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Chapter

FM Transmission and
Reception

Phase Modulation (PM) and Frequency Modulation (FM), Relationship between Phase and Frequency
Modulation, Modulation Index, Spectrum of FM (single tone) : Feature of Bessel Coefficient, Power of
FM signal, Bandwidth of tone modulated FM signal, Modulation index : AM vs. FM, Spectrum of constant
Bandwidth FM, Narrowband and Wideband FM.
FM Modulators and Demodulators : FM generation by Armstrong's Indirect method, Frequency
multiplication and application to FM, FM demodulator.

>> •,, ', ,,'

Chapter Contents ,
4.1 Angle Modulation 4.11 Effect of Mixing and Multiplication in FM
4.2 Single Tone FM 4.12 Armstrong's Indirect Method of FM
Generation
4.3 Important Definitions in F.M. 4.13 Effect of Noise in FM and PM
4.4 Types of F.M. 4.14 Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
4.5 Single Tone PM 4.15 FM Versus AM
4.6 Spectrum of Constant Bandwidth FM 4.16 FM Demodulators
4.7 Frequency or Phase Modulation 4.17 Classification of FM Detectors
4.8 Relationship between F.M. and P.M. 4.18 FM Detection using PLL
4.9 Generation of FM Waves 4.19 FM Receiver
4.10 Frequency Multiplication 4.20 interferences in FM Systems
 " PCS (Sem. 4 / E&Tc / SPPU)
~F 4-2 FM Transmission & Reception

5. Microwave communication
4.1 Angle Modulation :
6. Satellite communication.

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In the previous chapter, we have discussed the various

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4.1.1 Principle of Angle Modulation :

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types of A.M. systems in which the carrier amplitude is

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SPPU: May 05, Dec. 06, May·10

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charged in accordance with the variation in the message

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signal amplitude. University Questions

There is another method of modulating a sinusoidal Q.•1 . "Phase < and .frequency modulation are
carrier namely the angle modulation. inseparable". Explain. (May 05, 6 Marks)
Q. 2 Derive the expression of angle modulated signal
Definition :
and draw its spectrum. (Dec. 06, 8 Marks)
Angle modulation is the type of modulation in which Q. 3 Describe the concept of instantaneous frequency
either frequency or phase of a sinusoidal carrier is varied with the help of equations and explain exponential
in proportion with the message signal amplitude, modulation. (May 10, 8 Marks)

keeping the carrier amplitude constant. The principle of angle modulation can be stated as
Classification : follows.

The angle modulation systems can be classified as In angle modulation, the phase angle (0) of a sinusoidal
shown in Fig. 4.1.1. carrier wave is varied with respect to time. An angle
r--------,.
I Angle Modulation I modulated wave can be expressed mathematically as

I s (t) = Ee cos [coe t + 0 (t)] ... (4.1.1)

•
Frequency Modulation (FM)
•
Phase Modulation (PM)
Where Ee is the peak carrier amplitude, coe is carrier
frequency and e (t) is the instantaneous phase deviation.
Frequency of the carrier is varied Phase angle of the carrier is varied
according to the message signal according to the message signal
In angle modulation e (t) is a function of modulating
(B-708)Fig. 4.l.l : Classification of angle modulation signal.

Frequency modulation as well as phase modulation are That means,

the forms of angle modulation. 0 (t) = F [em (t)] ... (4.1.2)

Advantages : Here em (t) is the modulating signal given by,

Angle modulation has several advantages over the ... (4.1.3)

amplitude modulation such as noise reduction, The major difference between FM and PM is that in FM,
improved system fidelity and more efficient use of the frequency of the carrier is varied by the modulating
transmitter output power. signal whereas in PM, the phase angle of the carrier is
Disadvantages : varied by the modulating signal.

But there are some disadvantages too such as increased However when the frequency of the carrier is varied its

bandwidth and need for the use of more complex phase also gets varied and vice versa.

circuits. Therefore FM and PM both occur whenever either form

Applications :
of angle modulation is performed.

In other words we can say that a direct FM is an indirect

Angle modulation is being used for the following
PM, whereas a direct PM is an indirect FM.
applications :

1. Radio broadcasting 4.1.2 Angle Modulated Signal in Frequency

Domain:
2. TV sound transmission

3. Two way mobile radio The frequency domain display of an angle modulated

4. Cellular radio signal is shown in Fig. 4.1.2.

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~~ PCS(Sem.4/E&Tc/SPPU) 4-3 FM Transmission & Reception

The phase angle 0(t) is changing in proportion with the

amplitude of the modulating signal em(t).
Phase Deviation (<'.\0) :

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We can define the phase deviation (L\0) as the relative

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Modulating signal

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em = Ernsin 2nfmt angular displacement or shift of the carrier phase in

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radians with respect to the reference phase.

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Due to changes in phase angle, there is a corresponding
change in the frequency of carrier.
Frequency Deviation (.M) :

We can define the frequency deviation (M) as the

relative change in carrier frequency in Hz with respect to
(D-1271) Fig. 4.1.2 : Frequency domain display of angle its unmodulated value.
modulated wave
The values of phase deviation and frequency deviation
As seen the carrier frequency fc is changed in proportion
are proportional to the amplitude of modulating signal
with the instantaneous value of the modulating (Em) and the rate of change of phase or frequency is
signal em.
equal to the modulating frequency fm
The magnitude and direction of the frequency shift Now refer Fig. 4.1.3(b) which shows the deviation in the
L\ f is proportional to the amplitude and polarity of the carrier frequency over a period of time.
modulating signal (+ Em) and the rate of change of T represents the one cycle period. Therefore Tmax
fc occurs at the modulating frequency (fml- corresponds to the minimum instantaneous frequency
while Tmin represents the maximum frequency.
Thus the positive modulating signal produces an
increase in frequency whereas the negative modulating t+---- Tmax - - - ~
Note : Instantaneous frequency
signal produces a decreasing frequency
keeps changing
4.1.3 Time Domain Waveforms of Angle
Modulated Wave :

Refer Fig. 4.l.3(a), which represents the variations in

phase angle of a sinusoidal carrier which is angle (D-1273) Fig. 4.l.3(b): Changes in carrier frequency with time
modulated by a sinusoidal modulating signal. The peak to peak frequency deviation MP_ P is obtained
vm(t) = Vmsin(2nfmt)
by taking the difference between fmax and fmin·
Modulating signal
1 1
= fmax-fm;n=T -T ... (4.1.4)

cFl
Mp-p
mm max

4.1.4 Mathematical Analysis :

: ; : Let the angle modulated wave be expressed in the
' -1'.0 ' +l'.0
general form as follows,
s (t) = Ee cos e (t) ... (4.1.5)

Where Ee represents the carrier amplitude which is

maintained constant and 0 (t) is the angular argument
which varies in proportion with the message signal x, (t).

The variation in 0 (t) due to x (t) can be expressed

(D-1272) Fig. 4.l.3(a) : Change in carrier phase with time mathematically if we know the type of angle
modulation.
.
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, , PCS (Sem. 4 / E&Tc I SPPU) 4-4 FM Transmission & Reception
Angular_ d0(t)
e (t) is basically an angle which is expressed in radians. If ~velocity - dt
e (t) changes by 2n radians then we say that a complete
oscillation has occurred.

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0~h''."'~:/:'~• of 0(1:
8(t + L.'.t)

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··································:"··l·······

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(D-161) Fig. 4.1.5 : Interpretation of s (t) = E, cos 0 (t)

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1cJ(t + s\t) - O(t) But if the carrier is unmodulated, then the angular

0(t) ······--•,_J L velocity will be constant and the value of 0 (t) is given
by,
... (4.1.8)
(t + ,\t)
The phaser will rotate at a constant angular velocity of
(D-160) Fig. 4.1.4
2 n fe and ~e represents the value of 0 (t) at t = 0 as
If 0 (t) is increased monotonically with time as shown in shown in Fig. 4.1.5.
Fig. 4.1.4, then the average frequency in Hz over the
interval t to (t + t-.t) is given by, 4.1.6 Properties of Angle Modulation :
e (t + 1-. t) - e (t)
... (4.1.6) Some of the important properties of angle modulation
f6.t (t) = 2 n 1-. t
are as follows :
4.1.5 Instantaneous Frequency : PPU ,.May 10 1. The phase angle (0) of a sinusoidal carrier wave is
varied with respect to time i.e. e (t) is the function
University Questions
of modulating signal.
Q. 1 Describe the concept of instantaneous frequency
2. FM and PM both occur whenever either form of
with the help of equatiqns and explain exponential
angle modulation is performed.
modulation. (May 10, 8 Marks)
3. Generally the amplitude of carrier remains
The instantaneous frequency of the angle modulated
unchanged in angle modulation.
wave s (t) is defined as,
4. Angle modulation has very high noise immunity.
lim
f; (t) = t-.t ➔ o (\t (t) 5. Angle modulation has very high bandwidth
lim [e (t + 1-. t) - e (t)] requirement.
f; (t) =
1-.t ➔ 0 2 re L', t
6. Angle modulation systems are complex.
...l_ d 0 (t)
= ... (4.1.7)
2n dt 4.2 Single Tone FM :
Thus the instantaneous frequency corresponds to a very
University Questions
small change in time i.e. 1-.t > 0.
Q.1 "Phase • and frequency mocJulation are
We can explain the concept of instantaneous frequency inseparable".· Explain. (M~yos, &Nlarlq;)
in slightly different way as follows. Q.2 What is frequency modulation ? Expiain FM
The equation for s (t) i.e. s (t) == Ee cos 0 (t) may be g~nerc1tion using varactor diode. ..·.·.. /_, ·.· ·
interpreted as a rotating phaser of length Ee and angle (May or, a. Ii/lark!$)
e (t) as shown in Fig. 4.1.5.
Definition :
The angular velocity of this phaser is de (t) /dt as per
FM is a modulation system in which, the instantaneous
Equation (4.1.7).
frequency of the carrier is varied in proportion with the
If the carrier is modulated then the angular velocity instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.
de (t) /dt keeps changing in accordance with the
The amplitude of the carrier signal remain constant.
instantaneous modulating voltage.

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~F PCS (Sem. 4 / E&Tc I SPPU) 4-5 FM Transmission & Reception
========================================~11:U~.-linn
Thus the information is conveyed via frequency It is a sinusoidal signal with amplitude A and frequency
variations. fe.
A single tone FM is the type of FM in which the The amount by which the carrier frequency deviates

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modulating signal is a single frequency sine wave. from its unmodulated value is called as "deviation".

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Carrier and Modulating frequency : The deviation (8) is made proportional to the

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In sinusoidal Frequency Modulation (FM), the instantaneous value of modulating voltage.

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modulating signal x (t) = Em cos (2 n fm t) is a pure 4.3 Important Definitions in F.M. :
sinusoidal signal.

The carrier signal c (t) is also a sinewave at much higher

4.3.1 Instantaneous Frequency :
frequency. The instantaneous frequency of the FM wave is denoted
FM was first practically tried in 1936 as an alternative to by f; (t) and is given by,
AM. As will be shown later on, FM transmission is more f; (t) = fe [ 1 + kf X (t) ]
resistant to noise than A.M.

Waveforms: = fe + 8 COS (2 7t fm t) ... (4.3.1)

The time domain display of FM wave is as shown in the Where 8 = k1 Em Ee and it is called as frequency
Fig. 4.2.1. deviation, where k1 is a constant with units HzNolts.

+
Modulating signal
·······················:.;.··..-·~-- 4.3.2 Frequency Deviation (c5) or (.M) :
Em
Ql-----''--__,_'--_ _ _ _ _ _..,,___ _ _" ' - - - ' - - - - . 1 " - , , - Definition :

Frequency deviation 8 is defined as the maximum

i departure of the instantaneous frequency f; (t) of the FM
FM vtave/ f Frequency varies in proportion
with the 1;1odulating vol~age
..................... t" ............ wave from the carrier frequency fc-

Since 8 = k1 Em, the frequency deviation is proportional

to the amplitude of modulating voltage (Em) and it is
:--- independent of the modulating frequency fm·
No j • )T
frequency-+: Maximum frequency Minimum frequency
change 4.3.3 Maximum and Minimum Frequency :
(B-709) Fig. 4.2.1 : Time domain display of FM wave
The maximum frequency of FM wave is,
Observations : ... (4.3.2)
The observation from the Fig. 4.2.1 are as follows : The minimum frequency of a FM wave is fmin = (fe - 8).
The rate at which these frequency variations or
Carrier swing :
oscillations takes place in the FM wave is equal to the
Carrier swing is defined as the difference between the
modulating frequency (fm).
maximum and minimum frequency in FM.
The amplitude of the FM wave always remains constant.
Carrier swing = 2 x 8
This is the biggest advantage of FM.
4.3.4 Mathematical Expression for F.M. :
For the F.M. wave the modulating signal x (t) be a
SPPU : Dec. 07, May 10, May 13, May 16, Dec. 17
sinusoidal signal of amplitude Em and frequency fm.
... (4.2.1) University Questions
X (t) = Emcos (2n fmt)

The unmodulated carrier is represented by the

Q. 1 Derive the expression for FM Wave fbr sin'us6iJar
moc:lulating signal as follows :
expression,
e =A, sih $ {OE!c>07, 8 Marks)
ee = A sin (wet + $) ... (4.2.2)

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1,: 4-6 FM Transmission & Reception

.9/2 \/Viththe help ofmathematical expression, explain

which is superior: PM or FM. (May 10, 8 Marks)
Q, 3 .. [)erive an expres$ion. for frequency and phase
< rnqdqlated wave._Sketch the waveforms.

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kr Em We sin corn t

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(May.13,,8Marks) = Wet +

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.· Give th~. ~quati~r:ifot FM and PM. Give the

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.... ...
k1 Em fcsin com t

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dlffer!pce.ip. ~an~tiith. when : 0 (t) = Wet+ f ... (4.3.8)
m
•• .... •t;'.)• '''*ffiplit'u(l~'.;tif;irtbdcifating signal rs d6uhled;••
As per the definition, 8 = k1Em fe
2. FrElqt.Jency0ofrnodulating signalis halved.
8 sin com t
(May 16, 6 Marks) 0 (t) = CDe t + f ... (4.3.9)
m

Q. 5 Derive the expression for FM modulated wave for Substitute this value of 0 (t) in Equation (4.3.4) to get
sinusoidal modulating signal. the equation for the FM wave as,
e =A sin 0. (Dec. 17, 6 Marks)
eFM = s (t) =Ee sin [ CDe t + f~ sin com t] ...(4.3.10)
We know that the FM wave is a sinewave having a
8
constant amplitude and a variable instantaneous But f = m1 i.e. the modulation index of FM wave.
m
frequency.
Hence the equation for FM wave is given as,
As the instantaneous frequency is changing
continuously, the angular velocity "w" of an FM wave is ... (4.3.11)
the function of We and wm. This is the expression for a FM wave, where m,

Therefore the FM wave is represented by, represents the modulation index.

Meaning of mathematical representation :
eFM = s(t) = Ee sin [F (we, Wm)] ... (4.3.3)
The mathematical expression for a FM wave is as
= Ee sin 0 (t) ... (4.3.4) follows:
eFM = Ee sin [met + m1sin comtl
where 0 (t) = F(we , Wm) ... (4.3.5)

As shown in Fig. 4.3.1, Ee sin 0 (t) is a rotating vector. If L Frequency of FM wave

varies according to the
"Ee" is rotating at a constant velocity "co" then we could
[ modulating signal
have written that 0(t) = wt. FM wave is a sine wave

Peak amplitude of l=M wave is

constant and equal to the peak
amplitude of the carrier (D-1311)

The amplitude of FM wave is constant and equal to the

amplitude of the carrier i.e. Ee-
FM wave is sinusoidal i.e. it has a shape of sine or cosine
Ee wave.
(D-164} Fig. 4.3.1 : Frequency modulated vector The frequency of FM wave is not constant. It varies
But in FM this velocity is not constant. In fact it is continuously, above and below the carrier frequency fc-
changing continuously. 4.3.5 Modulation Index :
The angular velocity of FM wave is given as, SPPU: May 06, Dec. 07, May 10
... (4.3.6)
University Questions .• .·• ,:
Hence to find "0 (t)" we must integrate "w" with respect Q. 1 State clearly thk difference between rhod1:1latjon1.-·.
. • • •.. .
to time. index and deviation ratio.
0 (t) = f CD dt = f We [1 + k1 Em COS CDm t] dt ... (4.3.7) (May 06, l\llay105iMi;~s)

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Q. 2 What do you mean by modulation index . clnd 4.3.8 Frequency Spectrum of FM Wave :
deviation ratio in FM ? (Dec;. 07,4 Marks) SPPU : Dec. 06, May 12, Dec. 12

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Definition : ·university Questions

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Q.1 •• Derive the expression of angle modulated •signal
The modulation index of an FM wave is defined as :

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and draw its spectrum. JDec, 06, 8 Marks)
Maximum frequency deviation

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mi = Modulating frequency ••• (4•3.l 2) Q. 2 Compare FM and AM systems with their
. ,., •< :spectrimls.>•··.· •••••.• ,,.,,,,••trc:t(r-fays1,~;a Mark$);.
8
... (4.3.13) Q; 3 Derive the equation for bandwidth of FM wave,
Also derive the equation for· bandwk:lth of• NBFM
The modulation index (m 1) is very important in FM and NBPM. Give their block diagrams'.
because it decides the bandwidth of the FM wave (Pec.12; 6 Marks)
(discussed later on).
Frequency domain representation of FM wave is a graph
The modulation index also decides the number of of amplitude plotted on y axis versus the frequency
sidebands having significant amplitudes. plotted on the x axis.
In AM the maximum value of the modulation index m is In order to represent the FM wave in the frequency
1. But for FM the modulation index can be greater than domain, consider the equation of FM wave again.
1. The modulation index mr is measured in radians. The expression for the FM wave is not simple. It is
complex since it is sine of sine function.
4.3.6 Deviation Ratio :
SPPU: May 06, Dec. 07, May 10 The only way to solve this equation is by using the

University Questions Bessel functions.

Q. 1 State clearly. the difference between modulation By using the Bessel functions the equation for FM wave
index and deviation ratio. can be expanded as follows :
(May ()6, May 10, 4 Marks) eFM =s (t) = Ee{ J0 (mr) sin wet + J1 (m 1)
Q. 2 What do you mean by modulation index and
[sin ( We + Wm) t - sin ( We - Wm) t] + J2 (mr)
deviation ratio in FM? (Dec. 07, 4 Marks)
[sin ( We + 2 Wm ) t + sin ( We - 2 Wm ) t l + h (m1)
Definition : [sin ( we + 3 Wm ) t - sin ( we - 3 Wm) t + J4 (mr)
In FM broadcasting the maximum value of deviation is [sin ( We + 4Wm) t + Sin ( ffie - 4 ffim) t ] ...... } .. (4.3.16)
limited to 75 kHz. eFM= Carrier + Infinite number of sidebands
The maximum modulating frequency is also limited to Expanding Equation (4.3.16) we get,
15 kHz.

The modulation index corresponding to the maximum

deviation and maximum modulating frequency is called Carrier Pair of first
sidebands (D-1090)
as the "deviation ratio".
Observations :
Maximum deviation
Deviation ratio = Maximum modulating frequency ••• (4.3.l4) Looking at Equation (4.3.16) we can draw the following
conclusions :
4.3. 7 Percentage Modulation of FM Wave : 1. The FM wave consists of carrier. The first term in
Definition : Equation (4.3.16) represents the carrier.

The percent modulation is defined as the ratio of the 2. The FM wave ideally consists of infinite number of
actual frequency deviation produced by the modulating sidebands. All the terms except the first dne are

signal to the maximum allowable frequency deviation. sidebands.

. Actual frequency deviation 3. The amplitudes of the carriers and sidebands are
0
Yo Modulation = Maximum allowed deviation ••• (4•3.l 5) dependent on the J coefficients. For example,
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amplitude of carrier component depends on FM spectrum:

Jo (m1) , that of the first pair of sidebands depends From Equation (4.3.16) we get the carrier and infinite

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on Ji ( mr) etc. number of sidebands and Fig. 4.3.2 is the frequency

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spectrum of the ideal FM wave.

