your students may be
interested in seeing a sample lesson from this curriculum, which is freely available
online (http://www.researchpress.com/product/item/4628/ ).

ANSWER KEY: TRUTH OR FICTION?

1. Parents who are restrictive and demand mature behavior wind up with rebellious
children, not mature children.
FALSE. Consistent control and firm enforcement of rules can have positive
consequences for the child, particularly when combined with strong support and
affection (Page 159).
2. Firstborn children are more highly motivated to achieve than later-born children.
TRUE. It is true that firstborn children, as a group, are more highly motivated to
achieve than later-born children (Page 161).

131
3. Children who are physically punished are more likely to be aggressive.
TRUE. Physically aggressive parents serve as models for aggression and also stoke
their children's anger (Page 165).
4. There is no scientific evidence that violence in the media contributes to aggression.
FALSE. There is no simple one-to-one connection between media violence and
violence in real life. But, exposure to violence in the media increases the probability
of violence in viewers in several ways (Page 166).
5. The most common fear among preschoolers is fear of social disapproval.
FALSE. Preschoolers are most likely to have fears that revolve around animals,
imaginary creatures, the dark, and personal safety (Page 168).

VIDEO SUGGESTIONS

Observing Children and Adolescents: The Video (2004 Wadsworth). Footage of children
and adolescents in a variety of naturalistic settings.

Family Influence (1992, Insight Media, 30 minutes). Topics include parenting styles,
birth order effects, nontraditional family structures, and divorce.

Disciplining Children (1991, Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 9 minutes).
Discusses differences between discipline and punishment.

The Ecology of Development (1992, Insight Media, 30 minutes). Cross-cultural

examination of families.

Birth Order and Its Effects (1997, Insight Media, 18 minutes). Covers research on the
effects of birth order and being an only child.

Brothers and Sisters: Sibling Relationships (1997, Films for the Humanities and Social
Sciences, 52 minutes). Documentary on this topic including interviews with experts in
the area.

Brothers and Sisters: Love and Hate (1994, Insight Media, 16 minutes). Examines the
complexities of sibling relationships and their influence on development.

Just Mom and Me (2000, Filmakers Library, 60 minutes). Examines mother-headed

households.

Lost Boys (1995, Filmakers Library, 30 minutes). Profiles several males who have
experienced growing up without a father.

132
Play: A Vygotskian Approach (1996, Davidson Films, 26 minutes). Presents both
Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s approaches and then argues for the critical role of play in both
cognitive development as well as socialization.

The Promise of Play: The Mother of Invention (2000, Insight Media, 56 minutes). Recent
research in the areas of human and non-human primate play with Jane Goodall and
Brian Sutton-Smith.

Play and the Social World: Acquiring Social Intelligence (1994, Films for the Humanities
and Social Sciences, 25 minutes). Includes imaginary and cooperative play and the
need for some adult guidance.

Toys (1994, Filmakers Library, 47 minutes). Examines historical changes in the toys
provided to children, including a discussion by Jerome Kagan about relations between
toys and behavior (including gendered behavior).

Emotional Intelligence: The Key to Social Skills (1997, Films for the Humanities and
Social Sciences, 29 minutes). Covers cognitive and social aspects of developing social
skills.

Monsters in the Closet: Childhood Fears (1997, Films for the Humanities and the Social
Sciences, 17 minutes). Covers fears and hope parents can deal with in preschoolers.

Sex Roles: Charting the Complexity of Development (1991, Insight Media, 60 minutes).
Covers all aspects of the theories of gender development and sex roles, including the
Freudian, cognitive-developmental, and social-learning perspectives.

How Boys and Girls Differ: The First Six Years (2002, Insight Media, 20 minutes).
Examines developmental differences, stereotypes, and parental and cultural influences.

Woman and Man (no year, Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 52 minutes).
Covers wide range of topics related to gender differences.

The Story of Fathers and Sons (1999, Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 46
minutes). Contemporary and historical account of father-son relationships.

The Story of Mothers and Daughters (1997, Films for the Humanities and Social
Sciences, 46 minutes). Contemporary and historical account of mother-daughter
relationships.

Sex Hormones and Sexual Destiny (no year, Films for the Humanities and Social
Sciences, 26 minutes). Covers relations between hormones and brain development and
functioning and gender differences.

