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Exploring young students' talk in iPad-supported collaborative learning

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DOI: 10.1016/j.compedu.2014.04.008

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Computers & Education 77 (2014) 13–28

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Computers & Education

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compedu

Exploring young students’ talk in iPad-supported

collaborative learning environments
Garry Falloon a, *, Elaine Khoo b,1
a
The Faculty of Education, University of Waikato, Hillcrest Rd, Hamilton, New Zealand
b
The Wilf Malcolm Institute for Educational Research, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In the few years since its release, Apple’s iPad has generated much discussion about its potential to
Received 14 January 2014 support student learning at all levels of the education system. Much of this has focused on its physical
Received in revised form and technical attributes, such as portability, touch-display, connectivity, and large array of apps. How-
8 April 2014
ever, a few studies have begun to explore possible advantages of iPads being used as public work spaces,
Accepted 8 April 2014
Available online 24 April 2014
enabling students to interact more collaboratively when creating learning outputs. These studies point to
other affordances such as the iPad’s ability to lay flat on a desk or be propped at a convenient angle, its
wide viewing range and multi-user accessible interface, as being particularly relevant in supporting
Keywords:
iPad collaboration.
Collaborative Between June and November 2013, researchers from the University of Waikato used a specifically
Learning developed ‘observeware’ app to capture display and audio data while young students (5 year olds) were
Talk using iPads in pairs for developing numeracy, literacy and problem-solving/decision-making skills. The
Interaction study used Mercer’s (1994) talk types framework to explore the nature of talk students engaged in while
they were using the iPads and interacting with each other and their teacher, and also how features of the
device may have influenced this.
Results indicated exceptionally high levels of on-task talk, but that this was mostly of an affirming and
non-critical nature and unsupportive of outcome improvement or refinement. While the iPad offered
unique potential as a shared, public learning device, the pedagogical role of the teacher in realising this
by helping students learn appropriate ‘ground rules’ to raise talk quality, was critical. This article details
the methodology used and the results of the study. It discusses the important role teachers play in
helping young students build oral-interaction strategies to capitalise on high levels of learning
engagement, and the unique features of these devices.
Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

1.1. iPads and student learning

Since their launch in early 2010, the iPad has stimulated much interest at all levels of education as a breakthrough or “game changer”
(Geist, 2011, p. 758) learning device. Unique features such as its touch screen interface, light and compact form factor, ubiquitous wireless
connectivity and wide array of apps, have been cited as offering unique affordances particularly suited to educational use (Dhir, Gahwaji, &
Nyman, 2013). While much early commentary took the form of promotional hype or teacher and newspaper stories, recent studies have
emerged of a more substantial nature, illustrating outcomes from iPad use in different learning contexts ranging from special education (e.g.,
Miller, Krockover, & Doughty, 2013) through to tertiary settings (e.g., Cochrane, Narayan, & Oldfield, 2013; Geist, 2011). Other studies have
explored their use for particular purposes such as promoting early years literacy (e.g., Falloon, 2013a; Getting & Swainey, 2012; Hutchison,

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ64 7 838 4466x6553.

E-mail addresses: [email protected] (G. Falloon), [email protected] (E. Khoo).
1
Tel.: þ64 7 858 5171x6260.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.04.008
0360-1315/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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14 G. Falloon, E. Khoo / Computers & Education 77 (2014) 13–28

Beschorner, & Schmidt-Crawford, 2012; McClanahan, Williams, Kennedy, & Tate, 2012), written language (e.g., Falloon, 2013b) and STEM
concepts (e.g., Aronin & Floyd, 2013).
Recently, attention has focused on an observed ‘engagement factor’ when students use the devices, and how they appear better capable
than other technologies such as laptops and desktop computers, to promote learner collaboration. An interesting study undertaken by
Fisher, Lucas, and Galstyan (2013) compared using iPads and laptops with student pairs for teaching business calculus. Their observational
study of students using both devices revealed significant benefits from using iPads, if learner collaboration is a goal. They determined one of
the main advantages was the iPad’s ability to support “transition back and forth from private to public work spaces” (p. 165). That is, their
design (portability, large screen, multiple viewing angles, ability to be manipulated by more than one person etc.) enabled the device to act
both as a private work space and as a “public centre of communication” (Fisher et al., 2013, p. 176). They concluded this supported
collaboration throughout a learning task. Laptops, on the other hand, tended to be used more privately, the screen and keyboard in particular
acting as barriers to collaboration, leading to the “sharing of information only at the conclusion of a problem” (p. 176). However, they
acknowledged limitations to their study in terms of its reliance on observed actions. They suggested that additional research was needed
that explored the nature of student dialogue associated with collaborative action, to better determine how device interaction impacts upon
the way students discuss mathematics.
Some studies have pointed to perceptions of enhanced learner on-task engagement when using iPads (e.g., Henderson & Yeow, 2012;
Manuguerra & Petocz, 2011). Others have offered a contesting view, claiming that the device distracted students from intended learning
due to challenges involving unrelated apps and websites (Rossing, Miller, Cecil, & Stamper, 2012), or pop up advertisements (Falloon, 2013a).
A recent study by Hoffman (2013) undertaken in a 1:1 iPad classroom explored students’ engagement with learning tasks using iPads, and
specifically, whether or not their perceptions of levels of engagement (defined as on/off task behaviour) matched observational data. Data
for her study of 55 English class students aged 14 and 15 were collected using classroom observation (on/off-task tallies and field notes) and
whole class discussion (prompted dialogue on the 1:1 programme and any affect on learning behaviour). Her findings were mixed, and
suggested that while students observationally demonstrated high levels of on-task response, this was due more to the perceived importance
of the task, the extent to which the task was engaging, and the teaching style of the teacher. Students rated highly personalising the device
and the ability to set it up according to individual preferences. They linked this with effectiveness and efficiency by reducing the need to
adjust settings or adapt to multiple organisational systems, as was often the case when devices are shared. Countering these, negative
comments were made that it was easy to disguise non-learning activity such as messaging or social networking, due to the ease with which
apps could be shuffled. Other comments highlighted student difficulties in learning using a visual display – that is, they perceived they
learnt better when they needed to “physically write the words out, instead of just pressing buttons” (Hoffman, 2013, p. 15).
Apart from these studies, very little research has been undertaken exploring how device affordances such as those mentioned by Fisher
et al. (2013) and Hoffman (2013) may affect the way young students learn when using iPads in pairs or small groups. However, considerable
empirical evidence exists demonstrating how learning with and through technology can help develop skills such as student collaboration,
interactivity, communication and negotiation, when engaged in socioculturally-based learning tasks (e.g., Goodfellow, 2001; Hollan &
Stornetta, 1992; Roschelle et al., 2010; Staarman, 2009; Zurita & Nussbaum, 2004).