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4. The values of these J coefficients can be obtained

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In FM sum and difference sideband frequencies are

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from the table of J coefficients. For example Ji (m1)

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produced.
denotes the value of Ji for the particular value of In addition, theoretically infinite number of pairs of
mf written inside the bracket. upper and lower sidebands are also generated.
Hence the spectrum of FM signal is generally wider than
the spectrum of AM.

,.__ _ _ _ Lower s i d e b a n d s - - - - - + + - - - - - Upper sidebands-----+

Jo(mt)Ec

oo Number of
sidebands

J;.

Il
•••••••••••• t

fc-frn t 0+fm t 0+3fm

fc·- 2 fm (LSB ) (USB 1) 1c+ 2fm
1

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - BW = oo - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ - -

(L-42) Fig. 4.3.2 : Ideal frequency spectrum of FM wave

Note that the sidebands are spaced from the carrier fc

and from each other by a frequency equal to J0 Carrier amplitude
modulating signal frequency fm. J 1 First-order sideband
component amplitude_t----t--1
The modulation index (mr) determines the number of I I I
J 2 Second order
sideband components that will have significant
amplitudes.
Ideally there are infinite number of sidebands, but
0
practical bandwidth depends on the number of
significant sidebands and hence on the modulation
index value.

However the amplitude of FM wave will remain I'>, modulation index

constant.
Jn (n = 3, 4, 5)

4.3.9 Feature of Bessel Coefficient :

Several of the Bessel functions which determine the

amplitudes of the spectral components in the Fourier
expansion are plotted in Fig. 4.3.3.

t,.t ,;i, "' 0, Jo (0) = 1, while all other Jn's are zero. Hence,
r-1, modulation index
when ':lv:re is no modulation, only the carrier, is present,
(D-1714) Fig. 4.3.3 : The Bessel functions Jn (mt) plotted as a
while a!I sidebands have zero amplitude.
function of mt for n = 0, 1, 2, ... » 5.
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Table 4.3.1 : Modulation index values for which the carrier

When mt departs slightly from zero, only Ji (m1) has a
amplitude is zero
magnitude which is significant in comparison with unity,
Order of carrier Modulation

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while all higher-order J's have negligible values. frequency Eigen value indexm1

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1 2.4
For very small values of m1. the FM signal is composed

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2 5.52

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of a carrier and a single pair of sidebands with
3 8.65
frequencies (we ± Wm). 4 11.79
Such an FM signal where m1. is very small and only a 5 14.93
6 18.07
single sideband pair of significant magnitude is
n (n > 6) 18.07 +; (n - 6)
produced, is called a narrowband FM signal.

As mf increases, the amplitude Ji of the first side-band 4.3.10 Transmitted Power in FM:
pair increases and the amplitude h of the second In FM, the total transmitted power always remains
constant. It is not dependent on the modulation index.
sideband pair also increase.
The reason for this is that the amplitude of the FM
Thus number of sidebands having significant amplitude
signal i.e. Ee is always constant and the power
increases. This increases the bandwidth of the FM signal. transmitted is given by,
Such an FM signal where m1. is large enough to produce
... (4.3.17)
a number of sideband pairs of significant magnitude is
produced, is called a wideband FM signal. So substituting RL = 1 we get,
As the values of J coefficients are dependent on the 1 2

modulation index m1, the modulation index (m 1)

pt = 2 EC ... (4.3.18)

determines the number of sideband components that Therefore the average power of such a wave dissipated
in 1 n resistance will always be constant.
will have significant amplitudes.
Since Ee is constant, Pt also will be constant. It is possible
Ideally there are infinite number of sidebands, but
to express the transmitted power in the form of series
practical bandwidth depends on the number of
expansion as follows :
significant sidebands and hence on the modulation 00
1 2 2
index value. pt = 2 EC L Jn (m1) ... (4.3.19)
Some of the J coefficients can be negative. n = -oo
00

Therefore there is a 180° phase shift for that particular 2 1 2

But L Jn (mf) = 1; Hence P1 =
2 Ee ... (4.3.20)
pair of sidebands. n=- oo

This is denoted by a negative sign attached to the 4.3.11 Sidebands and Modulation Index :
amplitude of that sideband. SPPU: Dec. 06, May 12, Dec. 12
The carrier component does not remain constant. As University Qu stio_ps
J0 ( m1) is varying, the amplitude of the carrier will also
Q, 1 Derive the expression qf <angl~ 1119duf8::ted .sjgqal
vary. (Pee. Q&, a Mark$)
However the amplitude of FM wave will remain Q. 2 Compare FM syJt~rns with their
constant. spectrums.
:- - ·.:·...
<Maf12, 9 Mark$)
• ··::<•::·-.... : .:. I ·.'

For certain values of modulation index the carrier Q.3 Derive the equation for bandwidtf(ot FM 111Vave.

component will disappear completely. Also derive the equc}tion for ba11dw)dth gf NBFM
and NBPM. Give theirblock dia.9rams.
Their values are called "eigen values".
(Pee. 12, 6 Marks)

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As the amplitude of modulating signal varies, the The number of sidebands having significant amplitudes
frequency deviation will change. will increase with increase in the value of modulation
index m1.

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The number of sidebands produced and their

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amplitudes will change. Hence the bandwidth increases with increase in the

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value of mf.

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Fig. 4.3.4 illustrate the effect of modulation index on the

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frequency spectrum of FM. The simplest method to calculate the bandwidth is as
Higher the value of m1, more will be the number of follows:

sidebands having significant amplitudes and higher is BW = 2 fm x Number of significant sidebands ... (4.3.21)
the BW. With increase in modulation index, the number of
Modulation index = 1 significant sidebands increase.

ll f
This will increase the bandwidth. The bandwidth of FM
is higher than that of AM.

..
@
t
~
f fc-fm fc fc+fm
©
1
@
f ~·
f
.
Carson's rule :

The second method to find the practical bandwidth is a

Modulation index= 2
- - - - LSBs - - - - i i < " '_ _ _ USBs - - - ~ rule of thumb (Carson's rule).
Note : Number of sidebands
with significant amplitude 17\ It states that the bandwidth of FM wave is equal to
increases with increase 0 0 twice the sum of the deviation and the highest
®
modulating frequency.

BW = 2 [8 + fm (max) ] ... (4.3.22)

The Carson's rule gives correct results if the modulation

index is greater than 6.
(D-167) Fig. 4.3.4: Effect of modulation index on the
The frequency spectrum of the FM wave is as shown in
significant number of sidebands
Fig. 4.3.4.
4.3.12 Ideal Bandwidth of FM :
4.4 Types of F.M.:
Bandwidth of an FM wave is defined as the frequency
The FM systems are basically classified into two
difference between the highest pair of sidebands.
types:
Ideally the bandwidth of FM is infinite, because its
1. Narrowband FM 2. Broadband FM
spectrum consists of infinite number of upper and lower
4.4.1 Narrowband FM :
sidebands.
SPPU : Dec. 06, Dec. 07, May 08, May 09, Dec. 11,
4.3.13 Practical Bandwidth : Dec. 12, May 14, Dec. 19
SPPU : Dec. 05, Dec. 12
University Questions
University Questions
Q. 1 Differentiate between NBFM and WBFM: > .....
(Dec. 05, 2 Marks) (Dec. 06, May 08, May 14, De~; 1~( ~ ~arks)
Q. 2 . Derive the equation for bandwidth of FM wave. Q. 2 What do you mean by narrciwban{ F:Nt•·· ahd
Also
derive the equation for bandwidth of NBFM wideband FM ? (D~c; 07; 4'.Marks),
andNBPM; Give their block diagrams. Q; 3 Explain narrowband FM. (Mc:1y09, $Mark$}
(Dec. 12, 6 Marks)
Q. 4 Why is FM known as constant b~ncftviclth~yit~m?
Practically the bandwidth depends on the number of Compare between NBFM andWBFlllk

significant sidebands. (Dec; 11; $Marks)

~:;' TechKnowledge
~I'"' Publlcatlons
 • PCS (Sem. 4 I E&Tc / SPPU)
1F 4-11 FM Transmission & Reception

Q. ~ • • be rive tht $JLl$tl~n

.··
for·
.
ti;~dwidth
.
.... ·.: ... • .. ·.·:···
of·. FM .wave.
.. ·...·.··.·· s (t) = Ee COS [ 2n fc t + 2n k1 JX (t) cit ]
Also derive the equation for bandwidth of NBFM
Expressing it in terms of w

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a.nd Nijf>Fvf Ght~jheir block diagrams.

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(Dec. 12, 6 Marks) S (t) = Ee COS [ ffic t + 2n k1 JX (t) cit ]

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ity
A narrowband FM is the FM wave with a small We can represent this in the exponential manner as

Ad
je (tl
bandwidth. s (t) = Ee cos 0 (t) "" Ee e ... (4.4.3)
The modulation index m1of narrowband FM is small as This is written by only considering only the real part of
Ee eje (tl_
compared to one radian.
je (t) j [cos "'ct + kt/ x (t) cit]
Hence the spectrum of narrowband FM consists of the s (t) = Ee e = Ee e

carrier and upper sideband and a lower sideband. Led x (t) cit = g (t)
For small values of m1 the values of the J coefficients S (t) = Ee ej [cos "'ct+ kfg (t)]
... (4.4.4)
are, If k1 g (t) < < 1 for all values (which is the case for
J0 (m1) = 1, J1 (m 1) = m1I 2 } narrowband FM) then the expression for FM is
... (4.4.1)
~
1
Jn (m1) = 0 for n > 1 (t) = Ee [ 1 + j k1 g (t) ] ej"'c ... (4.4.5)

A
Therefore a narrowband FM wave can be expressed s (t) = Re [ s (t) l
mathematically as follows, = Ee cos COc t - Ee k1 g (t) sin coc t .. (4.4.6)
. m1 E0 . m, Ee .
eFM = s(t) = Ee sin Olct + -- s1n(coc + wm)t - ~ s,n(oic - mm)t
2
I I I I
Carrier Upper Lower carrier sideband
sideband sideband
This is the expression for narrowband FM.
(D-1642(a)} ... (4.4.2) Generation of narrowband FM :

The (-) sign associated with the LSB magnitude Fig. 4.4.1 shows the generation of narrowband FM using

represents a phase shift of 180°. balanced modulator.

Practically the narrowband FM systems have m1 less

modulator
than 1.
output
The maximum permissible frequency deviation is
restricted to about 5 kHz. > 6arr1er?t
jpsoill<!tOf}a
This system is used in FM mobile communications such
(D-168(a)) Fig. 4.4.1 : Generation of narrowband FM
as police wireless, ambulances, taxicabs etc.
The generation takes place exactly as per
Analysis of Narrowband FM :
Equation (4.4.6).
The expression for instantaneous frequency of FM wave
is,
4.4.2 Wideband FM (WBFM) :
SPPU: Dec. 06, Dec. 07, May 08, May 09, Dec. 11,
f; = fc + k1 X (t)
Dec. 12, May 14, Dec. 19
where x (t) is the modulating signal.
University Questions
The term k1x (t) represents the frequency deviation. The 01#Jre11tiate between NBFMind
constant k1 will control the deviation. ,' ',' ' '·. (Oec: 06, May 08, May 14,< [)~B.1·~/& ~arks)
0>2 · Wriat do you mean •by narrowb~hd FM> and •.
For small values of k1, the frequency deviation is small
wideband FM ? .(Oec. 07,.<JMarJ<s)
and the spectrum of FM signal has a narrowband. So it Explain narrowband FM: (Ma}i09; 611/larks)
is called as the narrowband FM. WhyisFM known as constant bandwidthsyst&m?
Compare betw~en NijFM and WBFM.<
Consider the general expression for FM wave
>(Dec. 11, 8. Marks)

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~I!!!!
~F PCS (Sem. 4 / E&Tc I SPPU) 4-12 FM Transmission & Reception

Q. 5 Derive the equation for bandwidth of FM wave. Sr.

Parameter Wideband FM Narrowband FM
Also derive the equation for bandwidth of NBFM No.
and NBPM. Give their block diagrams.
6. Applications Entertainment Police wireless,

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(Dec. 12, 6 Marks)

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broadcasting (can be ambulance etc.

G
As discussed earlier, for large values of modulation used for high quality (This is used for

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ity
index mf, the FM wave ideally contains the carrier and music transmission) speech

Ad
an infinite number of sideband located symmetrically transmission).

around the carrier. 7. Pre-emphasis and Needed Needed

Such a FM wave has infinite bandwidth and hence called De-emphasis

as wideband FM.
Ex. 4.4.1 : The equation of an angle modulated voltage is
The modulation index of wideband FM is much higher e = 10 sin (10
8
t + 3 sin 10
4
t). What form of angle
than 1.
modulation is this ? Calculate the carrier and modulating
The maximum permissible deviation is 75 kHz and it is frequencies, the modulation index and deviation and the
used in the entertainment broadcasting applications power dissipated in 100 n resistor.
such as FM radio, TV etc.
Soln.:
4.4.3 Comparison of WBFM and NBFM : This is an FM wave.
SPPU,: Dec. 06,. D,ec. o:z,, May 08, Ma' 09, Dec. 11,
The standard expression for FM wave is,

efM = A sin [(2 re fc t) + m 1 sin (2 re fm t)]

University Questions
Q. 1 Differentiate between NBFM and WBFM. Compare this expression with the given expression to

(Dec. 06, May 08, May 14, Dec. 19, 6 Marks) get the required quantities.
Q. 2 What do you mean by narrowband FM and Carrier frequency fc:
wideband FM? (Dec. 07, 4 Marks) 8
2 7C fc = 10
Q. 3 Explain narrowband FM. (May 09, 6 Marks)
8
Q. 4 Why is FM known as constant bandwidth system ? fc = 10 / 2 re= 15.91 MHz ... Ans.
Compare between NBFM and WBFM.
Modulating frequency fm:
(Dec. 11, 8 Marks)
4
Q. 5 Derive the equation for bandwidth of FM wave. 2rcfm = 10
Also derive the equation for bandwidth of NBFM 4
fm = 10 / 2 re = 1591.5 kHz ... Ans.
and NBPM. Give their block diagrams.
(Dec. 12, G Marks) Modulation index, deviation :

Sr. ... Ans.

Parameter Wideband FM Narrowband FM
No. 5 = lllr x fm = 3 x 1591.5
1. Modulation index Greater than 1 Less than or = 4.774 kHz. ...Ans.
slightly greater
Power dissipation in 100 D. resistance:
than 1
(A 1)8)2
2. Maximum deviation 75 kHz 5 kHz p =
R
3. Range of 30 Hz to 15 kHz 30 Hz to 3 kHz 2
(10 / )8) 100
modulating But A= 10 V p = =
100 2 X 100
frequency
= 0.5 Watts. ...Ans.
4. Maximum 5 to 2500 Slightly grealer
modulation index than 1
Ex. 4.4.2: Use Carson's rule to compare the bandwidth
5. Bandwidth Large, about 15 Small.
that would be required to transmit a baseband signal w1th a
times higher than Approximately
frequency range from 300 Hz to 3 kHz using :
BW of narrowband same as that of
AM 1. NBFM with maximum deviation of 5 kHz.
FM.
2. WBFM with maximum deviation of 75 kHz.
~~ TechKnowledge
~,.. PubllCillfons
 '!!!fl!!!
~F PCS (Sem. 4 / E&Tc I SPPU) 4-13 FM Transmission & Reception

Soln.:
Q. 2 Why is FM known as constant bandwidth syst~m ?
f"",..ffl.,...~,.-: h,...hu...,,.,...n f\lOC'I\Jl·""'r'\"" \J\/CCFI.JI
Given:
(Oec. 11, 8 Marks)

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Baseband signal frequency range : 300 Hz to 3 kHz.

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It is said that the FM system is a constant bandwidth

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1. Bandwidth for a NBFM : system. Let us prove it by taking an example.

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ity
Given that the deviation,

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Consider an FM system with deviation 8 = 75 kHz,
bmax = 5 kHz fc = 100 MHz, and the maximum modulating frequency
3 fm = 500 Hz.
BW = 2 [8max + fmJ = 2 [5 + 3] X 10

= 16 kHz ... Ans. The bandwidth can be calculated using Carson's rule .
BW = 2 [75 + 0.5] = 151 kHz ... (4.4.7)
2. Bandwidth for a WBFM :
Now keeping everything else unchanged, assume
Given that the deviation Omax = 75 kHz.
fm(max) = 5 kHz and calculate the new bandwidth.
BW = 2 [omax + fml = 2 [75 + 3] kHz BW = 2[75 + SJ = 160 kHz ... (4.4.8)
BW = 156 kHz ... Ans. Compare Equations (4.4.7) and (4.4.8). You will find that
corresponding to A tenfold increase in the modulating
Ex. 4.4.3 : A 107.6 MHz carrier is frequency modulated
frequency, the percent change in the BW is only
by a 7 kHz sine wave. The resultant FM signal has a
about 6%.
frequency deviation of 50 kHz.
1. Find the carrier swing of the FM signal. This is why FM is called as constant BW system.

2. Determine the highest and lowest frequencies attained 4.5 Single Tone PM : SPPU : May 05, May 08
by the modulated signal.
3. What is the modulation index of the FM wave ? University Questions
Soln.: Q. 1 "Phase and frequency modulation are
inseparable". Explain. (May 05, 6 Marks)
Given : fc = 107.6 MHz, frn = 7 kHz, M = 50 kHz
Q. 2 What is analog modulation ? Expt1;1in any two
To find: Carrier swing, highest and lowest frequencies, techniques with waveforms. (May 08, 8 Marks)
modulation index.
Definition :
Step 1 : Find highest and lower frequencies :
fmax = fc + M = (107.6 X
6
10 ) + (50 X
3
10 ) P.M. is defined as the type of modulation in which the
phase shift of a sinusoidal carrier is varied in proportion
= 107.65 MHz ... Ans.
6 3 with the instantaneous magnitude of the modulating
fmin = fc - M = (107.6 X 10 ) - (50 X 10 )
signal.
= 107.55 MHz
Phase modulation is very similar to the frequency
Step 2 : Find carrier swing :
modulation.
Carrier swing = fmax - fmin
The only difference is that the phase of the carrier is
= 107.65 MHz - 107.55 MHz varied instead of varying the frequency.
= 0.1 MHz or 100 kHz ... Ans. The amplitude of the carrier remains constant.
Step 3 : Find modulation index :
A single tone PM is the type of PM in which the
3
M 50 X 10 modulating signal is a single frequency sine wave .
mr = fm = 7 x 103 = 7.142 ... Ans.
Waveforms of PM :
4.4.4 FM is a Constant BW System, How?
Fig. 4.5.1 shows the waveforms of single tone PM.
SP13U ,: May,0~; Dec. 11
As shown in Fig. 4.5.1, as the modulating signal goes
University Questions positive, the amount of phase lag increases with the
Q. 1 Why fs FM known as constant BW modulation ? amplitude of the modulating signal.
(May 08, 4 Marks)
~•~ TechKnowledge
~11"' Publications
 PCS (Sem. 4 / E&Tc / SPPU) 4-14 FM Transmission & Reception

Modulating voltage x(t)

PM and FM are closely related. It is possible to obtain
+
FM from PM, using the method called "Armstrong

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01------.....,.__ _ _...__ _.......,......-_ _ _ _.....;..._,"'+ method".

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The PM wave is obtained by varying the phase angle <j>

a
Unmodulated __ J ; ;

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carrier
~,: ' .: Pl1ase & t'rer,ueno; of trie carrier char1ge of a carrier in proportion with the amplitude of the

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a ,,
) fin proporti_on with the rTI?dulating sign?\
-i:..... ,. ..........- -~•: -~· ' modulating voltage.
+
EC
:
A 0WA ... W : • • AW W•A ·••-' •••

If the carrier voltage is expressed as,

tof-'H~-t-t---i--<i-t-+-H-++-irH-tltlttltttfi-tttt-t-r.:-+
1
ee = A sin (wet + <j>) ... (4.5.1)
, .. ·r ... --- ----
:..--Nophase_..J Carrier
Then the PM wave can be expressed as,
, Carrier ~ompression
• change ,
stretching (phase lag) (phase lead)
e?M = A sin (wet+ <l>m sin Wmt) ... (4.5.2)
(L-45) Fig. 4.5.1 : Time domain display of PM wave
Here <l>m = Maximum phase change corresponding to
The effect of this is that the carrier signal is stretched or
the maximum amplitude of the modulating signal.
its frequency is reduced.
For the sake of uniformity let us modify the
When the modulating signal goes negative, the phase
Equation (4.5.2) as,
shift becomes leading.
ePM = A sin [wet + mp sin wmtl ... (4.5.3)
This causes the carrier wave to be effectively
Where mp= <l>m = Modulation index of PM.
compressed.
The FM and PM waves look identical when their
The effect of this is as if the carrier frequency is
modulation index are identical.
increased.
However if we change the modulating frequency fm then
Thus phase modulation is always associated with
m1 will change but there is no change in the value of mp.
frequency modulation and vice versa.