133
KEY TERMS

Inductive Disinhibit
Authoritative Self-concept
Authoritarian Categorical self
Permissive-indulgent Stereotype
Rejecting-neglecting Gender role
Regression Gender identity
Dramatic play Gender stability
Nonsocial play Gender constancy
Social play Gender-schema theory
Prosocial behavior

134
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARCHIBALD

MARSHALL, A REALISTIC NOVELIST ***
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ARCHIBALD MARSHALL
ARCHIBALD MARSHALL
A Realistic Novelist

BY
WILLIAM LYON PHELPS
Lampson Professor of English Literature at Yale

WITH FRONTISPIECE

NEW YORK
DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY
1919
 Copyright, 1918, by
DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY, Inc.
 TO
THE DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH
OF
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

NOTABLE FOR SCHOLARS AND TEACHERS AND TWO CREATIVE

ARTISTS

THE NOVELIST ROBERT HERRICK

THE POET WILLIAM VAUGHN MOODY
 PREFACE

The original form of this book was a lecture on the William Vaughn
Moody foundation at the University of Chicago, delivered on the sixth
of February, 1918. A portion of it was subsequently printed in the
North American Review. It now appears considerably revised and
enlarged.
W. L. P.
Yale University,
Tuesday, 21 May, 1918.
 ARCHIBALD MARSHALL
On a mellow day in the early autumn of the year 1900, I sat on an
old wooden bench in the open air with an English gentleman, and
listened to his conversation with a mixture of curiosity and
reverence. The place was one of the fairest counties of England, the
town on the other side of a screen of trees was Dorchester, and my
seat-mate was Thomas Hardy. I remember his saying without any
additional emphasis than the weight of the words, that the basis of
every novel should be a story. In considering this remark, which
came, not from a doctrinaire, but from a master of long and
triumphant experience, I could not help thinking that what seems
axiomatic is often belied by a majority of instances. Thus, we
church-members would agree that religion must take the first place
in our lives; yet a disinterested observer, who should begin at the
other end of the proposition and examine our lives merely to
discover what actually did take the first place therein, might
conceivably miss the element of religion altogether. In the same way,
while it would theoretically seem that every novel must be a story,
an honest critic who should examine the total product of prose
fiction for any given year in the twentieth century, might, in a large
number of cases, easily fail to find any story at all.
As we look back over the history of the English novel, it would
appear that every permanent work of fiction has been a great story.
Robinson Crusoe, Clarissa, Tom Jones, Humphry Clinker, The Bride
of Lammermoor, Pride and Prejudice, Esmond, David Copperfield,
The Mill on the Floss, Richard Feverel, The Return of the Native,
Treasure Island, The Last of the Mohicans, The Scarlet Letter,
Huckleberry Finn, although they represent various shades of realism
and romanticism, have all been primarily stories, in which we follow
the fortunes of the chief actors with steady interest. These books
owe their supremacy in fiction—at least, most of them do—to a
combination of narrative, character, and style; every one of them, if
given in colloquial paraphrase to a group of men around a camp-fire,
would be rewarded with attention.
Sometimes the very thing that gives a drama or a novel immediate
currency makes it smell of mortality; by taking advantage of some
hotly-discussed social question, general interest is awakened; but
when the question is obsolete, what becomes of the work of art? I
shall not venture to make a prediction; but I think it is at least
possible that some of the earlier plays of Ibsen, like The Pretenders,
may outlast some of the later ones, like Ghosts; the later ones blaze
with the flames of public debate, the earlier reflect the light of the
stars.
Of all forms of literature, the novel has suffered most by its
desertion of art for propaganda. It has been debased by its
popularity. It lends itself so easily as a channel for political, social or
religious oratory. Every theorist uses it as a megaphone. Although
novels are as common as grasshoppers, good stories are scarce.
Now this desertion of art for propaganda is founded on the fallacy
that a work of pure fiction cannot stand or ought not to stand by
itself, but should lean on politics, social reform, science, or theology
for support. We do not insist on a thesis in sculpture or music or
painting or poetry. There have been, indeed, many attempts to turn
Pegasus into a cart-horse; and unfortunately the attempt is almost
invariably successful.
I prefer novels that express the opinions of the characters in the
story to those that express the opinions of the author. I do not mean
that all novels ought to be impersonal; such a result, even when
most ardently desired by the novelist, is impossible of achievement.
The work of every true artist reflects his personality, and is, in a