1.2. Using talk to analyse student interaction and collaboration

Neil Mercer’s early research exploring student group talk while engaged in computer-based learning provided some insights into the
nature of their collaboration, and how language they used assisted them (or not) to construct knowledge needed to solve learning problems.
In the SLANT project (Spoken Language and New Technology), Mercer (1994) explored “the quality of talk in computer-assisted collaborative
activity” (p. 24) to evaluate its nature, and “better understand the role of the teacher in supporting computer-based talk activities” (p. 25). He
was also interested in learning more about software design, and its influence on children’s talk.
Groups of primary school students were videoed working on a range of curriculum-related computer learning tasks, and an analysis of
their conversations was carried out to identify the nature of talk they engaged in. Mercer identified three distinct ‘talk types’ that he
classified as disputational, cumulative and exploratory. Disputational talk was ‘argumentative’ in nature, where students offered challenge to
each other’s ideas, but without justification or offering alternatives. Cumulative talk was more conciliatory, and typically represented
agreement or continuance without the argumentative elements of disputational talk. Exploratory talk supported reasoning, and displayed
student capacity to interact with “the reasoned arguments of others when drawing conclusions, making decisions, and so on” (Mercer, 1994,
p. 27). Mercer cautioned against judging one talk-type as being inherently better than the other, as each had its place in the appropriate
context. However, he speculated that computer-supported activities designed to promote exploratory talk were the most desirable, given
broader educational goals of developing critical thinking and reasoning capabilities.
Mercer also identified four variables that strongly influenced the quality and nature of student talk. These were the physical attributes
and design of the hardware, layout and organisation of the equipment, design and content of software, and the nature of the learning task.
He commented that it was difficult to extract individual levels of influence of each of these variables on student interaction, as each in some
way affected the others and stimulated different types of talk. However, an interesting finding relevant to this study was the powerful role of
software design in promoting talk of an exploratory nature. Mercer determined that software of an open design – that is, requiring students
to generate their own content or negotiate solutions to open-ended puzzles or challenges, prompted the most exploratory discussion;
whereas software of a closed, highly-structured design (such as games and drills) generated “very little extended, continuous discussion of
any kind” (p. 29).
Building on his earlier research (Edwards & Mercer, 1987; Mercer & Edwards, 1981), Mercer (1996) strongly argued that teachers should
assist students to develop understanding of ‘ground rules’ that encourage talk supportive of solving intellectual problems, and the joint
construction of knowledge. He described these as “explicit norms and expectations that it is necessary to take into account to participate
successfully in educational discourse” (p. 363). Far from being a common sense consideration, Mercer claims understanding how group
computer-supported learning (CSL) tasks are carried out, and the oral skills best suited to achieving successful outcomes, need to be made
clear, and if necessary, taught, modelled and practised with students. His research revealed that often students involved in CSL appeared to
be “operating disparate sets of ground rules for talking and collaborating” (p. 371). He found little evidence of talk suggesting thoughtful
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Table 1
The selected apps, description and learning purpose.

App Description Teacher-specified learning goal/purpose

Puppet Pals HD This app enables students to create their own puppet shows Story recount. Students were to use Puppet Pals HD to
and animated stories reconstruct key events in the plot from a drama production
with recorded audio using a single character set (free version). that had visited the school recently (The Big Sad Wolf).
Other character sets
and features (e.g., use of photographs) are available for a fee.
Pic Collage This app provides an environment for students to Summarising learning from a unit on ‘Celebrations’ – in this
construct collage pictures using instance, Easter. Students were to create a Pic Collage
textboxes, photographs, web images, stickers etc. and to share responding to the question: What does Easter mean for you?
them via social media, email etc.
Popplet This app is a mind/concept-mapping tool Story plan development. Students used Popplet to plan the
designed for young students. main features of a story they were writing about themselves.
They can integrate text, photos and drawings into They were provided initial ideas for content headers via
popples which can be teacher-led discussion.
linked into maps, diagrams, charts, lists etc.