Note that the P.M. wave of Fig. 4.5.1 is the same as the 4.5.2 Deviation Sensitivity of FM :
F.M. wave produced by dx(t) / dt i.e. the derivative of
For the modulating signal x (t) = Em cos wm t the
x (t) with respect to time.
instantaneous frequency deviation is given as,
4.5.1 Mathematical Representation of 0 (t) = Kr x (t) rad/s ... (4.5.4)
Phase Modulation (PM) :
Where Kr is called as the deviation sensitivity of
SPPU : May 10, May, 13, May 16 frequency modulation.
University Questions A deviation sensitivity is the input-output transfer
Q. 1 With the help of mathematical expression, explain function of the frequency modulator.
which is superior: PM or FM? (May 10, 8 Marks)
The units of deviation sensitivity for FM will be
Q. 2 Derive an expression for frequency and phase
rad/sec/volt.
modulated wave. Sketch the waveforms.
rad/ sec.
(M;:iy 13, 8 Marks) Kr = V ... (4.5.5)

Q. 3 •Give the. •equation for FM and PM. •• Give the

4.5.3 Deviation Sensitivity of PM :
difference in bandwidth when :
1. Amplitude of modulating signal is doubled. For the modulating signal x (t) = Em cos (wmt), the

2. Frequency of modulating signal is halved. instantaneous phase deviation is given by,

(May 16, 6 Marks) e (t) = KP x (t) rad ...(4.5'.6)

The phase modulation is another type of angle Where KP is the deviation sensitivity of phase

modulation. modulation.

~i;' TechKnowledge
'"ii"' Publications
 ?II~
~p PCS (Sem. 4 / E&Tc / SPPU) 4-15 FM Transmission & Reception

It is the transfer function of a phase modulator. 4.6 Spectrum of Constant Bandwidth

rad FM:
KP = V ... (4.5.7)
Let the modulating signal voltage be Em cos 2rcfm t with

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ha
Ex. 4,5;1 : Frequency
. . . . .deviation
. on a . 100 MHz .carrier by a Em the peak voltage .

G
,. ,.,,. \•"

a
19.• k~!•.•·si?nalf~±;so•·kHz•.. ·Getermine.• the·.·maximGrn .angle. of

ity
In a phase-modulating system the phase angle $ (t)

Ad
·??~~~C~/?fl~··:r!tard~ti~n·· pr9clvc.ed·_.by. this•• sign a. 1-_ •.• lf ·_o~l~•.· t~~. would be proportional to this modulating signal so that
ifflaau1aung<rracruefi6frs ckant1ea'to 1e6Hz'/1wriati1~:rm~ w~w $(t) = k' Em cos 2rcfm t, with k' a constant.
d~viation produced ? May 96, ~ Marks
The phase deviation is $m = k' Em, and, for constant Em,
Soln.:
the bandwidth increases linearly with modulating
Given : fc = 100 MHz, fm = 10 kHz, o =±SO kHz.
frequency since B = 2¢m fm = 2 k' Em, f m•

1. Maximum angle of advance and retardation :

Thus bandwidth varies with the modulating frequency.
We know that,
We may avoid this variation in bandwidth with
8 = (coct + mpsin comt) ... (1)
modulating frequency by making the following
Instantaneous angular frequency of a PM wave is defined
as: arrangement :

¢(t) = (k/2rcfm) Em sin 2rcfmt {k a constant).

That means,
= ffic + mp Wm COS wmt
¢(t) = $m sin 2rcfmt
f; = fc + mp fm cos comt ... (3)
kEm
The second term of Equation (3) represents the And, <Pm = ..... (4.6.1)
2nfm
frequency deviation.
But the bandwidth is,
The maximum deviation is obtained at "cos comt" = ± 1. kEm
B = 2$m f m = 2 ( 2 nfm) f m
... (4)
.-. B _ (2k/2rc) Em .. (4.6.2)
Now, mp = Modulation index of PM wave
This expression shows that the bandwidth is
= $m = Maximum phase deviation.
independent offm•
0max = ± fm $max
3 In this latter case, however, the instantaneous frequency
SQ X 10
± $max = 3 = 5 rad. ... (5) is co = COc + k Em COS 2 refmt.
10 X 10

Maximum angle of advance and retardation is ± 5 Since the instantaneous frequency is proportional to the

rad. or± 286.5°. modulating signal, the initially angle-modulated signal

has become a frequency-modulated signal.
2. New deviation :
Thus a signal intended to occupy a nominally constant
New value offm= 200 Hz.
bandwidth is a frequently-modulated rather than an
To keep $max constant equal to 5, the new value of
angle-modulated signal.
deviation is given by,
In Fig. 4.3.3 we have drawn the spectrum for three
o = 5 x 200 = 1000 Hz. ... (6)
values of m1 for the condition that mdm is kept constant.
4.5.4 Relation of Deviation Ratios with
Modulation Index : The nominal bandwidth B = 2 !::if = 2mt.fm is
consequently constant.
For F.M.: Modulation index m1 = ... (4.5.8)
com The amplitude of the unmodulated carrier at fc is shown
For P.M.: Modulation index mp = KP Em ... (4.5.9) by a dashed line.

~•iw TechKnowledge
~f" Publlcatrons
 ~-
~E PCS(Sem.4/E&Tc/SPPU) 4-16 FM Transmission & Reception

Note that the extent to which the actual bandwidth Conclusion :

extends beyond the nominal bandwidth is greatest for In the limiting case of very large mf and
small m1 and large f m and is least for large m1 and correspondingly very small f m, the actual bandwidth

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small j m- becomes equal to the nominal bandwidth 2 /'J.f.

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In commercial FM broadcasting, a frequency deviation 4.6.1 Difference between FM and PM :

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ity
/'J.f = 75 kHz has been allowed.

Ad
SPPU: May17
If we assume that the highest audio frequency to be University Questions
·. . . . . .·_;;i{Jitf/))/SAi}~ftt;§:;<:
···. ·_·,·· ·.·.,.·:.
transmitted is 15 kHz, then at this frequency mf = /'J.f/f m Q.<t .§ive comparison between Ff\/1 anp. f'fvt ·.....
= 75/15 = 5. (May 17, 6 Marks)

For all other modulation frequencies mf is larger than 5. After being introduced to the principles of FM and PM,
let us now see the difference between them.
When mf = 5, there are mf + 1 = 6 significant sideband
We have seen that phase modulation produces
pairs so that at f m - 15 kHz the bandwidth required is
frequency modulation.
B= 2 x 6 x 15=180 kHz, which is to be compared with
But note a very important point here that the frequency
2 Aj = 150 kHz. modulation (FM) is produced by PM if and only if the
When m1 = 20, there are 21 significant sideband pairs, phase shift is being varied.

and B = 2 x 21 x 15/4 = 157.5 kHz. Let us understand this point by referring to Fig. 4.6.1.

Modulating
signal

,
► :4 t1--11,;+---t2----

\Frequenci: !Frequency!
:increases: . i increases:
;._ Carrier :,. :frequency constant: Frequency ).frequency constant; l
: frequency •: ~:at its maximum value: 41 reduces "' t ·1 • • I t 41 "•

FM
iAAAAUUHWUmH~NAA A~!A'Am~'A!ut~-rn .
,1l v~v~~Yn~·nrrnn1~nrv vvv v~ v~,lnll
signal

;Frequency[ ; j f l Frequency
: Carrier :decreases: Carrier • Frequency i Carrier i t i decreases

PM
signal
A~AI{A A;A fA"AA A;i!~mmui!A A'IAA-A6 ir
(D-169) Fig. 4.6.1 : Difference between FM and PM

1. Frequency variation in FM and PM waves : It remains constant during interval t 2 at its maximum
value and during interval t 5 at its minimum value.
To understand the difference between FM and PM refer
to the FM wave first in Fig. 4.6.1. But look at the PM wave. The frequency of PM wave
changes and only if the amplitude of modulating signal
For FM, the carrier frequency changes with th,e change
changes.
in the instantaneous modulating signal value.

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~, PCS (Sem. 4 / E&Tc / SPPU) 4-17 FM Transmission & Reception

So during the intervals t 1 , t 3, t 4, t 6 the frequency of PM 4. Effect of modulating frequency :

wave changes.
In FM, the frequency deviation is proportional only to
But during the intervals t 2 and t 5 when the modulating
the amplitude variation of the modulating signal and it

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signal is constant the frequency of PM remains constant is independent of the modulating frequency fm.

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at the carrier frequency value with some phase shift.

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But in PM, as the modulating frequency is changed, the

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This clearly illustrates that the frequency variation in PM
rate of change of modulating voltage changes .
.•·takes;?•place •only.;JL;the,.modulating, .signal- arnplitudeis,
varying. This changes the frequency deviation.

2. Maximum frequency deviation : Thus in PM, the frequency deviation increases with
increase in modulating frequency fm and decreases with
The maximum frequency deviation in FM occurs at the
points corresponding to peak values of modulating decrease in modulating frequency.

signal. Thus in PM the carrier frequency deviation is

But in PM the maximum frequency deviation occurs at proportional to both modulating frequency and amplitude
the point where the rate of change of modulating signal whereas in FM the carrier frequency deviation is proportional
is maximum that means the maximum frequency only to the amplitude of modulating signal.
deviation occurs near the zero crossing points of the
4.6.2 Comparison of AM, FM and PM :
modulating signal.
Maximum frequency SPPU: May 07, May 12, Dec. 14, Dec. 15, May 17
Modulating deviation
signal for FM
University Questions
Q. 1 Compare AM and FM. (May 07, 6 Marks)
Q. 2 Compare FM and AM systems with their
spectrums. {May 12, 6 Marks)
L Maximum frequency Q. 3 Differentiate between frequency modulaticm and
deviation
For FM phase modulation. (Dec. 14, Dec. 15, 6<Marks)
(a) Maximum deviation points for FM Q. 4 Give comparison between FM and PM,
(May 17, 6 Marks)
r
Maximum frequency
deviation
Sr.
Parameter AM
No.

L
Maximum frequency
deviation
1. Variable
parameter of
the carrier
Amplitude Frequency Phase

For PM
2. Mathematical s(t) = Ec sin s (t) = EC sin [coct
(b) Maximum deviation points for PM
equation [coc t + mr sin + mp sin com t]
(D-170) Fig. 4.6.2 com t]
• .. . ..
Thus although the phase modulation produce FM, the 3. Variable Peak signal Frequency Phase deviation
parameter amplitude deviation
maxirnum deviation occurs at different points of a
proportional
modulating signal. to
modulating
3. Maximum phase deviation : voltage

At peak amplitude points of the modulating signal the 4. Amplitude of Varies Constant Constant
modulated continuously
maximum frequency deviation takes place for FM. signal

For PM, at the peak amplitude points of the modulating 5. Bandwidth Constant 2 [o + fml 2 (M+W)
2 fm
signal the maximum phase deviation takes place.
6. Noise Very poor Best of all Better than AM,
immunity schemes worse than FM

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~'(P Public.a Lion:,
 J-
~E PCS(Sem.4/E&Tc/SPPU) 4-18 FM Transmission & Reception

Sr; 4. Maximum deviation 8 = m1x fm = 4 x 199 = 796 Hz.

No.
Parameter AM FM ·PM
5. Power dissipated in 5 n resistance.
7. Transmission Simple Complex Complex 2
and [RMS value of FM wave]

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reception
p =
R

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equipments

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2 2
[Ee /V2-l (10 /V2-l

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8. The Amplitude Frequency Phase deviation ----=----=lOW
R 5

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information is variation variation
contained in

9. Usefullness Carrier All the power is All the power is

1
i~: 'ij~~!~ii!> Jf{• ;'~ :,i2M\'.riy§t~tri~r\t~~i;HrW!~~t~11flg' trt·ttuehcy
1

of power and useful. useful. fm = J. kHz, .

themcidulating
.. ...
.. volJ~Q$
. ... .
eiF 2
.., . . . . . .
\,lof~s and the
.
transmitted one S.B. deviation. is 6 • • kHz. <11 the modulating
.. ·.. . . .
~6lta.gels t'aised to
..
power power are
not useful. 4 Volti;
•. < ·:
then what is tlie new
•
deViatforl?
.•• .·.·.··: .•
·. lf the modulating
•• •.

10. Usage Widely used. Widely used. Limited use.

voltage is further increased to 8 \/pits. and modulating
freq~~ncy is reduced to 500 Hz wh1{wi11b~>deviatfon?
11. Coverage Less More Moderate
area for the May 02, 2 Marks
same
Soln.:
transmitted
power Given: 1. fm = 1 kHz 2. Em= 2V 3. o = 6 kHz
12. Possibility of Not possible Very much Possible
As we know, 8 = kr Em
using same possible
frequency for o 6 kHz
multiple k1 = E = ~ = 3 kHz/V ... (1)
m
transmitters
1. Therefore when
13. Applications Radio and Radio, TV, Data
TV police wireless, communications. Em = 4V
broadcasting point to point
communication. 8 = k1 Em = (3 kHz/ V) x 4V
14. Signal to Poor Best Better
= 12 kHz ... Ans.
noise ratio
2. For Em = 8 V and fm = 500 Hz
4.6.3 Solved Examples :
8 = k1 Em = (3 kHz / V) x 4 V
l;X:4.i1·.·.:-,: A.'<FM wave
• .,.,:_. <·'•:.·.·.:·,: ..
-:-•,_..·
is represented by the following
= 24 kHz ... Ans.
•·•·1si~~~it~~if~eo17sotJ·•···•·•.····•··•·· •
•Nb\~ ; T&e{ cbaf1ge<Jn.
• • •effest pntHe):i~£i~tttih:'l :
carrler eirid 1TJ6ciTuiatirig'M:;cit1Jrtdes. >•
M6dulatfon lnd~iartdrri,Mmufrt·deviation. · Ex. 4.6.3 : For the same data of Ex. 4.6.2. Calculate the
•3; ··•· <+i;~·~w~rcii~i;~te<f 6~tl1is.FM·wave.fl'I• ~ .5hresi~tor.
.: ... ·.::·.:.,:· ,·.· .•· .... ·: ·.·.·.···.,,.·.-·.·····= ···.·· ... ·.· ..... ..··.·· ·.·.·
modulation index in each case. Comment on the result.
Dec. 97, 10 Marks, Dec. 01, 6 Marks, May 18, 8 Marks Soln.:
Soln.: 1. 8 = 6 kHz and fm = 1 kHz ... (1)

Compare the given equation with the standard equation 8

:. Modulation index m1 = fm = 6
for the FM wave. i.e.
eFM = s(t) = Ee sin [wet + m1sin CDmtl 2. 8 = 12 kHz and fm = 1 kHz
12 kHz
Comparing, we get, =
m1 lkHz = 12 ... (2)
8
5 X 10
1. Carrier frequency fe = ~ = 79.57 MHz. 3. 8 = 24 kHz and fm = 0.5 kHz
1250 24
2. Modulating frequency fm = h = 199 Hz. mr = 0.5 = 48 ... (3)

3. Modulation index m1= 4.

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~F PCS (Sem. 4 / E&Tc / SPPU) 4-19 FM Transmission & Reception

Comment: 2. Frequency deviation if fm is doubled.

The modulation index is dependent on the value of Step 1 : Calculate maximum frequency deviation :

deviation as well as the modulating frequency. Comparing given equation with standard exrression to

l
ya
get,

ha
Ex. 4.6.4 : Give comparison of FM and PM systems. In FM

G
Modulation index m, = 5

a
ity
system, the modulating frequency is 500 Hz and modulating
2rrf,,.,t = 1000 rrt

Ad
voltage is 3.6 V with modulating index 65. Calculate
:. fm = 500 Hz
maximum frequency deviation. What will be the modulation
index when modulating frequency is 235 Hz and modulation Frequency deviation M = mt x f,,., = 5 x 500

voltage is 5 V ? = 2500 Hz ... Ans.

Soln.: Step 2 : Calculate frequency deviation if fm is doubled :

Refer Section 4.6.1 for comparison of FM and PM (m = 1000 Hz

systems.
New frequency deviation
Given : fm = 500 Hz, Em = 3.6 V, m1 = 65
M' = m x f'm =5 x 1000
1
To find : 8max and m1 for fm =235 Hz and Em = 5 V.
= 5000 Hz ...Ans.
a. Maximum deviation :
Ex. 4.6.6 : A carrier Ee cos We f is m9dulatad'~{a;tlgnal,
8max = mr x fm = 65 x 500 t Ct) • = 2 •cos 2n + s cos to 3
2nt +1 co~ 10.a 4,~{<:F=inlf:iM
= 32.5 kHz ... (1)
bandwidth of FM, using Carson:s rule. ,A.$~µ11'1! l<
3 '. '.'. '. '. '. '. '. ... '. '. '. '. '. '.' '. ,. '. ./ •• '.
r fo X

10 •. Hz per volt. Also find the 'deviation ratio'( • .). •. '.·•··.

b. New values of 8max and fm :
'. '. fi!MtitiYPJD.
Soln.:
fm = 235 Hz and Em = 5 V
The modulating signal consists of three signals. We are
1. Find K: interested in the modulating signai with maximum
frequency. The maximum modulating frequency is
From Equation (1),
2 kHz.
32.5 kHz = k x 3.6 fm (max} = 2 kHz. ... (1)

k = 9.02 kHz/Volt ... (2) Maximum frequency deviation

8 = Veffective X K ... (2)
2. New values of 0max and mt :
3
Where, K = 10 x 10 Hz / V .... given
For new value of Em = 5V 2 2 21/2
and veffective = [(2) + (6) + (7) J = 9.43 Volts.
Dmax =k X Em = 9.02 X 5 8 = 9.43 x 10 x 10
3
=94.3 kHz. ... (3)
= 45.1 kHz ... Ans. The bandwidth according to Carson's rule is given as :
. . d 45.1 kHz BW = 2 [8 + fm(max}J ... (4)
Mo d uIatIon in ex m1 = Hz
235
= 2 [94.3 + 2) kHz
= 191.91 ... Ans. = 192.68 kHz. ... (5)
. . . Maximum deviation (8)
Ex. 4.6.5 : A PM signal is given by s (t) =2 cos (2n x 106 t Dev1at1on ratio = . .
Maximum modulating frequency (fm (max})
+ 5 cos (1000 nt)). Find the maximum frequency deviation of
94.3
this signal. If modulating frequency is doubled what effect will == -2- = 47.15 ... (6)

it have maximum frequency deviation ?