sense, subjective. Even the coldest novels betray their makers'
sympathies, and the standpoint from which they regard the world.
But there is a difference between having ideas and arguing a case.
Women who have ideas are always more interesting than those who
have only opinions.
Why is it that so many novelists write their best books early in their
careers? Is it not sometimes because the original impelling artistic
impulse becomes dulled in contact with society, and thoughts take
the place of thought? The thorns of this world spring up and choke
them. It is by no accident that The Mill on the Floss is a greater
novel than Daniel Deronda.
The most enduring novels come from the silent depths in a writer's
soul, not from the turbulent shallows. To live deeply is easier in a
country where deep living has been done for centuries than in a
country whose human history is brief. If we should really feel
chagrined by America's native contribution to literature in
comparison with that of Europe, we might justifiably console
ourselves by comparing America with Australia. Surely one reason
why the British today write novels rather better than the Americans,
is because their roots go down deeper into the rich soil of the past.
Men of genius are scarce in any locality, and I am not at this
moment thinking of them; but I am constantly surprised at the large
number of contemporary novels produced in Great Britain whose
literary style bears the unmistakable stamp of distinction. There are
leaders, whose names are known everywhere; there are men and
women who might conceivably be leaders if they lived out of Europe.
The best reason why many admirable twentieth century works of
prose fiction in England fail to attract general attention is because
the level of excellence is so high.
 II
H. G. Wells is not the hero of this book. I am holding my roses for a
figure that has not yet appeared upon my little stage. But the career
of Mr. Wells, whose novels have almost every quality except charm,
is interesting to contemplate. That he is a born novelist was clear to
me so early as the year 1895, when one of his best stories appeared
—The Wheels of Chance. Not long after came the novels of science
and socialism that carried his name around the world; he was
discussed in the salons of Paris and in the prisons of Siberia. His
books were all busy, noisy, talkative, restless; they reflected in their
almost truculent mental aggressiveness the mass of undigested and
indigestible quasi-scientific fodder that perhaps disturbs more than it
nourishes the twentieth century stomach; they made many readers
fondly believe they were living the intellectual life. I mistakenly
supposed he would keep up this squirrel-cage activity to the end of
his days; for I mistakenly supposed in all this clatter he was
incapable of hearing the voice of the spirit. I used to think that if all
the world suddenly became religious except one man, that man
would be H. G. Wells.
The war, which diverted the energies of so many quiet thinkers to
matters of immediate and practical efficiency, produced a rather
different effect upon this interesting man. He began to regard things
that are temporal in relation to those of eternal import. He became
converted—I have no hesitation in using the good old word—and
while I can see no evidence of conviction of sin, for humility is not
his most salient characteristic, he did come to believe and believes
now, that religion ought to be the motive power of man. What
direction his ideas may take in the future I cannot divine; but I am
thankful for his conversion, if only for the reason that it inspired him
to produce a masterpiece, Mr. Britling Sees It Through. This novel is
not only far and away his best book, it is the ablest work of fiction
about the war that I have read. But it owes its eminence not to its
accurate reporting of the course of social history during the war, for
after all, the much admired hockey-game is not much higher than
major journalism, but rather to the profound sense of spiritual values
which is the core of the book.
I regard it as unfortunate that Mr. Wells felt it necessary to follow up
the triumph of this tale with a treatise on theology called God the
Invisible King, and with a propagandist novel, called The Soul of a
Bishop. For the last-named book illustrates all the faults of its
species, as well as the cardinal sin against art. Mr. Britling Sees It
Through is religious; The Soul of a Bishop is sectarian. And God the
Invisible King, while it should be read with sympathy for its author's
sincerity and newly-found idealism, has all the arrogance and cock-
sureness of an old-fashioned theologian without the preliminary
years of devoted learning that gave the old-fashioned one some
right to a hearing, provided of course he could induce any one to
listen to him. No orthodox evangelist has ever been more sure of
God than Mr. Wells. The novel was properly named Mr. Britling Sees
It Through; and we might with equal propriety name the treatise,
Mr. Britling Sees Through It.
Strange and unfortunate that Mr. Wells should think that the