evaluation of information, constructively critical appraisal of others’ contributions, or shared decision-making. However, following struc-
tured teaching interventions designed to promote exploratory talk, considerable increases were noted, in addition to higher levels of task
enthusiasm and involvement. These interventions included learning tasks requiring information and idea sharing, the offering and sup-
porting of assertions and opinions, questioning, negotiating agreement, and collective responsibility for outcomes. Mercer’s early work
provides insights into the potential of group CSL to construct powerful environments for fostering and extending talk as a “social mode of
thinking” (p. 374). That is, it highlights the opportunity CSL environments present for improving the performance of student talk as an aid to
joint knowledge construction. However, it alerts that this cannot be taken for granted, and that the teacher has a pivotal role to play to
ensure this potential is realised.
Mercer’s framework has been used in a recent study by Kucirkova, Messer, Sheehy, and Panadero (2014) that explored the engagement
and talk of pre-school children with a story creation app (‘Our Story’) and a small range of colouring, drawing and construction/puzzle apps.
They used a combination of Bangert-Drowns and Pyke’s (2001) taxonomy of student engagement with educational software and Mercer’s
exploratory talk, to interpret video and audio data from forty-one 4 and 5 year old Spanish pre-schoolers, who were using the apps un-
supervised during free-choice activity time. Interestingly, their analysis indicated qualitatively different levels of engagement with each
type of app. The story creation app appeared to be more effective for engaging the students critically, and in a way that sustained deeper and
more challenging interactions. While little difference was noted in the total percentages of exploratory talk for each app type, Kucirkova
et al., did note that there was less evidence of extending and challenging exploratory talk in students’ use of the drawing or colouring apps,
and less overall exploratory talk when students used the puzzle/construction apps. Commenting on possible reasons for this, they speculated
that the open-ended nature of the story and colouring apps, and the fact that they had no built-in ‘success criteria’ (e.g., affective re-
inforcements) stimulated more discussion, as the children needed to verbally interact to gain feedback and confirmation from peers.
Consistent with Mercer’s (1994) earlier findings, Kucirkova et al. concluded that using open-ended apps could provide valuable opportu-
nities for children to develop exploratory talk. They also, however, acknowledged limitations to their study in terms of the amount of data
collected, the study’s duration, and restriction to pre-school environments where use of the apps is generally “uncontrolled and sponta-
neous” (p. 182).
What follows builds on Mercer’s work and that of Fisher et al. (2013) and Kucirkova et al. (2014). It explores young students’ talk when
using iPads collaboratively in pairs to plan writing tasks and create content for units of learning. It applies a variation of Mercer’s ‘talk type’
framework to examine the nature of their talk, and discusses opportunities for teachers to use the iPad’s public work space affordance (Fisher
et al., 2013) to provide opportunities for students to interact with the device and each other, in a way supportive of developing exploratory
talk. It uses a unique display recorder app installed on the iPads to capture video and audio data independent of observer or ‘over-the-
shoulder’ video effects.

1.3. Research questions

The collection and analysis of data was informed by the following research questions:

1. What is the nature of student talk when planning and creating literacy-based content in pairs using iPad apps?
2. How might teachers exploit the iPads public work space affordance to foster talk of a more exploratory nature?

1.4. The research context

Participating students were a class of year 1 (5 year olds) attending a medium-sized primary (elementary) school located in a small town
in the Waikato region of New Zealand. The school had a roll of 350 students, with the research class comprising 19 students (10 girls and 9
boys). All students had been at school for between three and six months, and had been using iPads as part of their literacy and numeracy
programme. Ten iPad 3s were supplied by the University for the research, having been made available from April 2013 to allow time for the
students to become familiar with their operation. The teacher was an experienced practitioner having taught for 17 years in classes from
years 1–8, with the last five of these being at year 1.
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16 G. Falloon, E. Khoo / Computers & Education 77 (2014) 13–28

Fig. 1. Screenshot of typical ‘observeware’ app recording indicating finger placement (white dots).

Data were collected using a display capture app on seven occasions from July to November 2013. Each session was between 40 min and
an hour in duration. The three apps used by the students during data collection were selected by the teacher to be compatible with the
learning objectives of her broader literacy programme. She selected apps that the students needed to actively engage with by creating their
own content, rather than apps of a ‘consumption’ design where they merely responded to onscreen prompts or cues, such as in many

Fig. 2. Summary of talk time analysis of selected episode for all pairs.
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G. Falloon, E. Khoo / Computers & Education 77 (2014) 13–28 17

Table 2
Talk type classifications, sub codes and descriptors.

Talk type Active sub code Talk description

Cumulative Affirmation/agreement Talk that is supportive and affirming. Non-critical. Agreement with what was suggested without
cause to review or challenge. Passive and compliant.
Consensus/clarification Talk that builds understanding of suggestions or ideas but in a non-critical, non-challenging and
non-expansive way. Developing common understanding by talking about ideas. Working towards
general agreement on course of action.
Elaboration Talk that is more expansive, and focused on building the finer detail of how to go about producing or
deciding on content. Questions asked seeking further detail about how to do things or clarify why a
partner is suggesting a particular course of action.
Disputational Competitive/defensive Talk that emphasises person-focused conflict, argument or disagreement, detracting from
collaborative effort. Competing for time on device (‘my turn, your turn’), verbally interfering with or
negatively critical of the other’s input. Emotive response is triggered by personal notion of ‘unfairness’.
Individualised Talk that indicates possessiveness of own contribution. Unwilling to consider other’s suggestions for
improvement or change.
Exploratory Critically constructive Talk that indicates respectful cognitive engagement with, and consideration and critical review of
others’ ideas in a way leading to improved decision-making or content. Constructive critique
focused on the ideas or suggestions, not the person.
Negotiated/debated Talk that demonstrates tentative ideas being offered and debated. Student(s) receptive to change,
if a good supporting reason(s)/case can be made by other(s). Different perspectives are acknowledged and
synthesised into a collective response. Compromises negotiated.
Justification Talk that seeks justification of perspectives or ideas being offered, with a focus on how they will
sought/given improve decision-making or output quality. Reasons for suggestions are pursued through probing
questioning or offering of alternatives.
Teacher–student (active N/A Talk between the teacher and student pairs responding to student requests for help, or formative
code classification) feedback based on teacher observation while monitoring group progress during work period.
Whole class teaching at session commencement or feedback/review at the end,
or formative during work session.
Working (active N/A Talk that is often to self while working. For example, self talk involving sounding out words,
code classification) ‘thinking aloud’ about content or procedures, reading aloud sentences; or talk related to
organising work involving others, such as access to materials (e.g., word boards, spelling lists).
Other activity (active N/A Talk that did not fall into any of the above categories, but was still task-related.
code classification) For example, teacher–whole class talk (the teacher introducing the app or the task,
setting success criteria, teaching technical skills etc.) or sharing and evaluating
outcomes at the conclusion of sessions. No student talk was coded in this category.

learning games. In finalising her choices, she accessed online reviews from other users, read commentary from teachers on the New Zealand
Virtual Learning Network (see www.vln.school.nz/), and trialled them with her own primary aged children. She selected the following apps
to help meet the learning purposes specified (Table 1).