Ex. 4.6.7: In a FM system, the modulatingfrequency is
Soln.:
600 Hz and modulating voltage is 2.4 V and modulation
6
Given: s(t) = 2 cos (2n x 10 t + 5 cos (1000 nt)) index is 60. Calculate the maximum deviation: What will be
the modulation index when modulating frequency is 250 Hz
To find: 1. Maximum frequency deviation
and modulating voltage is 3 V? .Dec: 96 8 Marks
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~~ PCS(Sem.4/E&Tc/SPPU) 4-20 FM Transmission & Reception

Soln.: 10 kHz
New value of m1 = ... (3)
2 kHz = 5
1. To calculate the maximum deviation :
:. Equation of a FM wave is :
Given : fm = 600 Hz, Em= 2.4 Volts, m, = 60.

l
6 3

ya
eFM = 10 sin [(2rc x 20 x 10 t) + 5 sin (2n x 2 x 10 t)] ... (4)
Maximum deviation,

ha
2

G
8 = mf X fm ... (1) . . db h f. (510) 12.5
4. Pewer d 1ss1pate y t e 1rst wave = R =

a
ity
= 60 x 600 == 36 kHz ... (2) 100

Ad
= 0.125 W ,.. (5)
2. The deviation of 36 kHz is obtained for an amplitude of
2
2.4 Volts of the modulating signal. . . • (1010)
5. Power d1ss1pated by the second wave =
100
3
36 X 10 3
K = .4 = 15 x 10 Hz/ Volt ... (3) = 0.5 W ... (6)
2

3. The new values of fm and Em are: Ex. 4.6.10 : A 101 MHz carrier is modulated by a 500 Hz
fm = 250 Hz and Em = 3 Volts audio signal. ff the carrier voltage is 10 V and the maximum
3 deviation is 75 kHz, write the equation of this modulated
New value of deviation = K x Em = 15 x 10 x 3
wave. Dec. 01, 2 Marks
8 = 45 kHz. ... (4)
3
45 X 10
Soln.:
4. New value of m1 =
250 Given: fc = 101 MHz, fm = 500 Hz, A = 10 V, 8 = 75 kHz
... (5) 3
. 75 X10
1. The modulation index m1 = 8 I fm = = 150
500
Ex. 4.6.8 : Calculate the bandwidth required for FM signal
6 8
in which modulating frequency is 2 kHz and maximum 2. CDC = 2 7t fc = 2 TC X 101 X lQ = 6.34 X 10
deviation is 10 kHz. State Carson's rule for the bandwidth of CDm = 2 7t fm = 2 1t x 500 = 3140
FM signals. i W.f,;.J,1,j!j&@jjti
11 3. The equation for FM wave is eFrv1 = A sin [coc t + m1 sin
Soln.: (Om t]
8
Given : fm =2 kHz, 8 = 10 kHz .'. e,cM = 10 Sin [6.34 X 10 t + 150 • Sin 3140 t]
:. Bandwidth= 2 [8 + fml = 2 [10 + 2] = 24 kHz This is the required expression for the FM wave.
This is the bandwidth as per Carson's rule. Ex. 4.6.11 : In FM, first carrier null (Bessel zero) which
Ex. 4.6.9 : A 20 MHz carrier is modulated by a 400 Hz occur at modulation index of 2.405 is used for deviation
audio sine wave. If the. carrier voltage is 5 V and maximum measurement. A FM transmitter with input modulating signal
devi~tion)s 10 kHz, write the ~~uation for this frequency of 5 Vpeak c:ind 10 kHz frequency produces first carrier null.
rrie>dyl~ted·. waye. If/the n,odul~ting frequency is .now Estimate the bandwidth of FM.transmission Wh~n modulating
cb'c!rig~d .tq,
• •• •
2
kHz .and .. carrier voltage is changed to
... : ·····; .-. ••• < •.·
sigrialwith 1oyolts peaks and 15 kl-lz frequel'lcy1s ~pplied;
10 V, an else remaining constant, write a equation for this May 01, 10 Marks
wave, calculate the power dissipated across 100 ohm Soln.:
resistor by both the FM waves. Bee. ·200_0, 6 Marks 1. First carrier null occurs at modulation index m1 = 2.405.
Soln.:
2. The first carrier null is produced by a modulating signal
Given : fc = 20 MHz, fm= 400 Hz, A= 5 V, 8 = 10 kHz.
of 5 V peak and 10 kHz frequency i.e.
1. The modulation index,
fm = 10 kHz and Em= 5 V correspond to m1 = 2.405.
3
8 lQ X 10 Deviation 8 = m1 x fm
m1 = fm
= 400 = 25 ... (1)
= 2.405 x 10 kHz = 24.05 kHz. ...(1)
2. Equation of a FM wave is : This deviation is due to a signal of 5 V amplitude.
eFM = A sin [coc t + m1 sin com t] 3. So if a modulating signal of 10 V amplitude is applied,
6
= 5sin [(2n x 20 x 10 t) + 25 sin (2n x 400 t)] ... (2) this deviation will be doubled.
3. New carrier voltage, A = 10 Volts. 8 = 2 x 24.05 kHz = 48.1 kHz ... (2)
New modulating frequency, 4. Bandwidth BW = 2 [8 + fml = 2(48.1 + 15] kHz
fm = 2 kHz. = 126.2 kHz ... Ans.

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 • PCS (Sem. 4 / E&Tc / SPPU)
~F 4-21 FM Transmission &. Reception
~mrm.mr

Ex:;4,1[1~:The mqdu!~ting
·········· ... ·. .............
' ·... .. .frequency .. .FMJs·.
. ··irj . c. ha.·nged Step 3 : Amplitude of spectral component..c; at fc ± 4 kHz :
fronl20~tf?to .5.kHz)C>etermine the change in l:>andwicJth. The FM wave is expressed mathematic::1l 1y as,
May 01, 2 Marks eFM = A {J 0 (m 1) sin we t

l
ya
ha
Soln.: + Jl (m1) [sin (We + W,n) t - Sin (We - Wm)°!:]

G
a
ity
As 8 depends only on the amplitude of the modulating + J2 (m 1) [sin (we + 2 co 01 ) t + sin (we - 2 Wm) t] ..... }

Ad
signal, we can assume it to remain constant. We are interested in the second term of this expression,
which is,
Change in BW = 2 x change in fm = 2 x (20 - 5) kHz.
Second term =A J1 (m 1) • [ sin (we + Wm) t - sin (we - (J)rn) tJ
Change in BW = 30 kHz ...Ans. Because this term represents the spectral components
at fe ± 4 kHz. Hence the peak amplitude of the spectral
Ex. 4.6.13: A sinusoidal signal of.4 kHz frequency is w~ed
components at fe ± 4 kHz is equal to A J1 (mv)
as a inodulating frequency for 8n FM and AM transmitters.
But J1 (m 1) = J1 (8) as m 1 == 8
Both<Jhe • transmitters use th~ same arnplitucJe for
And J1 (8) = 0.235 ... Given
;~;~&¥rt1~Efw~~l:~i~Rfteli~~~@y tj~g;~tr~11i tti~;fM
uJffi··· .• •··· •
:. Amplitude of spectral components at
tr~~rrii#tr"'?fs $~t••. ··mi•· t~llr>. timeis.· ··th~·• ··•·6ahdW1tii11••·•oi.·.•·A~·
fe ± 4 kHz = 0.235 A Volts
tra11sri1Jtter and the magnitudes. of the spectral components
at fc± 4 kflz (fc:;: Carrier frequency) are same for both the Step 4 : Calculate the modulation index for AM :

transmitters. Determine the modulation indices for the AM The two sidebands are produced at fc ± 4 kHz.

and FM transmitters. (If required, use the \/alues of Bessel Since fm = 4 kHz
function as : J 1 (2) = 0.577, J 1 (4) = - 0.666, J1(8) = 0.235, Amplitude of each sideband = 0.235 A
J1 (16} =0.094). May 02, 12 Marks
But sideband amplitude = ; x Ee,
Soln.:
[Ee= Peak carrier amplitude].
Given:
But Ee = A ... given
1. Modulating signal frequency fm = 4 kHz.
m
2. Bandwidth of AM transmitter= 2fm = 8 kHz. Sideband amplitude =
2xA
3. The peak frequency deviation of FM transmitter = 8max m
0.235 A = 2 X A
= 4 x 8 = 32 kHz.
m = 0.235 X 2 = 0.47 ....Ans.
4. Magnitude of spectral components at fc ± 4 kHz is
Thus the modulation indices are
same for AM and FM. m1 = 8 ...for FM
Step 1 : Peak frequency deviation of the FM transmitter : m = 0.47 .. .for AM

1. It is given that, Ex. 4.6.14: It is required to transmit·.· the 9or:nplex

, . .

modulating signal in which the highest fre9l:l~ncy component

Peak frequency deviation = 4 x BW of AM transmitter
is 3 kHz. Compare the bandwidth requirec[forAM; SSB and
2. But BW of AM transmitter = 2fm = 2 x 4 = 8 kHz
FM. Given that the maximum frequency deviation is 15 kHz.
Peak frequency deviation of FM = 4 x 8 kHz = 32 kHz

Step 2 : Calculate modulation index of FM wave : Soln.:

1. Bandwidth of AM system = 2 fm = 2 x 3 kHz = 6 kHz
. . d Frequency deviation 8
Mo d uIat,on in ex m1 = M o d uIat·ing f requency = fm 2. Bandwidth of SSB system = fm = 3 kHz
32 kHz 3. Bandwidth of FM system = 2 [8 + f 01 ] = 2 [15 + 3]
mi = 4 kHz = 8 ...Ans.
= 36 kHz
 II
1J PCS (Sem. 4 / E&Tc / SPPU) 4-22 FM Transmission & Reception

Ex.4.6;15 : An FM wave is 100% modulated by 10 kHz Ex. 4.6;18 : Giyen that for a sinusoidally frequency
signal. Calculate the required bandwidth. modulated carrier of unmodulated amplitude 1.0 Volt
Soln.: Modulation
Carrier· Side Frequencies

l
ya
lrtdex ·•• ·.
The % modulation in FM is defined as :

ha
mr Jo J; J2 Js

G
J3 J4 J5
Actual frequency deviation

a
ity
% modulation= . . . 0.25 0.98 0.12 0.01
Maximum allowed dev1at1on

Ad
0.5 0.94 0.24 0.03
Therefore 100% modulation corresponds to maximum
1.0 0.77 0.44 0.11 0.02
allowed deviation.
1.5 0.51 0.56 0.23 0.06 0.01
Ideally the maximum deviation is infinite hence the
2.0 0.22 0.58 0.35 0.13 0.03 0.01
bandwidth is infinite.
2.405 0.0 0.52 0.43 0.2 0.06
Practically for a wideband FM the maximum deviation is
3.0 -0.26 0.34 0.49 0.31 0.13 0.04 0.01
± 75 kHz. . •. •. . . . .• .. • ...

Then the bandwidth = [(2 x 75) + 10] = 160 kHz.

.State Carsor"l's.rule of bandwioth for FM and PfOVEt;ifr l;/se
thetabiekriec:~ssary. May 03, 10 Marks
Ex.4,6.16: A5 v. peak 5Q)MHz .carrier i;·freqUency Soln.:
rnooulated by 5 V, 1O kHz signal to achieve 24.05 kHz peak
The FM wave consists of infinite number of sidebands.
deviation. Determine the power in carrier. May 03, 2 Marks·
The total bandwidth in which most of the energy of the
Soln.:
wave contained is given by,
Given: fc = 50 MHz, fm = 10 kHz,
BW = 2 [m 1 + 1] fm
8 = 24.05 kHz, Ee = 5V, Em = 5V
Frequency deviation ] }
Step 1 : To find modulation index : = 2 { [ Modulating frequency + 1 fm
8 24.05 8
mr - fm :. m1 = W = 2 [f~ + 1}m = 2 [ ;mfm] X fm = 2 [8 + fmJ

= 2.405 ... Ans. This rule is called as the thumb rule for finding
Step 2: To find Pc: bandwidth of an FM system.
(Echf3} It is also referred to as the Carson's rule. It states that
R the bandwidth of FM wave is twice the sum of the
(5 ; ...J2)2 deviation and the maximum modulating frequency.
R
Thus, BW = 2 [8 + fml
Assuming R = 1 Q we get,
Ex. 4.6.19: The equation of FM wave is given by:
Pc = 12.5W ... Ans. 8
V == 15 sin [3 x 10 t + 50 sin (2500) t]
Ex. 4.6.17: The modulating frequency in FM is changed 1. What are the values of carrier and modulating
frequencies ?
from 20 kHz to 5 kHz. Determine the change in bandwidth if
2. Modulation index.
peak deviation is maintained at 50 kHz. D•911Mffll 3. Maximum frequency deviation.
Soln.:
4. Povver delivered to 75 Q resistor by thi$ wave.
BW = 2 [8 + fml Dec. 03, 8 Marks.

Given: Change in fm = (20 - 5) = 15 kHz. Soln.:

8
Given : V = 15 sin (3 x 10 t + 50 sin (2500) t)
8 = 50 kHz.
Comparing this equation with equation of FM wave,
Change in BW = 2 x change in fm = 2 x 15 kHz.

Change in BW = 30 kHz ... Ans.

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1!p PCS (Sem. 4 / E&Tc I SPPU) 4-23 FM Transmission & Reception

Step 1 : Carrier and modulating frequencies : Ex. 4;6.21 : A carrier is frequency •modulated by· a
8 8
(I)c t = 3 X 10 t (I)c = 3 X 10 sinusoidal signal of 15 V peak and frequency of 3 kHz, the

l
ya
8
2 TC fc = 3 X 10 fc = 47.74 MHz ... Ans. frequency deviation constant being 1 kHz/volt. Calculate the

ha
G
and Wm t = 2500 t peak frequency deviation and the modulating index. Sketch

a
ity
2 J1: fm = 2500 the.spectrum of modulated wave.

Ad
fm = 398.08 Hz ...Ans. May 06, Dec. 10, 6 Marks, May 11, 8 Marks
Soln.:
Step 2 : To find modulating index:
Given : Em = 15 V, fm = 3 kHz, k1 = 1 kHz/volt
Comparing given equation with equation of standard
FM wave. To find : 8, m1

mr = 50 ...Ans. 1. Peak frequency deviation

Step 3 : To find frequency deviation : 8 = k1Em = (1 kHz / volt) x 15
Frequency deviation 8 = 15 kHz ... Ans.
mi= Maximum modulating frequency = fm
8 15 kHz
2. Modulation index m1 = - --
8 = 50 x 398.08 = 19.904 kHz. ...Ans. f m - 3 kHz
Step 4: To find power delivered to 75 n resistor: ... Ans.

(~J (~J
P = -R- = ~ = 1.5 W ...Ans.
Ex. 4.6.22 : Show that the bandwidth of FM signal remains
the same even if the modulating signal frequency varies by a
factor 1 : 100 Dec. 07, 4 Marks
Ex. 4.6.20 : A 15 Watts, 1 MHz unmodulated carrier is
Soln.:
frequency modulated with a sinusoidal signal such tha.tthe
Assume: Deviation = 75 kHz, fc = 100 MHz
peak deviation is 6 kHz. The frequency of modulating signal
is 2 kHz. Calculate the average power contained in the Modulating frequency varies from 10 Hz to 1 kHz.
bandwidth given by Carson's rule. 1. Bandwidth of F.M. signal for minimum modulating
May 03, 10 Marks, Dec. 10, 8 Marks frequency:
Soln.: BW = 2 [8 + fm (min)]
Given : Frequency of unmodulated carrier = 1 MHz. BW = 150.02 kHz

P = 15 W, fm = 2 kHz, 8 = 6 kHz. 2. Bandwidth of FM wave for maximum modulating

Step 1 : To find the modulation index : frequency:

8 BW = 2 (75000 + 100] = 152 kHz

Thus with a change in by a factor of 100, the change in

m1 = 3 bandwidth of FM wave is very small. So BW is almost

Referring to values from table for m1 = 3 constant.

Jo = - 0.26, Jl = 0.34, J2 = 0.49, Ex. 4.6.23 : A carrier is frequency> rnodulated with a

h 0.31, sinusoidal signal of 2 kHz resulting in fr~ctueMcy deviati~n of

5kHz:
J4 = 0.13, J5 = 0.04, J5 = 0.01.
1•. Find· bandwidth of modulated signal.\ ..
The total average power,
2 2 2 2
2; The a.mplitude of modulating sinU$oid isihcreased by,~
PT = P [1o + 2 (\ + 12 + l3 ... )]
factor of 3 ancl its frequen2Y ls h~tv~d: Ftrld the j

PT
2
= 15 [(- 0.26) + 2 (0.34 + 0.49
2 2
maximum frequency deviation and<~and\Nldth pfnew
2 2 2 2
+ 0.31 + 0.13 + 0.04 + 0.01 )) modulated signal. Dec. 11, May 18, 8 Marks
PT = 15 [0.0676 + 0.9408) Soln.:
Pr = 15 (1.0084), Pr= 15.126 W ... Ans. Given:

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PCS(Sem.4/E&Tc/SPPU) 4-24 FM Transmission & Reception

1. Bandwidth of modulated signal : BW = 2 [4 kHz+ 1 kHz] = 10 kHz ... Ans.

The bandwidth of the FM signal according to Carson's 3. New modulation index m;:

l
ya
rule is given by, New r' = 2 kHz

ha
11'

G
BW = 2 [8 1 + frn 1l

a
The frequency deviation is independent of the

ity
BW = 2 [5 + 2) = 14 kHz ... Ans.

Ad
modulating frfquency f 11,.
2. o and B.W. of the new modulated signal : :. New deviation .6.t' = M = 4 kHz
New modulating voltage = Em 2 = 3 Em 1, fm 2 = 1 kHz 1
, M 4 kHz
3. Maximum frequency deviation 82 :
New modulation index mr = = 2 kHz = 2 t' ... Ans.
m

81 = mr x fm1
4. New bandwidth BW' :
5 kHz
81
m1 = fm1 = 2 kHz = 2.5 BW' = 2 [tl + f'mJ = 2 [4 kHz + 2 kHz]

Now <\ = k1 Em 1 = 12 kHz ... Ans.

5 kHz = kf x Eml Ex>4:~.2f: A20 MHz carrier is frequency tflociulcJteg a by

5 kHz sinusoidal signal such that the peak frequency d~vi~tiO~ is
Eml iOO kHz. Determine the modulation ind~i{i the and
approximate bandwidth of the FM signal if the frequency of
New deviation 82 = k1 Em 2
the modulating signal is :
5 kHz
02 - --xr: 1. 1 kHz 2. 50 kHz 3. 500 kHz Dec. 06, 8 Marks
- Eml ~:r2

But Em2 = 3 Ernl Soln.:

8-, 5 kHz x 3 = 15 kHz ... Ans. Given: fc = 20 MHz, 8 = 100 kHz

New bandwidth, fm1 = 1 kHz, fm 2 = 50 kHz, fm 3 = 500 kHz.

BW = 2 [82 + frn2l
BW = 2 [15 + 1) = 32 kHz ... Ans.
Step 1 : Calculate modulation index :
Ex. 4.6.24: An angle modulated signal is described by the _Q_
mf = fm
equation \\fEM(t) = 10 cos (2 n: fc t + 4 sin 2 1t: fm t) where
fc = 10 MHz ancl-fm = 1000 Hz. 8 100 kHz
mn = = 100
- fml 1 kHz
1. De.termine the moduiation • index. Estimate the
_Q_ 100 kHz
•transmitted signal bandwidth m12 = = =2
fm2 50 kHz
2. Repeat 1. fm is doubled. May 13, -a Marks 8 100 kHz
Soln.:
mf3 =
fm3 = 500 kHz = 0.2

Given : \/ff,,1 = 10 cos (2 n: fc t + 4 sin 2 n: fm t), fc = 10 MHz, Step 2 : Calculate approximate bandwidth :
fm = 1 kHz BW 1 = 2 [8 + fm 1l = 2 [100 kHz+ 1 kHz]

To find : J.. Modulation index m1 = 202 kHz.

To calculate BW2 assume that there are 4 sidebands
2. BW 3. New m1and BW if frn is 2 kHz
having significant amplitudes.
i. Modulation index m1 :
BW2 = 2fm 2 x Number of significant
Comparing the given equation with the standard sidebands
expression to get,
= 2 x 50 kHz x 4 = 400 kHz.
Modulation index mf = 4 ... Ans.
To calculate BW3 assume that there are 2 sidebands
2. "!'ran!t!rnitted signal bandwidth (BW) : having significant amplitudes.
BW = 2 [M + frnl :. BW3 = 2 x 500 kHz x 2
Frequency deviation M =m, x frn = 4 x 1 kHz= 4 kHz = 2000 kHz or 2 MHz.