religious element in Mr. Britling needed additional emphasis. A work
of art founded on eternal verities will accomplish more for the cause
of religion than any tract. Solely from the moral point of view, Anna
Karenina is a more impressive book than most of its author's
subsequent exhortations.
The Soul of a Bishop is not a realistic novel, for there is no real
character in it. It is already on its way to limbo, along with Robert
Elsmere and The Inside of the Cup. But it is an excellent illustration
of the fate that awaits an artist when he sacrifices the truth of art for
the enforcement of personal opinion. There was a time when the
excitement over the question of trades-unions produced by Put
Yourself in His Place was at fever heat; but that novel today is
almost forgotten, while The Cloister and the Hearth will be read by
generation after generation, simply because it is a great story.
 III
In order to illustrate what I mean by a realistic novelist whose
happiest effects are gained by writing good stories with real
characters, I know of no better choice among contemporaries than
Archibald Marshall. He is an artist of such dignity and refinement
that only twice in his career has he written a novel that had for its
main purpose something other than truth to life; in each of these
two attempts the result was a failure.
I know how difficult it is to "recommend" novels to hungry readers,
for I have written prescriptions to alleviate many kinds of mental
trouble, yes, and physical ailments too; but how can I be sure that
the remedy will in every "case" be effective? I know that Treasure
Island cured me of an attack of tonsillitis and that Queed cured me
of acute indigestion; a United States naval officer informed me that
he recovered from jaundice simply by reading Pride and Prejudice.
These are facts; but what assurance have I that other sufferers can
try these prescriptions with reasonable hope? Yet I have no
hesitancy in recommending Archibald Marshall to any group of men
or women or to any individual of mature growth. One scholar of sixty
years of age told me that these novels had given him a quite new
zest in life; and I myself, who came upon them on one of the
luckiest days of my existence, confidently affirm the same judgment.
Of the numerous persons that I have induced to read these books, I
have met with only one sceptic; this was a shrewd, sharp-minded
woman of eighty, who declared with a hearty laugh that she found
them insupportably tame. I understand this hostility, for when girls
reach the age of eighty, they demand excitement.
Those who are familiar with Mr. Marshall's work and life will easily
discover therein echoes of his own experience. He is an Englishman
by birth and descent, familiar with both town and country. He was
born on the sixth of September, 1866, and received in his home life
and preliminary training plenty of material which appeared later in
the novels. His father came from the city, like the father in Abington
Abbey; he himself was graduated from Trinity College, Cambridge,
like the son of Peter Binney; it was intended but not destined that he
should follow his father's business career, and he worked in a city
office like the son of Armitage Brown; he went to Australia like the
hero's sister in Many Junes; he made three visits to America, but
fortunately has not yet written an American novel; he studied
theology with the intention of becoming a clergyman in the Church
of England, like so many young men in his stories; in despair at
finding a publisher for his work, he became a publisher himself, and
issued his second novel, The House of Merrilees, which had as much
success as it deserved; he tried journalism before and during the
war; he lived in two small Sussex towns with literary associations,
Winchelsea and Rye, in the latter from 1908 to 1913; then until 1917
his home was in Switzerland; he has now gone back to the scene of
his university days, Cambridge.
In 1902 he was married and lived for some time in Beaulieu
(pronounced Bewly) in the New Forest, faithfully portrayed in Exton
Manor. He spent three happy years there planning and making a
garden, like the young man in The Old Order Changeth. Although his
novels are filled with hunting and shooting, he is not much of a
sportsman himself, being content only to observe. He loves the
atmosphere of sport rather than sport. His favourite recreations are
walking, reading, painting, and piano-playing, and the outdoor
flavour of his books may in part be accounted for by the fact that
much of his writing is done in the open air.
Like many another successful man of letters, his first step was a
false start; for in 1899 he produced a novel called Peter Binney,
Undergraduate, which has never been republished in America, and
perhaps never will be. This is a topsy-turvy book, where an ignorant
father insists on entering Cambridge with his son; and after many
weary months of coaching, succeeds in getting his name on the
books. The son is a steady-headed, unassuming boy, immensely
popular with his mates; the father, determined to recapture his lost