1.5. Data collection

Data were collected using a unique display capture tool adapted from developer code associated with a Cydia App called Display
Recorder. The ‘observeware’ app records in the background while students are using their apps, creating a video (with audio) of all display
activity. This can then be downloaded onto a laptop for later analysis, using a root file retrieval application. No signs of recording apart from a
finger placement indicator (a white dot on the display) are visible to the students. A typical recording screenshot including finger placement
indication can be seen in Fig. 1. Further details of the tool and methodology have been reported elsewhere (see Falloon, 2013a, 2013b).
The 19 students worked in teacher-assigned pairs and one group of three (forming eight pairs and one threesome). Across all groups a
total of nearly nine hours of video and audio were recorded. This comprised two or three separate sessions for each pair, usually of between
20 and 30 min each in duration. Data sets for each pair could easily be collated, as the composition of the pairs remained the same
throughout the study. From each data set, one episode was selected for talk-type analysis. They were purposively selected after an initial
appraisal of all data, to illustrate the best-recorded evidence of different talk types ‘in action’. The results for all pairs are summarised
graphically in Fig. 2.

1.6. Data coding

It should be noted at this point that Mercer’s original framework was developed using data from slightly older students (8–11 years).
While his broad classifications of disputational, cumulative and exploratory talk are used here, a slightly different coding regime to that used
by other iPad studies adopting his framework (e.g., Kucirkova et al., 2014) has been applied. This is to accommodate any differences in the
nature of evidence younger children may provide – specifically, the complexity and sophistication of language used, and taking into account
the way in which intent or meaning is communicated (e.g., tone of voice, expression etc.). For this reason, coding decisions were made using
sub codes defined by detailed descriptors generated from data, which were then aligned more specifically with Mercer’s classifications
(Table 2). Instead of using only keywords, evidence was expanded to include phrases and whole sentences that were judged to reflect
interactions consistent with the descriptors, and aligned with the sub codes. Examples of these are included in the sample data tables
(Tables 4–6).
During initial coding, all data sets (episodes) were reviewed several times to fully understand the nature of talk occurring, and its
relationship to Mercer’s classifications. From this, sub codes and descriptors were generated (Table 2) that formed the coding template that
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18 G. Falloon, E. Khoo / Computers & Education 77 (2014) 13–28

Fig. 3. Sample Studiocode template and timeline (Pair 1).

was applied to the selected episodes. Studiocode video analysis software2 was used to code these. Using Studiocode meant that detailed
transcription was not needed, as selected clips aligned with the sub codes are automatically arranged on timelines and can be individually or
collectively reviewed at will.3 For the purposes of this article, selected verbatim excerpts from these recordings have been included in the
data tables.
The sub codes were entered into a Studiocode template that was applied to the selected episodes. Two non-active labels were added to
the template (knowledge/decision-making and working relationship) as well as three active talk type classifications (teacher–student, working
and other activity). The former were added as additional non-active descriptive labels that variously linked to the different talk types, while
the latter were active code buttons allowing coding of recorded talk other than that aligned with Mercer’s original classifications (and their
sub codes). Specific details and descriptions of the sub codes expanded from Mercer’s talk-types framework is provided in Table 2, and
samples of data coded under each are included in Tables 4–6.
An example of the coding template as applied to Pair 1’s episode can be seen in Fig. 3. The sub codes and the added classifications were
active buttons, and registered on the timeline an event in the video aligned with the particular code or classification. Studiocode also
produced statistical summaries of data giving the total times aligned to each code, the number of occurrences, and the mean occurrence
time. Summaries for the three illustrative episodes are included in Appendix A.
To support coding reliability, an excerpt from a single data sample for three pairs (1, 2, & 8) was blind reviewed by a post-graduate
research assistant. Inter-rater agreement calculations (k) for each of the three main talk type classifications are provided in Table 3.
Following Gwet’s (2012) advice, calculations were made only on instances both coders had identified, to lessen the likelihood of an un-
derestimation of agreement probability. While agreement calculations were not completed for the sub codes, occurrences from the excerpts
were debated, with eight changes to coding decisions subsequently being agreed upon. According to Landis and Koch’s commonly-used
scale, agreement strengths ranged from moderate to substantial across the three main talk types (Landis & Koch, 1977).

2. Results

Fig. 2 summarises coded data from the selected episodes of each of the eight pairs. It indicates the percentage of talk time coded under
Mercer’s cumulative, exploratory and disputational classifications, and the sub codes used for making coding decisions. Additionally, it
includes time percentages for talk involving interaction between the teacher and the students, working talk, and other activity.

2
Refer www.studiocodegroup.com.
3
For comprehensive detail of this process, refer Falloon (2013a, 2013b).
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G. Falloon, E. Khoo / Computers & Education 77 (2014) 13–28 19

Table 3
Inter-rater agreement calculations (k).