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 ~; PCS (Sem. 4 I E&Tc / SPPU) 4-25 FM Transmission & Reception

Ex. 4.6.26 : A frequency modulated signal is given by : 8 5

8
mf = fm = 2 = 2.5 ... Ans.
X0 (t) = 10 cos [2n x 10 t + 5 sin 2 n x 2OOt]
Examples for Practice

l
ya
Determine:

ha
Ex. 4.6.28 : A FM wave is represented by the voltage

G
1. The carrier frequency

a
equation:

ity
2. Peak frequency deviation

Ad
8
e = 12 sin [6 .x 10 t + 5 sin (1250 t}]
3, The modulation ineiex. Dec. 15, 6 Marks Ca!culateF
Soln.:
1. Carrier and modulating frequency
8
Given : Xe (t) =10 cos [2 re x 10 t + 5 sin 2 re x 200 t] 2; Modulation index
To find 3. Power dissipated by this wave in a 10
ohm resistor. Dec. 97, 10 Marks
1. Carrier frequency 2. Peak frequency deviation
Ans.:
3. The modulation index
fe = 95.5 MHz, fm = 199 Hz, m1 = 5, P = 7.2 Watts
Step 1 : Find carrier frequency and modulation index :
.Ex. 4;6.29 : · In. a .FM system if modulation index· is. doubled
Standard equation of FM is = Ee cos (Ct\ t + m1 sin Wm t) . . . ...
-

8 by halving the modul~ting frequency; what will be>the effect

From given equation Ee = 10, mr = 5, we = 2n x 10 ,
on the maximum deviation ? Dec,:. 98, 2 Marks
com = 2 rr x2OO
Ans. : Deviation does not depend on the modulating
We = 2 n fc frequency. Hence it will rema:;1 constant.
(0c 8
2 7C X 10
fc = = = 1a8 Hz ... Ans. Ex. 4.6.30 : Calculate the maximum bandwidth requirement
2n 2rc
for FM broadcast if the maximum deviation allowed is 75 kHz
and COc = 2 n fm
2 7t X 200 and the maximum modulation frequency allowed is 15 kHz.
fm = = 200 Hz
2n May 99, 4 Marks·
Step 2 : Peak frequency deviation : Ans. : BW = 180 kHz.

8 = mr x fm = 5 x 200 Ex. 4.6.31 : A FM wave 1s represented by the voltage

= 1000 Hz ... Ans.
equation,
Step 3 : Modulation index : 8
A= 12 sin [5 x 10 t + 5 sin 1250) t]
mr = 5. ... Ans. Calculate:

Ex. 4.6.27 : A c:arrier is frequency modulated with a 1. Modulation index

sinusoidal signal of 2 kHz resulting in frequency deviation of 2. Carrier and modulatini:; frequency

5 kHz: 3. Power dissipated by ti;is wave in a 100 n resistor.

1. Find bandwidth and modulation index of modulated !Ylay 99, 6 Marks

wave. Ans. : m1 = 5, fc = 79.58 fv • lz, fm = 199 Hz, P = 0.72 Watts.

2. If amplitude of modulating sinusoidal signal is

Ex. 4.6.32 : In FM syste,-, .;hen audio frequency is 500 Hz
increased by 3 and its frequency is halved, Find
and audio frequency ·, :;ie ls 2.4 V, the deviation is
maximum frequency deviation and bandwidth of new
4.8 kHz.
modulated signal. May 18, 6 Marks
If audio frequency voltag" _ raised to 7,2V, whaj is the new
Soln.: deviation?
For Parts 1 and 2, refer Ex. 4.6.23. If audio frequency voltage .; raised to 10 V and the'.audio
Modulation index of the FM wave : frequency is dropped io F Hz, what is new deviatiol?
Find the modulation inde>'. .. each case.
Given : fm = 2 kHz, 8 = 5 kHz.
~:'.i@lilillffld•i44•fl:1Wffld
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~, PCS (Sem. 4 / E&Tc I SPPU) 4-26 FM Transmission & Reception

Ans.: Mathematical expression for P.M. :

4.8
82 = 14.4 kHz, 83 = 20 kHz, mn = _ = 9.6, A phase modulated wave can be mathematically
05

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ya
expressed in fane domain as follows :

ha
14.4 20
m12 = 0_5 = 28.8, m13 = 0.2 = 100.

G
s •'.t) = E, cos 0 (t)

a
ity
_.··,·.···, • •.. :--·.

Ad
Ex. 4,6.33: Tt:leequation otFMwave is given by, Substituting the expression for ti (t) we get, (D-177)

V ;,;45;~jJ:r;;a,i,1{j~.t+ 4P sin'(2508} ll/•• •.•• P. M. wave: s(t) = Ee cos [ 2nfct + kP x(t)] ... (4.7.2)
-.- ----.,.--
1. V\Jha( ar~ i the values of carrier and modulating
I L. Varying phase angle
frequency? L- Constant amplitude
2. Modulation index,
This expression shows that the P.M. wave has a constant
3. .· iji~ttrjy,mJ(~qµency deviation,
amplitude equal to that of the carrier but the phase shift
4. Ppwer delivered to a 75 n resistor by this wave.
is a function of x(t).
May 2000, 8 Marks
It will also been shown that there is a proportional
Ans.:
change in frequency associated with the phase change.
fc = 25.46 MHz, fm = 399.3 Hz, m1 = 40, 8 = 15.953 kHz.
Bandwidth of PM :
P = 1.5 Watts.
The instantaneous frequency of a PM wave is given by,
4.7 Frequency or Phase Modulation:
CD; = (l)c + kp x(t)
Depending on the way in which we change the value of
Where x(t) = d x (t)/dt
0 (t), we can define two types of angle modulations as
Therefore the frequency deviation <1w is given by,
follows:
1. Phase modulation (P.M.) 6CD = kp [x(t)lmax
2. Frequency modulation (F.M.) Hence the bandwidth of the PM wave is given by,
4.7.1 Phase Modulation (P.M.):
kp X(t)max]
BW(PM) = 2 (M + W) = 2 [ 2n: + 2W
Phase modulation is the type of angle modulation in
which the angular argument 0 (t) is linearly proportional Where W = BW of the modulating signal = fm (for the
to the instantaneous magnitude of the message signal tone modulation)
X (t).
4.7.2 Frequency Modulation (F.M.):
This is expressed mathematically as follows :
(D-176) The frequency modulation (F.M.) is a type of angle
... (4.7.1)
For P.M. , 0(t) = 2nfct + kP x(t) modulation in which the instantaneous frequency f; (t) is
T 1:._. Modulating signal.
l LPhase sensitivity rad/volt
Angular argument of unmodulated carrier

Note that the first term in the above expression i.e. For
linearly proportional to the instantaneous magnitude of
the message signal x (t).
This is expressed mathematically as follows :

F.M. , f; (t) = fc + l<t x(t)

(D-178)

... (4.7.3)
2n: fc t represents the angular argument of the '-v-' .....,..,...,.,'--r'
I '--- Modulating signal
unmodulated carrier (i.e. when x(t) = 0).
Whereas the second term kP x (t) represents the phase
change proportional to x (t), because kp is the phase
LL I_ Frequency sensitivity Hz/volt
Unmodulated carrier frequency
Instantaneous frequency
sensitivity in radians per volt. x (t) is the message
In this expression fc denotes the frequency of
waveform which is assumed to be a voltage signal.
unmodulated carrier and the constant k1 represents the
The value of ~c i.e. 0(t) at t = 0 has been assumed to be
frequency sensitivity of the modulator.
equal to zero for the sake of simplicity.
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 • PCS (Sem. 4 / E&Tc / SPPU) 4-27 FM Transmission & Reception

Its units are Hz / volt, assuming the message signal to The expressions for the F.M. and P.M. waves in the time
be a voltage signal. domain are as follows :

l
ya
Since the instantaneous frequency f; (t) of F.M. is P.M. wave : s (t) = Ee cos [2n fe t + kP x (t)]

ha
changing continuously with time, we have to take the t

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J

a
ity
integration of x (t) over a duration of O to t to write the F.M. wave : s (t) = Ee cos [2n fe t + 2 71: k1 X (t) dt]

Ad
expression of 8 (t) for F.M. 0

The expression for 8 (t) of F.M. wave is given by, Comparing these expressions we can conclude that an
t F.M. wave is actually a P.M. wave with a modulating
8 (t) = 2 n fe t + 2 n kr Jx (t) dt ... (4.7.4) t

0 signal f x (t) dt instead of x (t).

Mathematical expression for F.M. : 0

We can use 8 (t) to write the expression for F.M. in time The relationship between phase and frequency

domain as follows : modulation may be visualized further by a consideration

of the Figs. 4.8.l(a) and (b).
s (t) = Ee cos 8 (t)
t

lL
F M. wave : s(t) = Ee cos [ 2nfct + 2it!<i f x(t) dt) ... (4.7.5) FM and PM are related to each other in such a way that
it is possible to use one to generate the other.

(D- 179 ) Unm:dulated earner Generation of F.M. using PM :

Constant amplitude As stated earlier, an F.M. wave is actually a P.M. wave
Important conclusions : t
In F.M. and P.M. the angular argument 8 (t) is a function having a modulating signal Jx (t) dt instead of x (t).
of the message signal x (t). 0
Therefore the zero crossings of F.M. and P.M. waves will This means that we can generate F.M. wave by applying
not be perfectly regular in terms of spacing between the the integrated version of x (t) to a phase modulator as
zero crossings. shown in Fig. 4.8.l(a).
t
That means the spacing between the adjacent zero Jx(t) dt
crossing will not be constant, instead it will keep 0
Modulating Phase
changing continuously. Integrator F.M. wave
wave x(t) modulator.. ,,
This is one of the important difference between F.M.,
P.M. and A.M.
The other important difference between AM and angle Carrier
oscillator
modulation is that the envelope of F.M. or P.M. will
always have a constant amplitude Ee which is equal to (D-180) Fig. 4.8.l(a) : Generation of FM from phase
modulator
the amplitude of the carrier.

Thus the envelope of F.M. and P.M. remains constant Explanation :

independent of the message signal x(t), whereas that of In PM the carrier frequency deviation is proportional to
the A.M. will vary in linear proportion with the message the modulating voltage as well as the modulating
signal. frequency.

4.8 Relationship between F.M. and P.M. : But in FM the frequency deviation is only proportional
to the modulating voltage independent of modulating
SPPU: May 11 frequency.
University Questions So to generate FM using phase modulator we have to
Q. 1 How do you generate FM from PM and vice-versa? make the frequency deviation independent of
(May 11, 6 Marks) modulating frequency.

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'Wl;%f PCS (Sem. 4 / E&Tc I SPPU) 4-28 FM Transmission & Reception

When the modulating signal is passed through a low To achieve this, the modulating signal is passed through
pass filter (integrator), it attenuates the high frequency a differentiator which acts as a high pass filter before it

l
signals keeping the low frequency signal amplitude

ya
is applied to the FM modulator.

ha
unchanged.

G
The differentiator output acts as modulating signal. Due

a
ity
Hence the extra deviation in f, due to higher f"' is
to high pass characteristics of differentiator, this

Ad
compensated by reducing the amplitude of high
modulating signal amplitude will increase under two
frequency modulating signals.
circumstances namely increase in modulating voltage or
Hence the frequency deviation at the output of phase
increase in modulating frequency.
modulator will be effectively proportional only to the
Hence the frequency deviation at the output of FM
modulating voltage and we obtain an FM wave at the
modulator is proportional to the modulating voltage as
output of phase modulator.
well as modulating frequency and we obtain PM.
Generation of P.M. using FM :

It is also possible to generate a P.M. wave using a

4.8.1 Squared Modulation :
frequency modulator as shown in Fig. 4.8.l(b). Now consider a square wave modulating signal x (t).
d x (t)
;F The corresponding F.M. and P.M. waves are shown in
I ...-----,
Modulating • Frequency Figs. 4.8.2(a) and (b) respectively.
P.M.wave

g
wave x(t) - Differentiator modulator

{D-181)
Carrier
oscillator

Fig. 4.8.l(b): Generation of P.M. wave using

High

; frequency: _frequency
L •t

: ~ ~ AAu~M~~!
frequency modulator

The modulating signal is first passed through a

differentiator
modulator.
and then applied to a frequency
\~ ij~~J\rv mm
(a) Frequency modulated wave
At the output of the differentiator we get, the
differentiated
dx (t) / dt.
version of modulating signal i.e.
t t
So output of the frequency modulator is, 1
s (ti O
'
E, rns { 2n f, t + 2 , k,
t
J(d, (ti I dt)
1
J
Phase
reversal

= E, cos [2 n f, t + 2 n k, x (t)]

Substituting 2 n k1 = kP we get, s (t) = E, cos [2n f, t +

kp X (t))
(b) Phase modulated wave
which is the expression for a P.M. wave. {D-182) Fig. 4.8.2 : Square modulation

Explanation : The P.M. wave has been plotted by using the

differentiated version of x (t) i.e. dx (t) / dt as the
The physical explanation of the generation of PM wave
modulating signai.
using the frequency modulator is as follows:
Note that dx (t) I dt is a train of alternate (positive' and
We know that in PM the carrier frequency deviation is
negative) delta functions.
proportional to the modulating voltage as well as the
Note that the F.M. and P.M. waves are completely
modulating frequency.
different from each other for the squared modulation.
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,::, PCS (Sem. 4 / E&Tc / SPPU) 4-29 FM Transmission & Reception

Ex. 4.8.1 : Sketch FM and PM waves for the digital Part 2 : Phase Modulation (PM) :
modulating signal m(t) shown in Fig. P. 4.8.1 (a). The
constants kt and kp are 2 re x 105 and re/ 2 •respectively, and Phase deviation 0 = kP • m (t)

l
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ha
fc = 100 MHz. ..-------, But m (t) = ±1

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a
0 = ±rc/2

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Ad
m(t) The PM wave is shown in Fig. P. 3.6.2(c).
O-----l---4---1--------11---

Ex. 4.8.2 : An angle-modulated signal with carrier

6
frequency co0 = 2n x 10 is described by the equation :
-1

(D-224) Fig. P. 4.8.l(a) \VEM (t) = 10 cos (co 0 t + 0.1 sin 2000 rct)
Soln.: 1. Find the power of the modulated signal
5
Given : k1 = 2 re x 10 , kP = re/ 2, fc = 100 MHz.
2. Find the frequency deviation M
Part 1 : Frequency Modulation (FM) :
3. Find the phase deviation .D.$
The frequency deviation 8 = k1 Em
4, Estimate the bandwidth. May 05, May 11, 8 Marks
But Em = ± 1 volt
5
8 = ± k1 = ± 2 re x 10 Hz Soln.:
6
The minimum frequency, Given: We = 2 re x 10 rad / sec
5

fmin = fc - 8 = fc - k1 = 100 10 (2 10
6

X - 7C X )

\j/ (t) = 10 cos (wet + 0.1 sin 2000 re t)

= 99.37MHz
1. Type of modulation :
The maximum frequency,
6 5 The given equation indicates that the type of
fmax = fc + 8 = fc + k1 = 100 X 10 + (2 TI X 10 )
= 100.63 MHz. modulation is FM or PM.
The minimum frequency corresponds to Em = - 1 and 2. Comparison with standard equation :
the maximum frequency corresponds to Em = + 1
Standard equation is,
The FM wave is shown in Fig. P. 4.8.l(b).
\j/ (t) = Ee cos (wet+ m sin Wm t)
+1 +1 +·t

d L
Compare the given equation with this to get,
6
Ee = 10 V, We = 2 re x 10 rad / S,

m = m1 = mp = 0.1, fm = 1000 Hz.

-1
fH fl fH 3. Power:

Power of modulated signal,

2
(Ee ;-j3_J2 E
_.s..

VVVVV VUv \JV UV\fV

(b) FM wave Substitute
p =
R

R = 1 n, to get
=
2R

rd2 -1t/2 EC (10/

rri2
p = 2 =-2-= sow ... Ans.

4. Frequency deviation :
M
V VI/ VUV VlJ VUt t t
M = mf fm.= 0.1 x 1000
Phase Phase Phase
change change change
(c) PM wave = 100 Hz ... Ans.

(D-225) Fig. P. 4.8.1

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1F 4-30 FM Transmission & Reception

5. The phase deviation ti.qi : mP 1 = 5 rad and mP 2 = 10 rad

The phase deviation is defined as the maximum angle in Phase deviation is defined as the maximum change in

l
ya
the amount of phase change. phase angle of a PM wave.

ha
0

G
The amount of phase change in PM is given by, t..cp (phase deviation)= mP 2 = 10 rad = ( 180 )

a
2n

ity
Ad
6cp = <l>m = mp
= 28.65° ... Ans.
M = 0.1 rad ... Ans.
Step 4 : Bandwidth :
Note that from the given expression we get mp = 0.1.
B = 2 [8 + fm(max)l = 2 [10 + 1.5] kHz
6. Bandwidth :
= 23 kHz ... Ans.
According to Carson's rule,
Ex. 4.8.4 : Given m (t) = sin 2000 nt, k1 = 200000 n and
BW = 2 (6 f + fml = 2 [100 + 1000] =2200 Hz ... Ans.
kP = 10.
Ex. 4.8.3 : An angle modulated signal with carrier 1. Estimate the bandwidth of cpFM (t) and qiPM (t) ..
5
frequen~y (I)":= 2.n x 10 is>des~ribecI by equation; qiFM (t) = 10 2. Repeat part 1 if the message signal ~MPutode •Js
cos. (coc t+ 5 sin 3000 n t + 10 sin 20001t t) doubled.
.. ,.. •• .. •·.·· .·

Find: 3. Repeat part 1 if the message signal frequency is

1. The power of the modulated signal doubled.
4. Comment on the sensitivity of FM and PM bandwidth to
2. The frequency deviation L'> f
the spectrum of m(t)
3. The phase deviation 6 qi
-May 06, 6 Marks, May 11, 10 Marks
4. Estimate the bandwidth.
Soln.:
Dec. 05, May 07, May 08, 8 Mark~
Given : m (t) = sin 2000 nt, k1 = 200000n, kP = 10
Soln.:
5 Part 1 : BW of FM and PM :
Given : Ee = 10 V, We = 2 n x 10 rad / s
Em k1
mn = 5, m12 = 10, fm 1 = 1500 Hz, fm 2 = 1000 Hz For FM : The frequency deviation 8 = h
Step 1 : Calculate power : 1 X 200000 7C
2
EC
2n
P = 2 RL Assume RL = 1 n
5 = 100000 = 100 kHz
2 3
EC (10)2 BW = 2 [8 + fml = 2 [100 X 10 + 1000]
p = 2 = -2- = 50 w ...Ans.
= 202 kHz ... Ans.
Step 2 : Frequency deviation :
For PM : The maximum phase deviation is
Frequency deviation M represents the maximum
mp = kp X Em = 10 X 1 = 10 rad,
departure of the instantaneous frequency from the
carrier frequency fc. m (t) = sin 2000nt

So to calculate M we have to calculate the deviation d

m'(t) = dt (Em sin COm t)
corresponding to both signals and select the higher one
of them. d .
= dt (sin 2000nt)
611 = m11 x fml = 5 x 1500 = 7500 Hz = 7.5 kHz
= 2000n cos 2000nt
L'>12 = m12 x fcn 2 = 10 x 1000 = 10,000 Hz= 10 kHz
[m'(t)lmax 2000n ... Since [cos 2000ntlmax
Deviation M = 10 kHz.
- 1
Step 3 : Phase deviation :
Frequency deviation
If we assume that the given expression represents the
kp X [m'(t)lmax 10 X 20QQ7e
PM wave then the modulation indices corresponding to M = ----- = = 10 kHz
2n 2n
the two modulating signals are,
~'w
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 PCS (Sem. 4 / E&Tc / SPPU) 4-31 FM Transmission & Reception

:. BW of PM = 2 (M + fm) 1.. Find the power of modulated signal.

= 2 (10 kHz + 1 kHz) 2. Find the modulation index.