youth, disgraces his son and the college by riotous living, and is
finally expelled. The only good things in the book are the excellent
pictures of May Week and some snap-shots at college customs; but
the object of the author is so evident and he has twisted reality so
harshly in order to accomplish it, that we have merely a work of
distortion.
For six years our novelist remained silent; and he never returned to
the method of reversed dynamics until the year 1915, when he
published Upsidonia, another failure. Once again his purpose is all
too clear; possibly irritated by the exaltation of slum stories and the
depreciation of the characters of the well-to-do often insisted upon
in such works, he wrote a satire in the manner of Erewhon, and
called it a novel. Here poverty and dirt are regarded as the highest
virtues, and the possession of wealth looked upon as the sure and
swift road to social ostracism. There is not a gleam of the author's
true skill in this book, mainly because he is so bent on arguing his
case that exaggeration triumphs rather too grossly over
verisimilitude. He is, of course, trying to write nonsense; a mark that
some authors have hit with deliberate aim, while perhaps more have
attained the same result with less conscious intention. Now Mr.
Marshall cannot write nonsense even when he tries; and failure in
such an effort is particularly depressing. He is at his best when his
art is restrained and delicate; in Upsidonia he drops the engraving-
tool and wields a meat-axe. Let us do with Peter Binney and with
Upsidonia what every other reader has done; let us try to forget
them, remembering only that two failures in fifteen books is not a
high proportion.
Of the remaining thirteen novels, two attained only a partial success;
and the reason is interesting. These two are The House of Merrilees
and Many Junes (1908). The former was written in 1901 but
publishers would none of it, and it did not wear a print dress until
1905. Meanwhile the author was trying his hand at short stories, for
which his method of work is not particularly fitted, his skill being in
the development of character rather than in the manufacture of
incident. He did, however, publish a collection of these tales in one
volume, called The Terrors, which appeared in 1913, their previous
separate publication covering a period of sixteen years. They are
amazingly unequal in value; some are excellent, and others trivial.
This volume is out of print, and whether any of the contents may be
rescued from oblivion is at present problematical. It is interesting,
however, that he, at the outset of his career, supposed that
invention, rather than observation, was his trump card. The realism
of The House of Merrilees is mixed with melodrama and mystery;
these are, in the work of a dignified artist, dangerous allies, greater
liabilities than assets. In a personal letter he confesses that this
artificial plot hampered him; but he goes on to say, "the range of
scene and character in that book is something that I have never
been able to catch since." He has since—with only one relapse—
happily forsaken artificially constructed mysteries for the deepest
mystery of all—the human heart. In Many Junes, a story that will be
reprinted in America in 1919, we have pictures of English country life
of surpassing loveliness; we have an episode as warm and as
fleeting as June itself; we have a faithful analysis of the soul of a
strange and solitary man, damned from his birth by lack of decision.
But the crisis in the tale is brought about by an accident so
improbable that the reader refuses to believe it. The moment our
author forsakes reality he is lost; it is as necessary for him to keep
the truth as it was for Samson to keep his hair. Furthermore, this is
the only one of Mr. Marshall's books that has a tragic close—and his
art cannot flourish in tragedy, any more than a native of the tropics
can live in Lapland. The bleak air of lost illusion and frustrated hope,
in which the foremost living novelist, appropriately named, finds his
soul's best climate, is not favourable to Archibald Marshall.
The "relapse" mentioned in the preceding paragraph occurred in the
year 1912, when he published a long and wildly exciting novel,
called The Mystery of Redmarsh Farm. This has all the marks of a
"best-seller" and went through several editions in England, though it
has not yet been reprinted in America. I regard the writing of this
book as the most dangerous moment in Mr. Marshall's career, for its
immediate commercial success might easily have tempted him to
continue in the same vein, and if he had, he would have sunk to the
level of a popular entertainer, and lost his position among British
novelists of the past and present. Curiously enough, it came
between two of his best works in the Clinton series, The Eldest Son
(1911) and The Honour of the Clintons (1913). Maybe the chilling
reception given to his finest stories drove him to a cheaper style of
composition. Maybe his long second visit to Australia, where he saw
and shared experiences quite unlike his English environment, made