Talk type category Total ‘agreed to’ instances Kappa (k) SE 95% CI Agreement strength
identified in all excerpts (Landis & Koch, 1977)
Disputational 8 0.750 0.226 0.306–1.00 Substantial
Cumulative 46 0.609 0.117 0.380–0.838 Moderate
Exploratory 14 0.708 0.191 0.334–1.00 Substantial

Task time coded as ‘other activity’ was substantial for seven of the eight pairs. However, on average, nearly two-thirds of this time was
spent either on introductory or during-session teaching (i.e., the teacher introducing the app or the task, setting success criteria, teaching
technical skills etc.) or sharing and evaluating outcomes at the conclusion of sessions. The remaining one-third was divided almost equally
between no talk but working (i.e., silence, but display-recorded evidence of on-task activity) and non task-related talk. This latter category
accounted for slightly less than 7% of total task time, indicating very high levels of on-task engagement by all pairs.
Across the three main talk type classifications, the highest percentage of student–student talk for all eight pairs was coded as cumulative
consensus (e.g., 52% for Pair 8), followed by cumulative affirmation/agreement (e.g., 20% for Pair 8). Disputational (competitive/disagree-
ment) talk peaked at 7% for Pair 2, while exploratory totalled just under 4% for Pair 1 across the three sub codes (justification, constructively
critical, negotiation).
Although data from all eight pairs were coded, three pairs (1, 2 and 8) have been selected as illustrative examples within each of the
classifications (cumulative, exploratory, disputational) and their sub codes. They most aptly demonstrated the different talk types the eight
recorded pairs engaged in. They also represent student interaction with all three apps that were used during data collection. The student
pairs were Pair one (exploratory emergent), Pair two (intermittent disputational) and Pair eight (cumulative dominant). Studiocode
summary data for each are presented in Appendix A. Illustrative data from display recordings for each pair are included in Tables 4–6. The
tables comprise a description of the activity or task the students were doing, verbatim transcripts of the recorded dialogue with associated
timelog, and a corresponding thumbnail image from the display recording. The timelog relates to the time location in the display recording
the illustrated example refers to, as registered on the Studiocode timeline (see Fig. 3).

3. Discussion

Student talk data demonstrated exceptionally high levels of on-task engagement, but much of this was cumulative in nature, with only
pairs 1 and 3 (at approximately 3–4% of total talk time) displaying any tendency to engage in exploratory talk. Correspondingly, coded
occurrences of disputational talk were also minimal, with only pairs 2, 3 and 6 (at 6–7% of total talk time) showing any competitive,
defensive, or argumentative talk behaviour. These results are very encouraging, and highlight the potential of collaborative learning en-
vironments supported by iPads to generate opportunities to raise the quality of student talk. However, the lack of exploratory talk suggested
much of this potential was unrealised. The predominance of cumulative talk created something of an ‘echo chamber-of-affirmation’ effect,
where students progressed tasks smoothly, generally through non-critical agreement with their partner, or by adopting work practices
characterised by device ‘turn taking’. This generally meant one student at a time worked on the task while the other observed and/or acted
as a checker or affirmer, before swapping roles and repeating the process. Pair 8 (e.g., Table 6, 6.40–7.22) is a good example of this practice in
action.
Despite being collaborative in the sense that there were few disputes or disagreements, the assenting nature of cumulative talk was not
focused on, and did not encourage or support, critical review or explanatory justification of ideas. Instead, it fostered a cycle where a
suggestion or idea was verbalised usually by the author, and agreed to by the other, who then adopted an assistant or advisor role. During
cumulative talk occurrences, data indicated the iPad acted as a private-public learning device. That is, it served as an individual authoring
tool and as a public work space both students could access and interact with (see Fig. 6). Its affordances of lying flat on the desk or tilted
conveniently using the fold-back case, ease of portability, wide viewing angle and accessible built-in keyboard, meant that both students, if
they wished, could play a role in authoring outputs. However, these affordances did not necessarily mean that this occurred.
Although it was not the intention of this study to compare ‘before and after iPad’ results, as Mercer points out, the development of
exploratory talk should be integral to the role of educational institutions in societies where principles of “accountability, clarity, constructive
criticism and receptiveness to well-argued proposals” (1996, p. 370) are valued. The desirability of developing skills of this nature is also
reflected in other literature relating to 21st Century learners (e.g., Ananiadou & Claro, 2009; Gilbert, 2005). It seems reasonable, therefore,
that opportunities to evolve cumulative talk into talk of a more exploratory nature, should be recognised by teachers and capitalised upon.
Overall talk occurrences coded as disputational were minimal. However when they did occur, they generally represented competitive
interaction between students for control of or access to the device, or the prioritising of one’s ideas over those of their partner (e.g., Table 5,
4.01–4.14; 5.40–5.51). This talk was sometimes associated with low-level physical and/or verbal confrontation, where students argued over
such things as device access time, whose idea was better (for content or ‘how to do it’) or physically manoeuvred themselves or furniture so
they could have unfettered access to the iPad (e.g., Table 2, 10.53–11.32). Disputational talk was generally unproductive for achieving
learning goals. Instead, it was aimed at maximising an individual’s ‘elbow room’ to increase their access to the iPad and influence over the
task. Disputational talk occurrences were associated with competition for private work space access to the device. Display captures often
recorded multiple finger placements, with the audio indicating students were physically competing with each other for the iPad, and to have
their ideas prioritised in the output. During these few occurrences interaction became a battle of wills, with the victor usually ending up as
the sole author and their partner a passive observer (Fig. 6).
As with disputational talk, very few pairs demonstrated talk coded as exploratory. However, that which was (mainly Pairs 1 and 3)
indicated an emerging capability and willingness to engage cognitively and critically with ideas, concepts and suggestions, rather than focus
their talk attention on their partner (e.g., Table 4, 4.11–4.33; 29.01–29.36). At a basic level this was illustrated by questioning and audio
suggesting a desire to improve or refine outputs, or offer alternative options and justification for their inclusion. At other times this talk
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Table 4
Pair 1: O and Z (Pic Collage. Nov 8, 2013) coded exploratory emergent.

Thumbnail Description of activity and coding Recorded dialogue and time

Exploratory: justification 3.50–4.05
Celebrations topic: Easter. “O.l.iv.i.a. (correct spelling of
This task was part of a ‘Celebrations’ name appears in pop up).
topic the students were completing. How does it know my name and not yours? .
They were developing a Pic that’s not fair, is it Zak? Why did it do that, Zak? (O)
Collage of what Easter means to them. What did you do? (Z)
At this point they were naming their work. I just started to spell my name and it came up. (O)
Show me how you did it.” (Z).