= 22 kHz ... Ans. 3. Find the frequency deviation .

l
ya
Part 2 : BW of FM and PM if Em= 2 V : 4; Estimate the bandwidth.

ha
G
Dec. 11, 8 Marks, May 15, 6 Marks

a
Em k1 2 X 200000 7t

ity
For FM: 8 = = = 200 kHz Soln.:
2n 2n

Ad
6
Given : coc = 2 n x 10 rad /sec.,
BW = 2 [200 kHz + 1 kHz)
<h (t) = 10 cos (coc t + 0.2 sin 1000 1t t)
= 402 kHz ... Ans. m

rad 1. Type of modulation :

For PM: mp = kp x Em = 10 V x 2 = 20 rad
The given equation indicates that the type of
d modulation is FM or PM.
m'(t) = dt (2sin 2000nt)
2. Comparison with standard equation :
= 40001t cos (2000nt)
Standard equation is,
[m'(tllmax = 4000n
<l>E (t) = Ee cos (coc t + m sin COm t)
m
kp x [ m' (t) lmax 10 X 4QQQ7t
M = = Compare the given equation with this to get,
2n 2n

= 20 kHz Ee = 10 V,
6
BW of PM = 2 (M + fm) = 2 (20 kHz + 1 kHz) (Oc = 2 7t X 10 rad / s,

= 42 kHz •.• Ans. m = m1 = mp = 0.2, fm = 500 Hz

Part 3 : BW if fm = 2 kHz :
3. Power of modulated signal :
Em k1
1 x 200000 7t
For FM: 8 = ~= = 100 kHz Power of modulated signal
2 11 2
EC
BW = 2 [100 kHz + 2 kHz] = 204 kHz

For PM:
Substituting R = 1 n we get
New m (t) = sin 400011:t 2
EC (10/
m'(t) = 4000n cos 4000nt p = 2 = -2- = so w. ... Ans.
[m'(t)lmax = 4000 1t
4. Modulation index :
kp x [ m' (t) lmax
M = m = 0.2 ... Ans.
2n
10 X 4QQQ7t 5. Frequency deviation :
= = 20 kHz
2n 8
mr =
BW = 2 (M + f 01 ) = 2 (20 + 2) fm

i5 = mf fm = 0.2 X SQQ
= 44 kHz ... Ans.

Part 4 : It the frequency is doubled, the bandwidth of FM = 100 Hz ... Ans.

remains the same approximately but the bandwidth 6. Bandwidth:

of PM doubles. Thus, PM is more sensitive than FM BW = 2 [/5 + fmJ
to the spectrums m (t).
BW = 2 [100 + 500) = 1200 Hz ... Ans.
Ex. 4.8.5 : • An angle modulated signal with carrier
Ex. 4.8.6 : An angle-modulated signal with ca,rrier
frequency we = 2n x •106 is described by the equation : 6
frequency we = 2n x 10 is described by the equation
<l>E (t) = 10 cos (coc t + 0.2 sin 1000 rct)
m <l>EM(t) = 5 cos (coc t + 20 sin 1000 nt + 10 sin 2000 nt)

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~F PCS(Sem.4/E&Tc/SPPU) 4-32 FM Transmission & Reception

1. Find the power of the modulated signal Ex. 4.8. 7 : For a modulating signal :

2. Find the frequency deviation M. m(t) = 2 cos 100t + 18 cos 2000 nt

3. Find the phase deviation t, <j). 1. Write expression for <PPM(t) and <l>FM(t)

l
ya
6
when A = 10, We = 10 , k1 = 1000 n and kP = 1.

ha
4. Estimate the bandwidth of <!>EM (t). May 12, 10 Marks

G
2. Estimate the bandwidth of <l>FM(t) and <PPM(t).

a
Soln.:

ity
Ad
6 May 10, 8 Marks
Given: Ee = 5 V, COc = 2 rt x 10 rad / s
Soln.:
mfl = 20, m12 = 10, fml = 500 Hz, fm2 = 1000 Hz
Given : m (t) = 2 cos 100 t + 18 cos 2000 nt
Step 1 : Calculate power : 6
A = 10, coc = 10 , k1 = 1000 n and kP = 1.

Assume RL = 1 n 1. Expressions for FM and PM waves :

2
E, (5/ Expression for PM :
P = = = 12.5 W ... Ans.
2 2 <l>PM (t) = A cos [coc t + kp m (t) ]
Step 2 : Frequency deviation : 6
= 10 cos [10 t + (2 cos 100 t + 18 cos 2000 nt)]
Frequency deviation M represents the maximum ... Ans.
departure of the instantaneous frequency from the
Expression for FM :
carrier frequency fc-
<l>FM (t) = A cos [coc t + k1J m (t) dt]
So to calculate M we have to calculate the deviation
6
corresponding to both signals and select the higher one = 10 cos [10 t + 1000 n J (2 cos 100 t + 18 cos 2000 nt) dt]
3
of them. 6 2000 n sin 100 t 18 x 10 n . ]
= 10 cos [ 10 t + + n sin 2000 n t
100 2000
611 = m 11 x fm 1 = 20 x 500 = 10,000 Hz 6
<PFM (t) = 10 cos [10 t + 20 n sin 100 t + 9 sin 2000 nt]
= 10 kHz
... Ans.
6f2 = mf2 X fm2 = 10 X 1000
2. Bandwidth :
= 10,000 Hz
For FM:
= 10 kHz
Considering the expression of <l>FM (t), we can obtain the
Deviation M = 10 kHz.
maximum frequency deviation as follows:
Step 3 : Phase deviation :
d [20n cos l00t + 9 cos 200011:t l
If we assume that the given expression represents the 8max = Max. dt 2n

PM wave then the modulation indices corresponding to [ - 2000n sin t - 18000n sin 200011:t]
the two modulating signals are, = Max. of
2n

mp1 = 20 rad and mp 2 = 10 rad 2000n + 1800011:

= 10 kHz
2n
Phase deviation is defined as the maximum change in
BW = 2 (8max + fm) = 2 (10 kHz + 1 kHz)
phase angle of a PM wave.
0
= 22 kHz ... Ans.
:. t,4> (phase deviation) = mP 2 = 10 rad -- ( 12811:0 )
For PM:
= 28.65° ... Ans.
m (t) = (2 cos l00t + 18 cos 200011:t)
Step 4: Bandwidth: d ,
m' (t) = dt m(t) = 200 sin l00t - 36 x 10° n sin 200011:t
B = 2 [8 + fm(max)l = 2 [10 + l] kHz
3 3
= 22 kHz ... Ans. :. [m' (t)lmax = 200 + 36 X 10 1t :a:: 36 X 10 1t

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~p PCS (Sem. 4 / E& Tc/ SPPU) 4-33 FM Transmission & Reception

kp x [m' (t)lmax 4.9 Generation of FM Waves :

M = 2n
SPPW : May 05, Dec. ·:I _
3
1 X 36 X 10 1t
= 18 kHz Wniversity Questrons

l
ya
2n

ha
Q. 1 Classify FM generation methods. Draw and explain

G
BW for PM =2 (M + fm) = 2 (18 + 1) kHz= 38 kHz ...Ans.

a
Armstrong method. (May 05, 8 Marks)

ity
Ad
Ex. 4.8.8 : An angle modulated wave with a carrier Q. 2 What are the methods of FM generation ? Explain
5
frequency u\ = ?n x10- >is defined by the equation, any one method in detail. (Dec. 19, 6 Marks)
<l>EM (t) = 10 cos (coc t + 5 sin 2000 n t). Find:
There are two basic methods of generating the FM
1. Power of the modulated signal
waves as follows :
2. Frequency deviation
1. Direct methods and
3. Bandwidth Mrti t Iii Mffl M 2. Indirect methods
Soln.:
5
The classification of FM generation methods is shown in
Given : coc = 2 n x 10- , <l>EM (t) = 10 cos (coc t + 5 sin 2000 nt)
Fig. 4.9.1.
To find : 1. Power of modulated signal Methods of F.M. generation
2. Frequency deviation
3. Bandwidth
Indirect methods
1. Type of modulation :

The given equation indicates that the type of

modulation is FM or PM.

2. Comparison with standard equation :

{D-183) Fig. 4.9.1 : Classification of FM generation methods
Standard equation is,
<l>EM (t) = Ee cos (coc + m sin corn t) 4.9.1 Direct F.M.:
PPU : Dec. OB, May 13, Oec. 1-7, Dec. 19'
Compare the given equation with this to get,
- 5 J.lniversity ·ou~stior:is
Ee = 10 V, coc = 2 n x 10 rad/s, m = m 1 = mp = 5,
fm = 1000 Hz. Q. 1 Explain with neat diagram generation of FM using
reactance modulator. (Dec. 08, 6 Marks)
3. Power of modulated signal :
Q. 2 Discuss the direct method of FM generation.
Power of modulated signal
2 (May 13, Dec. 17, 6 Marks)
(E/'✓2)2 EC
p = Q. 3 What are the methods of FM generation ? Explain
R =2R
any one method in detail. (Dec. 19, 6 Marks)
Substituting R = 1 n, we get
2 Definition :
EC 102
p = 2 =2 = 50 w ... Ans. In direct FM generation, the instantaneous frequency of

4. Frequency deviation : the carrier is changed directly in proportion with the

8 message signal.

Implementation :
8 = f m mr = 1000 x 5 = 5000 Hz ... Ans.
For this a device called voltage controlled oscillator
5. Bandwidth :
(VCO) is used.
BW = 2 [8 + fml
A VCO can be implemented by using a sinusoidal
BW = 2 [5000 + 1000]
oscillator with a tuned circuit having a high value of Q.
BW = 12000 Hz ...Ans.
.
~~ TechKnowledge
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~p P u b ! i c .a l I o n s
'!!!!I.I!!!'
~F PCS (Sem. 4 / E&Tc / SPPU) 4-34 FM Transmission & Reception

The frequency of this oscillator is changed by varying C (t) = C - kc x (t) ... (4.9.2)
the reactive components involved in the tuned circuit. Where C = Total capacitance when x (t) = 0 and kc is the
If L or C of a tuned circuit of an oscillator is changed in sensitivity of the varactor capacitance to change in

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proportion with the amplitude of modulating signal voltage.

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then FM can be obtained across the tuned circuit as

G
Substituting expression for C (t) in Equation (4.9.1) we

a
shown in Fig. 4.9.2.

ity
get,

Ad
Variable reactance
·········; / device
1
f; (t) =
2n ✓ (L1 + L2) (C - kc x (t))
L
r7, _Modulating
U---V signal 1
2n [✓ (L1 + L2) C - (L1 + L2) kc x (t)]
Oscillator,
tank circuit 1
= 12
(D-184) Fig. 4.9.2 : Principle of reactance modulator
2n ✓ (L 1
I kc X (t/ lj
+ L2) Cl l - -C-
A two or three terminal device is placed across the
tuned circuit. l
But let ---=====- = f 0 which is the oscillator
The reactance of the device is varied proportional to 2n ✓ (L 1 + L2) C
modulating signal voltage. frequency in absence of the modulating signal
This will vary the frequency of the oscillator to produce [x (t) = OJ.
an FM wave across the tuned circuit.
... (4.9.3)
The devices used are FET, transistor or varactor diode.
An example of direct FM is shown in Fig. 4.9.3 which If the maximum change in the capacitance
uses a Hartley oscillator alongwith a varactor diode. corresponding to the modulating wave is assumed to
The varactor diode is reverse biased. Its capacitance is be small as compared to the unmodulated capacitance
dependent on the reverse voltage applied across it. C then Equation (4.9.3) for f; (t) can be approximated as
This capacitance is shown by the capacitor C (t) in follows:

~
Fig. 4.9.3.
f; (t) = fo [ 1 + X (t)] ...(4.9.4)

fo kc
.. f; (t) = fo + C • x (t) ... (4.9.5)
2
fo kc
Define 2C = k1,
C(t)
~--- ,. f; (t) = f0 + k1x (t) ... (4.9.6)
Varactor diode
Where k1 is called as the frequency sensitivity of the
(D-185) Fig. 4.9.3 : Hartley oscillator
modulator.
Frequency of oscillations of the Hartley oscillator shown
in Fig. 4.9.3 is given by,
4.9.2 Varactor Diode Modulator :
1 SPPU: Dec ..05, May 07, May 09, May 13, Dec. 17
f (t) = -~====- ... (4.9.1)
' 2rc ✓ (L1 + L2) C (t) University Questions
Where C (t) = C + Cvaractor· That means C (t) is the Q. 1 Explain with a neat circuit diagram, generation of
effective capacitance of the fixed tuned circuit FM signal using varactor diode. (Dec. 05; 6 Marks)
capacitance C and the varactor diode capacitance
Q. 2 What is frequency modulation ? Explain FM
Cvaractor·
generation using varactor diode. (May 07, 8 Mark~)·
Let the relation between the modulating voltage
Q. 3 Explain varactor diode method for FM generation.
x (t) = 0 and the capacitance C (t) be represented as
follows: (May 09, 6 Marks)

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~ C S (Sem. 4 I E& Tc / SPPU) 4-35 FM Transmissi~ception

Q. 4 • Discuss the direct method of FM generation. • • Q; 2 • Explain basic reactance /rri6d~i~ttf for FM
(May 13, Dec.17, 6 Mar)(s)
L--------------'--~--'----~-'--~
Generation. *
(Mai 12. Marks}
q, 3: Di~cuss the direct method of Ffv4 generation.

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Circuit diagram :

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(May 13; Pei;:: :1i\SMarks)

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The varactor diode FM modulator is as shown in the

a
Circuit diagram :

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Fig. 4.9.4.

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AF

r
RFC
The basic reactance modulator using FET is shown in
transformer
Fig. 4.9.5.
G)
_aractor C (RF)
lode b C ~.-ib_ _......,...•_io---<l
0

¥ Modulating voltage (v)

-Vb
(Negative de bias)

(D-186) Fig. 4.9.4: Varactor diode modulator '----~----+---0

1 j
A varactor diode is a semiconductor diode whose z
junction capacitance varies linearly with the voltage (D-188) Fig. 4.9.S: Basic FET reactance modulator
applied across it.
The modulating voltage is applied between the
The varactor diode must be reverse biased.
terminals 1-1.
Operation: Expression for equivalent capacitance :
The varactor diode is reverse biased by the negative de From Fig. 4.9.5 we can obtain the expression for the
source - Vb. impedance seen between terminals 1-1 as,
The modulating AF voltage appears in series with the Xe 1
negative supply voltage. z = Xeq. = gmR = 2n fgm RC ... (4.9.7)

Hence the voltage applied across the varactor diode 1

z =
2 n f Ceq
... (4.9.8)
varies in proportion with the modulating voltage.
Where Ceq = gm RC ... (4.9.9)
This will vary the junction capacitance of the varactor
diode. This expression shows that the FET is equivalent to a

The varactor diode appears in parallel with the oscillator variable capacitance Ceq
tuned circuit. The equivalent capacitance (Ceq) depends on the device
Hence the oscillator frequency will change with change transconductance 9m = i0 / v 9. Hence it can be changed
in varactor diode capacitance and FM wave is produced. by changing v9.
The RFC will connect the de and modulating signal to Therefore if the modulating signal is applied at the gate
the varactor diode but it offers a very high impedance as shown in Fig. 4.9.6, then it is possible to change Ceq.
at high oscillator frequency. in proportion with it.
Therefore the oscillator circuit is isolated from the de The equivalent capacitance (Ceq) can be set to any
bias and modulating signal.
original value by adjusting the Rand C values.

4.9.3 FET Reactance Modulator : Operation:

The connection of FET reactance modulator is as shown
SPPU : May 06, May 12, May 13, Dec. 17
in Fig. 4.9.6.
University Questions
Note that the modulating voltage is applied at the gate,
t,:1<• Draw and explain.direct methods of FMgener~tion and the terminals 1-1 are connected across the LC
with·matllematical treatment (May 06, 6 Marks)
resonant circuit.
.
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..
" ' PCS (Sem. 4 / E&Tc / SPPU) 4-36 FM Transmission & Reception

..
G'.>";:~--)t.., ..,

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•.

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..
FM output

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--~"\/
1M

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L

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Modulating
C signal
(vg)

Oscillator G) '\~'~;~,~iance
tuned circuit modulator acts as
a variable capacitor

(a) Frequency modulation using FET reactance modulator (b) Equivalent circuit
(D-189) Fig. 4.9.6

Hence the frequency of oscillations will increase. The LC oscillator frequency is not stable enough.
Thus we obtain the FM wave using FET reactance It is a function of various parameters such as
modulator. temperature variations, device ageing etc.

As the modulating voltage changes, the effective Therefore it is not possible to use such oscillators for
capacitance between terminals 1-1 will change. the communication or broadcast purpose.
With increase in v9 , gm will decrease so Ceq also will Therefore we have to use a scheme in which we can use
decrease. the crystal oscillator to control the carrier frequency.

Therefore we have to use the automatic frequency

control scheme.

Decrease ; ..:: ..::

4.10 Frequency Multiplication :
. .
f 9m and c 0 qi Definition :

Frequency multiplier is a circuit which multiplies the

frequency of the input signal by a certain multiplication
factor.

A frequency multiplier is a combination of a nonlinear

• As v increase
9 element and a bandpass filter.
i
• 9m decrease
i
• Ceq decrease Circuit diagram :
i
• Frequency Increase
The circuit diagram of a frequency multiplier is as shown
(D-190) Fig. 4.9.6(c) : Waveforms of FM wave generated by in Fig. 4.10.1.
the FET reactance modulator

4.9.4 Advantage of Direct FM Generation : Output

sinusoidal signal
Input frequency, nf
The main advantage of direct FM generation is the periodic signal
simplicity of the modulators and their low cost. frequency, f

4.9.5 Disadvantages of Direct Method : (D-1715) Fig. 4.10.1 : A frequency-multiplier circuit

In the direct method of FM generation, we have to use Assume that the input signal to the transistor in
the LC oscillator. Fig. 4.10.1 is a periodic sinusoidal signal.

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~r PCS(Sem.4/E&Tc/SPPU) 4-37 FM Transmission & Reception

The transistor is biased to operate in the nonlinear As a result, we find that as the order of multiplication
manner and the amplitude of the input signal is large increases, the output signal becomes progressively
enough. smaller.

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Therefore the transistor is in the cutoff region for more Circuits such as in Fig. 4.10.1 are commonly used for

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a
than half of the period of the input signal. multiplication by factors from about 2 to 5.

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Ad
However during the intervals that are close to the peak When higher orders of multiplication are required, the
positive excursions of the input signal, the transistor is multipliers may be cascaded.
driven into the active region, possibly even into Cascaded multipliers of order n1, n2, n3, ... yield an overall
saturation. multiplication of order n1, n2, n3

Therefore the collector current flows, in spurts, forming 4.11 Effect of Mixing and Multiplication
pulses, one pulse for each cycle of the input driving in FM :
sign aI. -----------------------
The mixing (heterodyning) and frequency multiplication
The collector-current waveform has the same
are the common processes in the communication
fundamental period as that of the driving signal but it is
systems.
rich in higher-frequency harmonics.
Let us see their effect on the FM wave.
The LC parallel resonant circuit is tuned to have a
resonant frequency at the nth harmonic of the 4.11.1 Effect of Mixing in FM :
frequency of the input signal. Mixing the FM wave with a local oscillator frequency will
The sharpness of the resonance is such that the produce sum and difference frequency components at
impedance presented by the resonant circuit is very the output of the mixer.
small at all harmonic frequencies except the nth.
We can select either the sum component or the
Therefore all the components of collector current except
difference frequency component.
the component at frequency n/ pass through the
In Fig. 4.11.l(a), an FM wave (fc ± M) and a local
resonant circuit without developing appreciable voltage.
oscillator output f 0 are applied to a mixer.
However, in response to this nth harmonic current If sum component
component, a very nearly sinusoidal voltage waveform / is selected
FM wave
~±~--~~MxM~~--~±Af+Y
of frequency n/ appears across the resonant circuit
:. New center frequency is (fc + f 0 )
The resonant circuit serves as a bandpass filter to
deviation = Af
selectively single out the nth harmonic of the driving No change in m1

waveform.
(D-199) Fig. 4.11.l(a) : Effect of mixing on FM wave
In this way we obtain a frequency multiplied signal at
the output of this circuit. At the mixer output we get four frequency components
namely the two input frequencies and their sum and
Practical difficulty:
difference components.
In principle, it is possible to multiply the input frequency
So at the mixer output we get :
by any arbitrary integral number "n" by simply tuning
fo, (fc ± ,M), (fc + fo + llf), (fc - fo + llf)
the resonant circuit to n/.
As shown in Fig. 4.11.l(a) the frequency deviation
However, in practice, the amplitude of the output remains unchanged but the center frequency fc will
waveform decreases with increase in the multiplying change.
factor "n".