him try his hand at mystery and crime. In 1911 he had published
Sunny Australia, the result of a sojourn on that continent, whither he
had gone as special commissioner for the Daily Mail. There is a good
deal of superficial cleverness in The Mystery of Redmarsh Farm; its
plot is elaborate, with a flavour of Lohengrin; the beautiful lonely
maiden's young brother is stolen by a villain and rescued by a young
hero who is appropriately named Knightly; a misunderstanding
separates the girl and her lover, who sails away to Australia. Unlike
Lohengrin, however, he returns, and all is well. There is a
conventional detective, and a murder trial and a shipwreck and a
recognition scene—I kept looking back to the title page to see if the
author really was Archibald Marshall. It is as though Joseph Conrad
should write like Marie Corelli. Yet although some of the characters
are unreal and the plot artificial and the villain theatrical, the
environment, whether in England or in Australia, is as accurately
painted as in Mr. Marshall's best stories. He will not write of places
that he has not seen. When the gypsies are found, they are found in
the New Forest; and any one who reads this yarn immediately after
Sunny Australia, will see that these distant scenes are correctly
described.
 IV
It was in the year 1906, and in the novel Richard Baldock, that he
revealed his power. This book, which will make its first American
appearance in the autumn of 1918, contains a story so absorbing
that it is only in the retrospect that one realizes the vitality of its
characters and the delicacy of its art. There are no heroes and no
villains. Every person has the taint that we all inherited from Adam,
and every person has some reflection of the grace of God. There is
no one who does not say something foolish or ill-considered; and
there is no one who does not say something wise. In other words
there are no types, like "heavies," "juveniles," and "ingenues." As is
the case in nearly all the novels by its author, we are constantly
revising our opinions of the characters; and we revise them, not
because the characters are untrue, but because we learn to know
them better. Human nature is consistent only in its inconsistency. It
is forever fluid and dynamic; and although no individual has ever
understood another, and least of all himself, increasing knowledge
helps to make us certain of our uncertainty. No man will play the
part his friends have written for him. One reason why Shakespeare
was a first-rate and Jonson a second-rate dramatist is because
Jonson created humours and Shakespeare created individuals.
Among all Shakespeare's personages, Hamlet is the most interesting
to readers and the most baffling to commentators; because the
latter try to adjust him to a theory of madness, weak will, or what
not. Is not the fact that he has never been understood by any one
and never will be, the strongest proof of his reality? Some think he
lacked backbone; others insist he was all backbone; some think he
was mad; others that he only pretended to be mad; while America's
greatest Shakespearean scholar said he was neither mad nor
pretended to be. A young gentleman of Hamlet's copious
temperament, placed as he was amid natural and supernatural
forces, might easily at times seem to illustrate any one of the above
appraisals. Indeed I suppose the sanest and most resolute among us
seem at times to lack either resolution or sanity or both.
The more complex a character, the less dependable he is. And
everybody has some complexity. Even quiet Horatio, beloved of
Hamlet for his steady self-control, tried to commit suicide.
Every fine novel and every fine drama must of course illustrate the
law of causation—the principle of sufficient reason. But characters
that run in grooves are not human. In Richard Baldock, we have, as
we so often have in the work of Archibald Marshall, strife between
father and son—a kind of civil war. This war, like many others, is
begotten of misunderstanding. There is not only the inevitable
divergence between the older and the younger generation, there is
the divergence between two powerful individualities. We at first
sympathize wholly with the son. We say to ourselves that if any man
is foolish enough to sacrifice all his joy in life to a narrow creed, why,
after all, that is his affair; it is only when he attempts to impose this
cheerless and barren austerity on others, that we raise the flag of
revolt. At the deathbed of the young mother, one of the most
memorable scenes in our author's books, we are quite certain that
we shall never forgive the inflexible bigot; this hatred for him is
nourished when he attempts to crush the son as he did crush his
wife. Yet, as the story develops, and we see more deeply into the
hearts of all the characters, we understand how the chasm between
father and son is finally crossed. It is crossed by the only durable
bridge in the world—the bridge of love, which beareth all things.
Tolerance—when based not on indifference, but on sympathy—is
tolerant even of intolerance.
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