Exploratory: constructive/critical 4.11–4.33

Activity as above. “I think we’ll put it there. now,
Students had selected first picture and shall we do our four pictures?
were developing title/label. How do you celebrate Easter Zak? (pause).
how do you do it? Do you have chocolate.?
I really think we need to have chocolate, Zak. (O).
I wonder why chocolate. why do
we have chocolate? (Z)
‘Cos it’s what eggs are made from.” (O).

Exploratory: constructive/critical 4.56–5.09

Activity as above. “Is that how you spell chocolate.?
Students were using app’s built-in web I forgot something. ‘I ate’. (Z)
search to find Easter pictures. No. I know how. but just leave the ‘ch’.
think about how it sounds Zak. ch. ch. o. c
(O – begins to sound out word). You have to think
about how it sounds, Zak.” (O).
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G. Falloon, E. Khoo / Computers & Education 77 (2014) 13–28 21

Table 4 (continued )

Thumbnail Description of activity and coding Recorded dialogue and time

Exploratory: justification/constructive-critical 6.09–6.22
Activity as above. “No. do you want chocolate eggs or not?” (O).
Students were deciding on search terms for Just chocolate. shall we put just chocolate?
Easter images. They were debating Do we have plain chocolate at Easter? (Z).
the most appropriate search terms to use. What do you mean ‘plain chocolate’? (O)
Well, you know, normal stuff! (Z)
What’s normal? (O).
Let’s pretend this is a rabbit.” (Z).

Exploratory: negotiation/debate 6.43–6.56

Activity as above. “Let’s have this one (Z – indicating a chocolate
Students were deciding on the images to rabbit by ticking the ‘select’ box).
include on their Easter pic collage. Z had We don’t want that, do we? (O)
located a chocolate rabbit he felt would be Yeah, that’s a. (Z).
suitable and was discussing the choice with O. Let’s have this one? (O – selecting a second option).
Why? I like this one (Z – indicating first option).
it’s a real bunny. not like the others.” (Z).

Exploratory: negotiation/debate 11.27–12.20

Activity as above. “Shall I try to write ‘Jesus’? (O).
Students were trying to find a picture of Jesus to Yes, why don’t you give it a try? (Z).
put on their collage but had been unable to .Zak, we do need this you know
spell the word correctly despite numerous attempts. (referring to picture of Jesus). shall I write
Incorrect spelling resulted in unrelated images. it again so we find a Jesus? (O).
Good idea (Z). (O types ‘Jesas’
in search box – returns
only a few pictures of Jesus).
Oh. why are we still on this? (O).
I’ll go get Mrs. Fenemor!”(Z)

Exploratory: negotiation/debate 29.01–29.36

Activity as above. “We can put it there (Z).
Students are discussing the positioning of That means it’s right next to our church (O).
their images and what size they should be. We could do it littler. what do you think? (Z).
They are also working out whether We can find some Easter eggs (O).
a plain or patterned background is best, Shall we change our background? We chose that one.
and experimenting with different options. then we end up getting a plain one – which
one might be best? (Z)
The plain one’s easier to see (O).”
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Table 5
Pair 2: A and H-M (Puppet Pals HD. Aug 23, 2013) coded intermittent disputational.

Thumbnail Description of activity and coding Recorded dialogue and time

Disputational: competitive/defensive 2.29–2.37
Puppet Pals supports development of “No. I don’t want it! (referring to partner’s
animated puppet shows using selection of a squirrel as a
standard characters (free version) or character substitute). I like that one.
imported graphics (paid-for version) do that one! (selecting fairy
Students were developing a puppet show retelling godmother image) (H-M).
the story of a live production But I like the squirrel.
(The Big Sad Wolf) that had just visited the school. so we’re having it!” (A).

Disputational: competitive/defensive 4.01–4.14

Activity as above. Students were “Make the wolf smaller (referring to
working out where to put their squirrel substitute). I want you to make
characters and the relative him smaller. and make him smaller, too
sizes they needed to be to (referring to soldier) (A).
indicate distance and perspective. No! She needs to be bigger (referring
to princess). if we make her bigger then
the others will look smaller. (H-M).
Look. just make them smaller.
all right!!” (A – exasperated).

Disputational: competitive/defensive 4.57–5.11

Activity as above. Students were disagreeing “Here, let me do it. I’ll do it!
on who was to resize the (A – touching display with 2 fingers).
princess and where she was to be You’re not letting me do it. why do
positioned in the forest. you do that to me? (H-M)
“Cos you’re always having turns .
it’s my turn now .” (A).

Disputational: competitive/defensive 5.40–5.51

Activity as above. “I know how to do it. (resize the princess).
Students continued to disagree You need to let me have a turn! (H-M).
on where the princess You can’t just. (H-M places 2 fingers on
was to be located, and her relative size. display in attempt to take over).
let go! It’s not your turn! (A)
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G. Falloon, E. Khoo / Computers & Education 77 (2014) 13–28 23

Table 5 (continued )

Thumbnail Description of activity and coding Recorded dialogue and time

Disputational: competitive/defensive 10.53–11.32
Activity as above. “You said I could be the wolf. ! (H-M).
Students were disagreeing about who should do But you’re just lying.! (A).
the wolf’s voice over as they were developing You said I could be the wolf! (H-M).
the commentary for their show. But now we can’t, ‘cos we’ve done it
like this. (A – reminding that she had
done wolf’s voice until then).
OK!!! (H-M – exasperated).
It’s because I’m sitting in the chair (A).
But you don’t own the chair. ! (H-M)
I need to move the chair over here.
to be in front of you. (pause) now.
I’m in front of you. (A)
No it isn’t. !” (H-M)