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Y• PCS (Sem. 4 / E&Tc I SPPU) 4-38 FM Transmission & Reception

It will increase to (fc + f 0 l if the sum component is Soln. :

selected and it will reduce to (fc - f0 l if the difference 1. Multiplier output (A) :
component is selected. The carrier fc = 3 x 10 MHz = 30 MHz.

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Conclusion : The frequency deviation 8 = 3 x 10 kHz = 30 kHz and

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Thus in FM, mixing is used to increase or decrease the Modulation index m1 = 3 x 5 = 15

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Ad
center frequency f 0 keeping the deviation constant. The minimum frequency fmin = 30 MHz - 30 kHz

Due to constant deviation the modulation index remains = 29.970 MHz

unchanged in the process of mixing. The maximum frequency fmax = 30 MHz+ 30 kHz
4.11.2 Application of Multiplication in FM : = 30.030 MHz.

In Fig. 4.11.l(b), an FM wave (( ± Ml is applied at the Conclusion :

input of a frequency multiplier with a multiplying factor At the multiplier output the carrier frequency, deviation
N. and modulation index of FM input signal are multiplied
by 3.
FM wave with center frequency
FM wave
= Nf0 deviation = Nt..f and 2. Mixer output (B) :
(fc±,Ml
modulation index = Nmt
Carrier frequency fc= 30 MHz + 10 MHz = 40 MHz.
(D-200) Fig. 4.11.l(b) : Effect of multiplication on FM wave
Maximum frequency fmax = 30.03 + 10 = 40.03 MHz
In the frequency multiplier, the center frequency fc and
Minimum frequency fmin = 29.970 + 10 = 39.970 MHz.
deviation M both are multiplied equally by N.
Frequency deviation= fmax- fc = 40.03 - 40
Hence at the multiplier output we get an FM wave with
a carrier frequency of Nfc and a frequency deviation of = 0.03 MHz = 30 kHz

NM. OR = fc - fmin = 30 kHz.

Due to this the modulation index (m 1) of the FM wave As there is no change in deviation due to mixing, the
will also gets multiplied N in the process of modulation index will remain same i.e. m1 = 15.
multiplication. Conclusion :

Conclusion : At the mixer output the carrier frequency increases by

10 MHz, but the deviation and modulation index of FM
Thus in FM, multiplication is used to increase the center
input signal remain unchanged.
frequency fc, as well as the deviation by a factor of N.
4.12 Armstrong's Indirect Method of FM
Due to increased deviation the modulation index also
Generation :
increases by a factor of N.

The effect of mixing and multiplication can be clearly

understood by solving the following example. University Questions
Q..1.· E~plain . . Vvith the ·help• of.~ neat~ioik;'~;~~ram,
Ex. 4.11.1 : In the block diagram shown in Fig. P. 4.11.1 find
out the carrier frequency, frequency deviation and
Armstrong method of FM g~herati911:· >.,
>·•·.··· ••••
(Dec. 11, Dec; 14;1V!ayt5, 8 M,~rks)
modulation index at the points A and B. Assume that at the Q. 2 Describe Armstrong method fci{ ind1r~cit FM
output of the mixer, the additive frequency component is generation· of wideband angle• n'lq~U/~fi~rr$JgliaJs: '
•• . • . ,(NJay)J,,§rvtarlcs).
being selected.
··a; 3 Explain ··Armstrong methbd of.'FM :g~n~ration.··
.input
FM - __J·.•.·•.··M·•·.·•.·. ultipU·e•·:.•r.·.••.·.~.t--®-·.·-"··
® {0.ec;.J8,§.1Vial'ks)
- 7 t . x 3 .:}j Q. 4 ••• Describe Armstrong • method for Efvl
g~n,eralic)n;
f = 10MHz ...........,:--.- • (MayJ~. 6 Marks)
0
t,.f = 10 kHz In the direct methods of generation of FM, LC oscillators
mt=5
are to be used. The crystal oscillators cannot be used.
The LC oscillators are not stable enough for the
(D-201) fig. P. 4.11.1 communications or broadcast purpose.

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~i"' PCS(Sem.4/E&Tc/SPPU) 4-39 FM Transmission & Reception

Thus the direct methods cannot be used for the Fig. 4.12.1 shows how to generate FM wave using a
broadcast applications. phase modulator.
The alternative method is to use the indirect method
The modulating signal is passed through a low pass RC

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called as the Armstrong method of FM generation.

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filter.

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In this method the FM is obtained through phase

a
The filter output is then applied to a phase modulator

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modulation.

Ad
A crystal oscillator can be used hence the frequency along with the carrier as shown in Fig. 4.12.1.

stability is very high. We obtain an FM signal at the output of the phase

Principle: modulator.

The Armstrong frequency modulator operates on the The Armstrong method uses the phase modulation to
principle of generating FM by using the Phase generate frequency modulation.
Modulation (PM).
Block diagram :
Modulating
signal o--__.,r.\111mr--...-,.....,...--1 FM signal
The block diagram of FM transmitter using Armstrong

Carrier oscillator
method is as shown in Fig. 4.12.2.

It consists a phase modulator, an audio equalizer, two

LRC low pass
filter
groups of multipliers and a mixer or up converter.

(D-203) Fig. 4.12.1 : Generation of FM using phase modulator

carrier

Modulating signal
(B-3228) Fig. 4.12.2 : Indirect method [Armstrong method] of FM generation

Phase modulator : The block diagram of phase modulator circuit is shown in Fig. 4.12.3.

Audio equalizer is actually

an RC low pass filter.

Modulating signal

(D-207) Fig. 4.12.3 : Phase modulator circuit

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,,. PCS (Sem. 4 / E&Tc / SPPU) 4-40 FM Transmission & Reception

The crystal oscillator produces a stable unmodulated The crystal oscillator generates the carrier at low
carrier which is applied to the "90° phase shifter" as well frequency typically at 1 MHz.

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as the "combining network" through a buffer. This is applied to the combining network and a 90°

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The 90° phase shifter produces a 90° phase shifted phase shifter.

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carrier.

Ad
The modulating signal is passed through an audio
It is applied to the balanced modulator alongwith the equalizer to boost the low modulating frequencies, for
modulating signal.
the reason discussed earlier.
Thus the carrier used for modulation is 90° shifted with
The modulating signal is then applied to a balanced
respect to the original carrier.
modulator.
At the output of the balanced modulator we get
The balanced modulator produces two sidebands such
DSB-SC signal i.e. A.M. signal without carrier.
that their resultant is 90° phase shifted with respect to
This signal consists of only two sidebands with their
the unmodulated carrier.
resultant in phase with the 90° shifted carrier.
The unmodulated carrier and 90° shifted sidebands are
The two sidebands and the original carrier without any
added in the combining network.
phase shift are applied to a combining network.
As discussed earlier, at the output of the combining
At the output of the combining network we get the
network we get FM wave.
resultant of vector addition of the carrier and two
sidebands. This FM wave has a low carrier frequency fc and low

The audio equalizer block shown in Fig. 4.12.3 is value of the modulation index m1.

nothing but an RC low pass filter. The carrier frequency and the modulation index are
The role of RC filter has already been discussed earlier. then raised by passing the FM wave through the first

The modulating signal is passed through the audio group of multipliers.

equalizing circuit and applied to the phase modulator The carrier frequency is then raised by using a mixer
circuit. and then the fc and m1 both are raised to the required
We get the FM wave at the output of the combining high values using the second group of multipliers.
network. Thus in the indirect method of FM generation The effect of multiplication and mixing is as discussed
we use phase modulation to obtain FM.
earlier.
Frequency Multipliers, Mixer and Amplifier :
The FM signal with high fc and high m1 is then passed
The FM signal produced at the output of phase through a class C power amplifier to raise the power
modulator has a low carrier frequency and low
level of the FM signal.
modulation index.
~;4:ffibAportable·.· transmitter Work~ :6tf itijii~~Ji
They are increased to an adequately high value with the
help of frequency multipliers and mixer.

The power level is raised to the desired level by the

amplifier.

Summary of operation of the Armstrong Method :

•i:li:~]iil!;.9
~;~>~W>t~iW(tBe. function· of· eiac.W:~lc?8k• ~i~(ij'igiAA~
fr~Uerj¢tes' at different stages ... ••• May 95, May 01, 8 Marks

Nov, refer Fig. 4.12.1. The operation of the Armstrong Soln.:

method is as follows : The block diagram of Armstrong method is as shown in

Fig. P. 4.12.1.

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, , PCS (Sem. 4 / E&Tc / SPPU) 4-41 FM Transmission & Reception

t·crystai<•
Coscillator'·••

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Ad
(D-221) Fig. P. 4.12.1
FM with FM with FM with Transmitting
At the output of combining network we get FM wave
f0 = 100kHz f0 = 1.2MHz 10 = 156.96kHz antenna
with a centre frequency of 200 kHz and deviation of and Ll.f= 10Hz and Llf= 120Hz and Llf= 120Hz
25 Hz.
When it is passed through a frequency multiplier with a
multiplication factor n = 3000, both the center 1.35696MHz FM with
frequency and deviation will be multiplied. f0 = 98.1MHz
f'•LociiFi;l!
s:oscillatort and Llf = 75kHz
Output of multiplier: 60 MHz + 75 kHz.
(D-227) Fig. P. 4.12.2
Mixer acts as up converter to increase the centre
frequency to 90 MHz from 60 MHz. Deviation remains ~x.,4;fi3.·;•.·Design. ~h Arms~dtjg. in~iri~tt~ ~?~~lator· to
unchanged. flenerate an FM carrier with a ~arrierfrec@focy ~§ NtHz and
Af;;:: 20 kHz. A narrowpand FM generat<>r witfr f/= 200 kHz
Output of mixer: 90 MHz+ 75 kHz
f
~~tfadj!J~table A iff th~ ra@f of 9 jo )0 •Hz is. available.
·e~.4.11.~•: D~~!gn•(orily the,.block ••dici;rJrhk~J.'6r~stron~ Ther~J~:anosciUator·with. adjgstable frequency in the range
inqirect::f:M>rn6eiui~idttb g~n;rnte. c1n gM-~rr1~/with a of ~ t~ 1()'MHz, There is.a b~ndpass filter with any center
fr;~quericy :and only frequency}Jouplers are avail~ble. (only
~tri~ .fi-eqd~h¢f. 6f • i9S.·1 ·····MHf'·•and &f'. ~'}sD~1-1;:>A 9lock cji1:19r~m Js exp~cted).
riarrowband•.·f~·•·generat6r•i$• availabl•e •af • a r~.rrfr~rJrequ~r1.ci •May-08, 8 Marks, Dec. 12; 10 Marks
of 100 kHz·and,~f:;:, 10cHt;. The stockrotim al~o h~s an Soln.:
osbillatd[with•·· ~n adJ~;table ··••frequency••ir·.~n,\range.of Given : fc = 96 MHz, M = 20 kHz,
1o;11••·••MHz:'·t6~r~. a~e at~o preM/··of'•tr~q~~htYd~ublersl Narrowband FM generator specifications :
ttippl;~~hd qbi6tJp1~r:;.•··· \ fc = 200 kHz, M = 9 to 10 Hz.
May 06, May 10, 10 Marks, May 1:}, 8 Marks Oscillator frequency f 0 = 9 to 10 MHz.
Soln.: BPF with any central frequency and frequency doublers
The block schematic of the required system is shown in are available.

Fig. P. 4.12.2. The block diagram of the Armstrong system is as shown

in Fig. P. 4.12.3.

FM with fc = 200 kHz FM with f0 = 12.8 MHz fc = 3 MHz

LI f = 9.76 Hz LI f = 625 Hz t.f=625Hz

~&:;~~;%~::·•i-
Doublers
-----
~"'Pt,.·••···

5 Doublers

Modulating signal FM with

10 = 96 MHz
6f=20kHz
fosc = 9.8 MHz

(D-228) Fig. P. 4.12.3

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• PCS (Sem. 4 / E&Tc / SPPU) 4-42 FM Transmission & Reception

4.13 Effect of Noise in FM and PM : The high frequency components of the message are
badly affected by the noise.

l
This problem can be solved by using circuits called

ya
l.,lniversity Questions"

ha
Q. 1 . . \Nhy. i$ nbise irmn~nity b~tter i~ FM?· pre-emphasis and de-emphasis.

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(May>0S; 4 Marks) 4.14.1 Pre-emphasis:

Ad
As the F.M. or P.M. wave travels from transmitter to SPPU : Dec. 11, :May 12, May 13, May 15, Dec. 15,
receiver, the noise gets added to it as shown in May 16, Dec. 17, Dec. 18, May 19, Dec. 19
Fig. 4.13.l. University Questions
t Added noise Q, 1 Explain with suitable diagram importance> >of
pre-emphasis and de-emphasis in the performance
ofFM system. . . .· . ....... ·• •· _.· ·.·· . _·
(Dec. 11, 8 Marks, Dec.19/~Mai1<s) •
Q; 2 . Explain pre-emphasis and de-emphasis iriFM?·/>
• <;(May 12, May 15;8 Marks;Maiiti;,~;~itk;(
wave
(D-208) Fig. 4.13.1 : Effect of noise on FM and PM
Q. 3 . ~pI~{~ \ the need of ..· pre~em~h~~i#\jf:c'~ria
• de~eniphasis with • their respective~ •ft~('ftie~cy
Due to noise the amplitude of the FM or PM wave gets • >response in FM. (May 13, 8Marks)
distorted.
Explain the need of pre-:empha.si~ ,:>and
But FM or PM waves do not contain the information in •de~erophasis in the case of Frvt ,system, J-IQW is it
their amplitude variations at all. implemented ? (Dec. ts,,~ .M~r~s).
Hence the noise cannot distort the information Q.5 piscuss the importance .· ot Pre-empt)~~($ ahd
contained in the FM or PM wave. b~-emphasis network .in the: perforn1~mce 9f:• FM
So FM and PM waves are more immune to noise or
iystem:·•·· (MayJ$,7:~al'~~)1
more noise resistant. •Stat~ /the significance of,<pr~eftit)h~~i~'. :~fiij\
• de~emphasis in FM. • • (O~c. 17'i.$1'v1~rk$)C
4.14 Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis :

[t.ltt1~ersity Questions·
SPEW : May 06, Dec. 08
Draw the circuit diagram of
•• de~en)phasis with characteristict;r;
1
; .,.~i~~:>
pre~ernph~~l{<a:nq

Q.\';11i!lt{:t't;~:~::i;?!~rt•·
.. tr~rsrnittec ?. (May Q6, 6 IVl~rl(s)
Principle:
It has been observed that in FM, the noise has a greater
effect on the higher modulating frequencies.
Q. 2 Wbat is the need of pre~emphasisjn FM? Explain This effect can be reduced by increasing the value of
' • Jre~em~h;si~ and••. de-ernphasj~ filter with. Jheir modulation index (m 1) for higher modulating
. res1:i,~ctiy¢ frequencyresponse; (Oec. o~, 8 Marks) frequencies (fml-

Need: This can be done by increasing the deviation "8" and 8

can be increased by increasing the amplitude of
The noise power density at the demodulator output
modulating signal for the modulating signals of higher
increase parabolically with frequency.
frequencies.
That means the effect of noise increases with increase in
Thus if we "boost" the amplitude of higher frequency
frequency.
modulating signals artificially then it will be possible to
This is unfortunate because, noise is strongest in the
improve the noise immunity at higher modulating
frequency range in which the signal is weakest.
frequencies.
The ,ignal to noise ratio therefore becomes poor at
The artificial boosting of higher modulating frequencies
higher frequencies and the quality of FM reception
is called as pre-emphasis.
degrades at higher signal frequencies.

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~ , PCS (Sem. 4 / E& Tc/ SPPU) 4-43 FM Transmission & Reception
Transmitting
Circuit diagram : antenna

Boosting of higher frequency modulating signal is Modulating

AF signal
FM
<trequenoy
up
;\,~;~;•

l
ya
achieved by using the pre-emphasis circuit of gimplifier
•J1onversion

ha
Fig. 4.14.l(a).

G
a
ity
The modulating AF signal is passed through a high pass Carrier

Ad
bsoillator
RC filter, before applying it to the FM modulator.
(D-212) Fig. 4.14.2 : FM transmitter including the pre-
As fm increases, reactance of C decreases and
emphasis
modulating voltage applied to FM modulator goes on 4.14.2 De-emphasis:
increasing.

The frequency response characteristics of the RC high

University Questions
. .
SPPU : Dec. 11, May 12, May 13, May 15, Dec. 15,
- I. . ..
pass network is shown in Fig. 4.14.l(b).
Q. 1 Explaiir. With Syitable diagram )ri1Rort.~~J'1CEk of
The boosting is done according to this prearranged
and
....••. <pre-errtph~!SiS cJe:.e01p6asis infh~:~Yf§r/n~rib~·
curve.
bf FM system . .•• ·•.·. > •. (
•...... </ . . . . . . ,<
(Dee. 11, 8 Marks, OeeZ 19; 6 Marks).
Q. 2 Explain pre-emphasis and de-emphasis in FM.
Modulating Pre-emphasized
AF signal FM output (May 12, May 15, 8 Marks, May 19,6.Marks)

Pre-emphasis Q. 3 Explain the need of pre~emphasis and

circuit is de-emphasis with their respective frequency
basically a high
response in FM. (May 13; 8ll/larks)
pass filter
Q. 4 Explain• the need and
(a) Typical pre-emphasis circuit de-emphasis in the case of FM system: How is it
Output ,---- implemented? • (Dec:}ts/6Marks)
Q. 5 Discuss the importance of Pre-en,phasl{ >and
De-emphasis network in the perforni~hde of FM

3 dB······················
system. (May)~,l'i'Marks)
. . . . ···· .. ·

0 dB 1 - - - - - - ' Q. 6 State the .significance of pre-~mph~Sl$ and

~-----------+fm
2122 Hz 30 kHz
•.• . . 'de~emptiasrs in FM: fD'~B; if'ifa+M'~rks>
(b) Pre-emphasis characteristics iQ,7 • Qr~~ . the circuit ··diagram ... of p;~-,e~ph~~j; ~nd
(D-211) Fig. 4.14.1 de-ernphasis with characteristic in FM.

The amount of pre-emphasis in US FM transmission and (Q~P,.tf4;i) Marks)

sound transmission in TV has been standardized at Principle:

75 µsec. The artificial boosting given to the higher modulating

frequencies in the process of pre-emphasis is nullified
The pre-emphasis circuit is basically a high pass filter.
or compensated at the receiver by a process called
The 75 µsec indicates the time constant of the RC circuit
"De-emphasis".
used for the pre-emphasis.
The artificially boosted high frequency signals are
The pre-emphasis is carried out at the transmitter. The brought to their original amplitude using the de-
corner frequency for the RC high-pass network is emphasis circuit.
2122 Hz as shown in Fig. 4.14.l(b). Circuit diagram :
The pre-emphasis circuit is used at the transmitter as The 75 µsec de-emphasis circuit is standard and it is as
shown in the block diagram of Fig. 4.14.2. shown in Fig. 4.14.3(a). It shows that it is a low pass
filter.

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~~ PCS(Sem.4/E&Tc/SPPU) 4-44 FM Transmission & Reception

The 75 µsec de-emphasis corresponds to a frequency When two or more FM signals of same frequency occur
response curve that is 3 dB down at a frequency whose simultaneously, the stronger signal of the two will
RC time constant is µsec. capture the channel and will completely eliminate the

l
ya
ha
. 1 1 weak signal.

G
t.e. f = 2nRC = 2n x 75 x 10-6 = 2122 Hz.

a
This is known as the capture effect in FM. On the

ity
Ad
The demodulated FM is applied to the De-emphasis contrary when two AM signals of same frequency occur
circuit with increase in fm the reactance of C goes on simultaneously, both of them will be heard.
decreasing and the output of de-emphasis circuit will The weaker of the two will be heard in the background.
also reduce as shown in Fig. 4.14.3(b).
De-emphasis 3. Higher transmitter efficiency :
· circuit
FM ---4':;. FM ).l---'¥\1'\N\,,...--'-'._----'--+ AF The third advantage of FM is its high transmission
input i]iamodulatQ!i output
efficiency.