Disputational: competitive/defensive 13.12–13.21

Activity as above. “No, you don’t say it. !
Students were disputing who This is the judge, remember. (referring
should record the judge’s to the fairy godmother).
(fairy godmother substitute) voice over. you don’t do that! (A).
Yes I do – you can’t do
all the good bits. !” (H-M)

Disputational: competitive/defensive 14.44–14.55

Activity as above. Students were unsure about “You don’t do anything until Mr. Falloon
procedure to save their work. H. was suggesting gets back. we need to ask him how
experimenting with ‘save’ button at top of pane. to do it (A – referring to saving their work).
I’m telling Paige on you! (another student).
You get to do all the good stuff!” (H-M)

indicated a genuine concern for, and a willingness to support the learning of the other (e.g., Table 4, 4.56–5.09). This reflected in recorded
comments clarifying why particular decisions should be made, and others aimed at helping their partner understand the operation of the
app they were using (e.g., Table 4, 3.50–4.05).
The public work space affordances of the iPad appeared to assist these students to collaborate in this way. Often they were observed
passing the device from one to another or sliding it along the desktop. The display recordings indicated they were usually seeking comment
or advice from their partner about possible inputs, or getting them to check that what they had written or selected was what was agreed
upon. On other occasions display rotation was used, so that a partner seated opposite or adjacent could more easily view and interact with
content, without needing to relocate (Fig. 4). The wide viewing angle also allowed both students to access and simultaneously interact with
content (Fig. 5). Several examples of both students making ‘on the fly’ changes to content were recorded, with multiple white dot finger
placements being visible.
Unlike students whose talk was coded disputational, accompanying audio indicated the simultaneous interactions of students coded as
exploratory (Pairs 1&3) were directed at improving work or demonstrating techniques, rather than competing for device access or pri-
oritisation of ideas. While the public work space affordances of the iPad undoubtedly supported exploratory talk for Pairs 1 and 3, it is
doubtful that they were the impetus or cause of it. All students had access to the iPads in the same way for completing the same tasks, but
most did not display observable tendencies towards exploratory talk. What is relevant is that for those few who did, the iPad appeared to
support their endeavours, suggesting potential exists for exploiting these affordances to improve the quality of the working talk of others.
Fig. 6 reflects the talk classifications and the implicating roles played by students and their devices within each, relative to the nature of
their collaboration. Increasingly sophisticated talk is observed when students progress from the right to the left side of the Figure (i.e., from
disputational to cumulative to exploratory). From this, it can be inferred that the nature of student knowledge generation/decision-making
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Table 6
Pair 8: N and L (Popplet. Aug 12, 2013) coded cumulative dominant.

Thumbnail Description of activity and coding Recorded dialogue and time

Cumulative: consensus 0.14–1.35
Students were developing “What shall we write? (N).
concept map plan for a story they What colour is my hair? (L).
were to write about themselves. It’s red (N).
They were working in pairs Find ‘M’ (N). (N types ‘N’).
developing one plan at a time. That’s ‘N’ (N). backspace (L).
At this point they were writing M. y. h. e. i. r
about physical features and appearance. (L spells aloud to self).
Do I do everything? (L).
I’ll do spaces for you (N).
I. s. r. e. and the d”
(L spells aloud to self).

Cumulative: affirmation/agreement 3.03–3.35

Activity as above. Students were “‘Y’. where’s ‘y’ gone? (L).
summarising statistical information I’ll move your finger. there (N).
such as age, height etc., following . e. space. o. l. d (L).
prompt from teacher. OK, now pick up they grey
circle and drag it to your picture.
that’s good. right.
now tap here (indicates to tap
on link point). that’s it.
you’re doing it right.” (N).

Cumulative: affirmation/agreement 4.42–5.20

Activity as above. Students were “My favourite food is macaroni
summarising favourite foods cheese with bacon (L).
and drinks in their plan. Yeah. that’s nice. and bacon.
but you can only have one.
which one? (N).
. bacon (L).
Good choice! (N).
.M. y. f. a. f.” (L).

Cumulative: consensus 6.40–7.22

Activity as above. Students were “It’s d. not t. d! (N).
continuing developing content on space. i. s. space. b. a.
favourite foods and drinks. a (L – spelling to self).
No. it’s c. not another a. (N).
OK (L). i. n (N).
Now. join it up! (N).
Like this? (L).
OK. that’s how we do it” (N).
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G. Falloon, E. Khoo / Computers & Education 77 (2014) 13–28 25

Table 6 (continued )

Thumbnail Description of activity and coding Recorded dialogue and time

Cumulative: consensus/clarification 9.13–10.30
Activity as above. Students were “T (N).
recording details of other family members. What should I do? (L).
You choose (N).
What? (L).
I’ve got 3 boys in my family (L).
I’ve got 2 brothers (N).
I. h. a. v. e. (L – spelling to self).
Where’s the e gone?
It’s here!” (N – indicating).

Cumulative: consensus/clarification 11.27–12.20

Activity as above. Students continuing “B. r. a.t (N – spelling aloud for L).
recording details of family members. th? (L).
t. (N).
h. t. h. (N).
I did !th (L).
OK, tap there (N – indicating to tap
on Popple). join.
I joined it up (L).
Yep. now you have to make it. in” (N).

Cumulative: consensus/clarification 14.43–14.54

Activity as above. Students have swapped “Right. I just made it fatter
roles and are now creating the second (N – referring to text box).
story plan Popplet. They are recording Why?. why did you make it fatter? (L).
details of the second student’s physical features (hair). To fit it all in. the words. it wasn’t
big enough. (pause) my hair is black.
bl.a.k” (N – sounding word to self)

Cumulative: consensus/clarification 21.35–22.08

Activity as above. Students have swapped “L. i. t. (L – to self and typing).
back and are making final changes to t. t. t (N).
Popplets before saving to share with class. l (L).
e. space. b. not d. it’s b (N, to L).
Oh. that’s v. where’s b? (L)
b. r. a. a! (N, to L).

and their working relationships are also shaped accordingly. When students undertake or experience more exploratory talk (or conditions
are established to encourage them to do so), they begin to appreciate others’ constructive and critical perspectives and how they may
contribute to their own learning. They can likewise contribute to that of others – that is, moving from closed tacit understandings, towards
establishing common knowledge and being more open to negotiation of ideas. Their working relationship with their partner in turn changes
from competitive, to that of affirming and being critically constructive of each other. In this movement, the device’s role, nature of
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26 G. Falloon, E. Khoo / Computers & Education 77 (2014) 13–28

Fig. 4. Display rotation supported collaboration.

collaboration and students’ role, also shift respectively, from private to public work spaces, from minimal to more open collaborative
learning partnerships, and from single learner to multiple learner-constructed outputs. We posit a crucial aspect facilitating this shift lies in
the notion of ‘ground rules’.

3.1. Establishing and learning ground rules

Drawing on Mercer and Edwards (1981) concept of ‘ground rules’, it seems apparent that if teachers are to capitalise on the public work
space affordances of devices such as iPads for raising the quality of work talk (i.e., towards exploratory), then some ground rules need to be
developed. What is interesting from this study is that a few students showed glimpses of exploratory talk without any explicit teaching or
practice of ground rules. This suggests that targeted teaching could help harness a latent potential existing in these learning environments,
to support better quality talk contributing to collaborative knowledge construction. Although these students were only 5 years old, already
some of them displayed thoughtful, task and ideas-focused questioning skills that concentrated on improvement and refinement of their
work – not on a personal critique of their partner (e.g., Table 4, 6.43–6.56). Learning activities promoting and practising questioning that
respectfully probes for justification and seeks explanation, may be a useful strategy for achieving this.
Additionally, encouraging thoughtful listening to others’ ideas and objective reflection on them relative to task goals, should be pro-
moted. Exploratory talk does not appear to thrive in environments where ideas are exclusively ‘owned’ or are placed in competition with
each other. Students should be encouraged to understand the need for ‘depersonalisation’ of talk in situations that require open and
objective consideration of ideas to improve outcomes, while also understanding that this may not apply in every context. Although such
dispositions could be difficult to formally teach, teacher modelling of them and capitalising on ‘teachable moments’ during normal class-
room work where they could be highlighted, could be valuable.

Fig. 5. The touch interface and screen viewing angle supported collaboration.
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G. Falloon, E. Khoo / Computers & Education 77 (2014) 13–28 27

Fig. 6. Talk type, student and device role, and nature of collaboration.

Mercer (1994) alluded to the importance of equipment organisation in establishing computer-supported environments supporting
quality student talk. Results of this study indicate an important ground rule for teachers might also relate to student organisation.
Acknowledging that no specific baseline data were collected, it could be speculated the very high level of on task talk and engagement across
this group was at least partially attributable to the stability of pair combinations. These pairs remained constant for the entire study, and
according to the teacher, were unchanged from initial pairings established when the iPads first arrived. Informal observations certainly
indicated seamless and smooth transitions from class teaching to paired iPad work, with little apparent need for negotiation or competition
between students over ‘who does what’. Teacher comments suggested early establishment of ground rules regarding expectations of how
students are to work together, and careful and deliberate pairing selections that remained constant throughout the year, may be helpful in
maximising learning time. However, further research is needed to determine conclusively if this is the case.

4. Conclusion

Earlier studies by the first author using similar data collection methods explored the influence of app design and content features on
young students’ learning pathways (Falloon, 2013a, 2013b). While having different foci and analysis frameworks, results suggested
particular app design and content features had a significant influence over the ‘learning value’ students could derive from using them, and
the sort of strategies they applied to solve problems they presented. Although not applying formal talk analysis, conclusions in these studies
were drawn from very careful scrutiny of display video and audio data that indicated the quality of oral exchanges between students was
strongly influenced by the design of the app, and was also fundamental to building knowledge needed to successfully negotiate its demands.
However, both these studies were undertaken with apps of a ‘closed’ design – that is, game-like apps where students were required only to
fill in answer boxes, complete patterns and so on. When reflecting on these results, it would be fair to state that much of the recorded talk
was of a low level nature – that is, principally targeted at students getting the right response rather than building their own unique response.
The talk recorded in this study was qualitatively different. While relatively ‘neutral’ cumulative talk predominated, it still represented a
far more thoughtful, purposeful and cognitively-focused interaction than that witnessed in the earlier studies. It was apparent that the open
nature of these apps, combined with the greater public work space affordances of the device, at least potentially could provide students with
powerful environments supportive of critical but collaborative content development, as gauged by increased exploratory talk. The com-
bination of iPad design features discussed earlier, and the content generation requirement of open-design apps that stimulates student
interaction, appears to provide teachers with an ideal medium through which to build student talk quality.
The superior performance of open design apps in this respect is consistent with the earlier research of Kucirkova et al. (2014), and
extends their findings by identifying particular physical and technical attributes of the iPad that when used in pairs or small groups, might
support development of this talk type. A key finding of this study is that the interaction and combination of iPad design features (i.e., its
public work space affordances) and open-design apps, can provide a useful medium for teachers to improve the talk quality of students.
However, the key to unlocking this potential lies in helping students master skills supporting exploratory talk – if necessary, by deliberate
teaching acts targeted at these. iPads and apps may constitute motivating and engaging skill-practise environments, but students still need a
basic toolkit of strategies and capabilities to apply to them. Helping students build these skills is where the teacher’s pedagogical role is
crucial.
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28 G. Falloon, E. Khoo / Computers & Education 77 (2014) 13–28

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.04.008.

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