This is due to the use of highly efficient class C

amplifiers in the FM transmitters.
(a) It is possible to use the class C amplifiers for FM
Output
because FM signal is a constant amplitude signal. We
cannot use class C amplifiers for the AM transmitters
because AM signal continuously varies in its amplitude.
OdBl------
-3dB ··························,
Instead the less efficient linear amplifiers (class A, AB, B)
~----------+frn are required to be used for AM transmission.
2122 Hz
4. Lower power requirement:
(b) Typical de-emphasis circuit and its characteristics
(D-213) Fig. 4.14.3 FM needs to transmit lower power as compared to AM,

The de-emphasis circuit is used after the FM to obtain the same quality of received signal at the

demodulator at the FM receiver as shown in receiver.

Fig. 4.14.3(a). 5. Larger coverage area :

F.M. transmission covers a larger area than that covered
4.15 FM Versus AM :
by the AM transmission, with the same amount of

In general FM is considered to be superior to AM. transmitted power.

This is because FM has some significant advantages This is due to the higher noise immunity and better

over AM. transmission efficiency of FM.

5. All the transmitted power is useful :
4.15.1 Advantages of FM over AM :
In AM not all the transmitted power is useful. Only the
SPPU : Dec. 06: Dec. 07, Dec. 10 sideband power is useful.
University Questions .· ·.·.·
~
However in FM all the transmitted power is useful.
Q.1 FM is superior than AM in voice cornmutiications.
Explain. • • . .·· ...• . (Dec. 06, 4 Marks) 4.15.2 Disadvantages of FM over AM :
Q.2 •Justify how FM is superior to AM ?
(Dec. 07, Pee. 10, 4 Marks) 1. More bandwidth required :

1. Better noise immunity: The biggest disadvantage of FM over AM is that its

bandwidth is too large. FM signal needs a much larger
FM has a better noise immunity as compared to that of
bandwidth as compared to that of AM to transmit the
AM for the reasons already discussed.
same information.
2. Rejection of interference :
The bandwidth requirement of FM is reduced by using
Another advantage of FM over AM is that the interfering
the narrow band FM (N BFM).
signals on the same frequency are effectively rejected.
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• PCS (Sem. 4 / E&Tc / SPPU) 4-45 FM Transmission & Reception

2. Higher complexity : 2. This conversion must be linear and efficient.

Another disadvantage of FM is that the circuits used for 3. The demodulator circuit should not respond to
amplitude changes. It should respond only to the

l
modulation and demodulation are more complex as

ya
ha
compared to those used for AM. frequency changes.

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a
4. It should be fairly simple in its adjustment and

ity
3. Limited radius of transmission :

Ad
operation.
Since the space wave propagation is used, the radius of
FM transmission is limited by the line of sight. 4.17 Classification of FM Detectors :
However in AM, the radius of transmission can be much SPPU: May 08, Dec. 19
. . . .. . '
larger than the LOS, due to the sky wave propagation.
University Questions . , -\\··> ·/;:".:-_;<"·. ·/ :_..·:I:.·
4.15.3 Applications of FM : Q, t Stat~ different m~hods. of FM det~~fiqn( ~;Jlain
Some of the applications of FM are : arty 6ne method in detaiL. _-..• •./ ) ; \
1. Radio broadcasting (Vividh Bharti, Radio Mirchi). •·••-·<May.68, 8ftllark~~ Qe¢.i;1~i6JV1art<s)
Fig. 4.17.1 shows the classification of FM detectors.
2. Sound broadcasting in T.V.
FM detectors
I
3.
4.
Satellite communication.
Police wireless.
+
Direct type Indirect type •+
5. Point to point communication. 4 Phase locked loop
Frequency Zero crossing Phase
discriminators detectors discriminators
4.16 FM Demodulators: (Slope detectors)
(D-294) Fig. 4.17.1: Classification of FM detectors
Definition :
4.17.1 Principle of Slope Detection:
FM detector is a circuit that extracts the modulating
signal from the FM signal applied at its input. ··: ..<::,:.::·:::.:-.>\::.:::_._::>_<.··
University Questions
Block diagram :
Q; 1 Discuss_. principle v.orki11g of FM ds(~~ti~? ijri~fly
The block diagram of FM detector is as shown in explain any orie FM detector methqd. > < •
Fig. 4.16.1. • (MayJtt~ Mar~$)
••• FM_ Consider a tuned circuit shown in Fig. 4.17.1.
. . . . signal R

-
(D-1077) Fig. 4.16.1 : Block diagram of FM detector

The FM demodulators (detectors) operate on an Variable L Output proportional

frequency C to frequency
altogether different principle than the AM detectors. input

The AM detector is basically an envelope detector. But

FM demodulator is basically a frequency to amplitude
converter. (D-295) Fig. 4.17.1: Tuned circuit

It is expected to convert the frequency variations in FM A frequency modulated signal is applied at the input of
this tuned circuit.
wave at its input into proportional amplitude variations
The center frequency of the FM signal is fc and the
at its output to recover the original modulating signal.
frequency deviation is 8.
Requirements of FM Detector :
The resonant frequency of the tuned circuit is
The FM demodulator must satisfy the following
deliberately adjusted to (fc + t.f) as shown in Fig. 4.17.1.
requirements :
As shown in the Fig. 4.17.1 the amplitude of the output
1. It must convert frequency variations into amplitude
voltage of the tank circuit depends on the frequency
variations.
deviation of the input FM signal.

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4.17.2 Simple Slope Detector: SPPU: May 17 1. It is inefficient.

2. It is linear only over a limited frequency range.

University Questions
3. It is difficult to adjust as the primary and secondary

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ya
Q. 1 Discuss pri~ciple worki~g of FM detection. Briefly

ha
windings of the transformer must be tuned to
explain any one FM detector method.

G
a
slightly different frequencies.

ity
(Ma}' 17, 6 Marks)

Ad
Advantages :
Circuit diagram :
The only advantage of the basic slope detector circuit is
The circuit diagram of a simple slope detector is as its simplicity.
shown in Fig. 4.17.2.
To overcome the drawbacks of the simple slope
D
detector, a "Balanced slope detector" is used.
+
4.17.3 Balanced Slope Detector: SPPU: May 18
FM AF modulating
R C
input signal University Questions
Q; 1 With neat phasor diagram explain p~lanted ~lope
I• RC filter•I
detector in FM. (Maf18, 6ivtJrk$) ••
(D-297) Fig. 4.17.2: Simple slope detector Circuit diagram :

The output voltage of the tank circuit is then applied to The circuit diagram of the balanced slope detector is as
a simple diode detector with an RC load with proper shown in Fig. 4.17.4.
time constant.
t Slope detector - 1

l .~---1 ••,--. ·:_-:···:\:

This filter will filter out all high frequency ripple and
produce the modulating signal.
FM
This detector is identical to the AM diode detector. input
from
Characteristics : IF
amplifier
The characteristics of a simple slope detector is shown
in Fig. 4.17.3.
Output voltage
of tank circuit
Amplitude variation
at the output (D-298) Fig. 4.17.4: Balanced slope detector

The circuit diagram shows that, the balanced slope

. . . . . . ,1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

' ' detector consists of two slope detector circuits .

. .. .. ~ .... -.. , -' -
~ ........ ,'
............ - .......... - .. -- -
.. .. .. .... ........ - The input transformer has a center tapped secondary.

Hence the input voltages to the two slope detectors are

180° out of phase.
(fc + M) Frequency
\ The lank circuit is tuned
There are three tuned circuits. Out of them the primary
to a higher frequency than fc is tuned to IF i.e. fc

Frequency deviation The upper tuned circuit of the secondary (T1) is tuned
at the input
above fc by M i.e. its resonant frequency is (fc + Lif).

The lower tuned circuit of the secondary is tuned below

(D-296) Fig. 4.17.3: Characteristics of a slope detector
f, by ~f i.e. at (f_, - ~f).
Disadvantages :
R1 C1 and R2 C2 a:·e the filters used to bypass the RF
Eventhough the slope detector circuit is simple it has ripple. V0 1 and V0 2 are the output voltages of the two
the following disadvantages :
slope detectors.
8
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 • PCS (Sem. 4 I E&Tc / SPPU)
1p 4-47 FM Transmission & Reception

The final output voltage V0 is obtained by taking the Due to the typical shape it is called as the S-shape
subtraction of the individual output voltages, V01 and characteristics.
Vo2•
!°"''"'

l
ooltage

ya
ha
... (4.17.1)

G
,.__ _ _ Useful range _ _...,,..._..,

a
Operation of the circuit :

ity
I

Ad
(Linear range)
We can understand the circuit operation by dividing the
input frequency into three ranges as follows : Frequency
of input
Operation for f;n = f0 :

When the input frequency is instantaneously equal to fu

the induced voltage in the T1 winding of secondary is
exactly equal to that induced in the winding T2.

Thus the input voltages to both the diodes D1 and D2

will be the same.
Therefore their de output voltages V01 and V02 will also
i i
(fc- 8.f} < f;n < f 0 f;n = fc fc < fin < (fc + 8.f)
be identical but they have opposite polarities. Input to 0 1 is less Inputs to 0 1 and D2 Input to 0 1 is higher
than input to D2 are equal than input to D2
Hence the net output voltage V0 = 0.
Operation for f0 < f,n < (f0 + M) : L L L
V01 is less than V02 V01 is equal to V02 V01 is greater than V0 2

In this range of input frequency, the induced voltage in t

:. V0 is negative
L
:. V0 = 0
L
:. VO is positive
the winding T1 is higher than that induced in T2 .
(D-299) Fig. 4.17.5: Characteristics of the balanced slope
Therefore the input voltage to D1 is higher than D2.
detector (S - curve)
Hence the positive output V0 1 of D1 is higher than the
Advantages :
negative output V02 of D2 .
1. This circuit is more efficient than simple slope
Therefore the output voltage V0 is positive. A.s the input
detector.
frequency increases towards (fc + L'lf) the positive output
2. It has better linearity than the simple slope
voltage increases as shown in Fig. 4.17.5. detector.
Operation in the range (f0 - M) < f;n < f0 :
Disadvantages :
If the input frequency is in this range then the induced
1. Eventhough linearity is good, it is not good
voltage in winding T2 is higher than that in T1. enough.
Therefore input voltage to diode D2 is higher than that 2. This circuit is difficult to tune since the three tuned
to D1. circuits are to be tuned at different frequencies, i.e.
f0 (fc + L'lf) and (fc - Llf).
Hence the negative output V02 is greater than V01 .
3. Amplitude limiting is not provided.
Therefore the output voltage of the balanced slope
detector is negative in this frequency range. 4.17.4 Phase Discriminator (Foster Seeley
Discriminator):
The negative output voltage increases as f;n goes closer
to (fc- L'lf) as shown in Fig. 4.17.5. Sf>PU : Dec. 07, May 08, -Dec. 19

If the output frequency goes outside the range of Universit}' Questions

(fc - L'lf) to (fc + L'lf) the output voltage will fall due to the Q, 1 Draw. f1M ~xplain Fp~ter-Se€3l~y dJ5:crin1inay}r f?r:
reduction in tuned circuit response. FM demodulation. ([)e~: oz,. 8 llllc1rXsJ
Characteristics of the balanced slope detector: Q. 2 State dlfferent· methods of F.M det~ctioh. EJ<plain
The characteristics of the balanced slope detector is as any one method in detail.
shown in Fig. 4.17.5. (May 08, 8 Marks, Dec; 19, 6 Marks)

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 • PCS (Sem. 4 / E&Tc i SPPU)
l!' 4-48 FM Transmission & Reception

Circuit diagram : - · C4 will bypass resistance R4 as R4 > > Xc4. Therefore

voltage across RFC will be equal to the input voltage V1.
The phase discriminator or Foster Seeley discriminator is
as shown in Fig. 4.17.6(a). ... (4.17.2)

l
ya
a' It can be proved that the secondary voltage Vab gets

ha
G
+
o, divided equally across the upper and lower halves of the

a
ity
secondary as shown in Figs. 4.17.6(b) and 4.17.6(c).

Ad
AF
:,~. v, c, : ~ ~------..... I+-- v, - + I

@ ¥
2 0----<---' a'
\__ ~ +
Both tuned to le
;r

FM V
R3 C T
3 Output

(D-300) Fig. 4.17.6(a) : Phase discriminator input 1 c, 0

voltage
Va'b'
If you compare this circuit with the balanced slope
detector circuit then you will find that the diode and
y
b' l
load arrangement is same in both the circuits.

But the method of applying the input voltage to the 0

diodes which is proportional to the frequency deviation
is entirely different. (D-1248) (b) Phase discriminator redrawn

The Foster Seeley discriminator is thus derived from the @

o,
balanced modulator. +

Here the primary and the secondary windings both are

Output
tuned to the same center frequency "fc" of the incoming voltage
signal.

This simplifies the tuning process to a great extent and

it will yield better linearity than the balanced slope
'----::----l·>----...---.....T----:-+
@
D2
+
1-
detector.

Principle of operation : 0

Even though the primary and secondary tuned circuits

(D-1249) Fig. 4.17.6(c): Equivalent circuit of phase
are tuned to the same center frequency, the voltages
discriminator
applied to the two diodes D1 and D2 are not constant.
Thus input to each diode is equal to the vector sum of
They vary depending on the frequency of the input
the primary voltage V1 and half the secondary voltage
signal.
i.e. (½vab).
This is due to the change in phase shift between the
primary and secondary windings depending on the Vector sum should be taken because these voltages are
input frequency. not in phase with each other.

Operation: Phase shift between the primary and secondary voltages

is not constant but it depends on the input frequency.
The phase discriminator can be redrawn as shown in
The effect of this is as explained below.
Fig. 4.17.6(b) to understand the concept of its operation.
The capacitor CP is a coupling capacitor which passes all Output voltage of the discriminator :

the frequencies at the input to the center tap of the Output voltage of the phase discriminator is equal to
transformer secondary. the difference between the outputs of the two diode
rectifiers.
.
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, , PCS (Sem. 4 / E&Tc / SPPU) 4-49 FM Transmission & Reception

... (4.17.3) 3. Output voltage for fin< fc:

As the diode drops are not known, we cannot calculate For input frequencies below the center frequency f0 the
the output exactly.

l
ya
secondary voltage Vab leads the primary voltage V1 by

ha
But it is sure that the output will be proportional to the
more than 90° as shown in Fig. 4.17.6(f).

G
voltage applied at the inputs of diodes D1 and D2.

a
Input voltage to 0 1

ity
Ad
... (4.17.4)
Increased
1. Output voltage at f;n = fc : phase shift

When the input frequency is equal to the center

due to
reduced
frequency
\:,::· ,,~,,
frequency (fc), the phase shift between the primary and
secondary voltages is exactly 90°. .................................... \ Input voltage to 0 2

Therefore the input voltages to both the diodes will be (D-303) Fig. 4.17.G(f) : Phasor diagram for fin < fc

equal as shown in Fig. 4.17.6(d). Hence input voltage to D1 is less than input voltage to
Input voltage
to D1 D2-

,.,---+J_V
Equal 2 ab Therefore the output voltage will be negative for f;n < fc.
voltages are
induced in the The discriminator response :
two halves of
secondary The graph of frequency versus output volatage of a
'---+-J_v
2 ab
phase discriminator is as shown in Fig. 4.17.6(g).
Input voltage It is an S-shaped curve with an improved linearity.
to D2
rutput voltage
(D-302(a)) Fig. 4.17.G(d) : Phasor diagram for f 1n = fc

Therefore the outputs of both the diodes will be equal.

- - - - Useful range-,----,,,,
Hence the net output voltage will be zero.
2. Output voltage for f;n > fc :

At input frequencies above the center frequency f 0

secondary voltage Vab leads the primary voltage V1 by
, I11put;
less than 90° as shown in Fig. 4.17.6(e). freqyency f
Input
voltage
to D1

Reduced
phase shift
due to (D-304) Fig. 4.17.G(g): The discriminator response
increased ~..__ _ _ _ _ __,. Primary
frequency Advantages of phase discriminator :
voltage

1. It is more easy to align (tune) than the balanced

slope detector as there are only two tuned circuits
' Input voltage and both are to be tuned at the same frequency fc.
to D2
2. Linearity is better. This is because the operation of
(D-303) Fig. 4.17.G(e): Phasor diagram for fin > fc
the circuit is dependent more on the primary to
Hence input voltage to D1 i.e. V80 is higher than input to
secondary phase relationship which is very much
D2 i.e. vbo·
linear.
The output voltage will therefore be positive for f;n > fc.

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 • PCS (Sem. 4 / E&Tc / SPPU)
1F 4-50 FM Transmission & Reception

Disadvantage : Circuit diagram :

It does not provide any amplitude limiting. So in the Ratio detector is another frequency demodulator circuit.
presence of noise or any other spurious amplitude The circuit diagram of a basic ratio detector is as shown

l
ya
ha
variations, the demodulator output responds to them in Fig. 4.17.7.

G
If you compare this circuit with the Foster Seeley

a
and produces errors.

ity
Ad
4.17.5 Ratio Detector : discriminator discussed in the previous section, you will

SPPU: May 07, May 17, May 19 notice that these two circuits are identical except for the
following changes :
University Questions
1. The direction of diode D2 is reversed.
Q~j .V\/hatdo YOtJ.meanbyraUgiqet§Ctc:ir.?El<plafpit in
2. A large value capacitor Cs has been included in the
detail.> (May 07, 6 Marks)
circuit.
Q. 2 Ju~tify>"Ratio detector acts.as detectocas Well as
... Jimite(. (M~y 17, May 1~i 6 M~tks) . 3. The output is taken somewhere else .
a'

FM
input Large value
from C1 capacitor
final IF
amplifier

(D-307) Fig. 4.17.7: Ratio detector circuit

Operation: If the FM input V1 tries to increase, the secondary

It can be shown that the ratio detector output voltage is voltage also increases.
equal to half of the difference between the output Due to this, extra diode current (through D1 and D2) will
voltages from the individual diodes. start flowing. Hence the load current increases.
Va'o -Vb'o But the voltage Va• b• i.e. voltage across the capacitor Cs
2 will not change instantaneously. It will increase very
Hence similar to the phase discriminator the output gradually.
voltage is proportional to the difference between the Thus the load current has increased but the load voltage
individual output voltages. Va• b• is almost constant.
Due to this reason, the operation of the ratio detector is Hence the load impedance is said to have decreased.
identical to the phase discriminator.
Due to this decreased load impedance, the secondary of
The S type frequency output curve can be derived in an the input transformer is heavily damped.
identical way.
Due to the damping, the Q decreases and therefore the
The phaser diagrams are also identical. gain of the amplifier driving the ratio detector will also
The additional feature of the ratio detector is the decrease.
amplitude limiting action which is incorporated due to This will counteract the increase in FM input voltage to
the large capacitor Cs, the ratio detector and amplitude limiting is achieved.
Due to this the amplitude limiter is not required prior to Similarly if the amplitude of the FM input signal tries to
the ratio detector. decrease, the load impedance will now increase.
Amplitude limiting using ratio detector:
The damping of the input transformer is reduced, Q
Let us see now the reaction of the ratio detector circuit increases increasing the gain of the driving amplifier to
to the amplitude changes in the FM signal which is compensate for the reduction in amplitude.
applied at its input.
.
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 • PCS (Sem. 4 / E& Tc / SPPU) 4-51 FM Transmission & Reception

The ratio detector thus provides the amplitude limiting Block diagram :

by means of the process called "Diode Variable A PLL can be used as FM demodulator as shown in

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Damping". Fig. 4.18.1.

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Advantages of ratio detector :

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FM signal !< detector filter Demodulated
1. Easy to align.

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FM signal
2. Very good linearity, due to linear phase
relationship between primary and secondary.
vco
3. Amplitude limiting is provided inherently. So
!pfi~se locked
l:,:C:. 1~~JJ......... .
additional limiter is not required.
(D-314) Fig. 4.18.1 : PLL used as FM demodulator
4.17.6 Comparison of FM Demodulators: Operation:

Balanced The FM signal which is to be demodulated is applied at

Sr. Phase Ratio
Parameter slope the input of the PLL.
No. discriminator . ·detector
.detector
As the PLL is locked to the FM signal, the VCO starts
1. Alignment/tuning Critical as Not crrrical Not critical
tracking the instantaneous frequency in the FM input
three
circuits are signal.
to be tuned The error voltage produced at the output of the
at different
amplifier is proportional to the deviation of input
frequencies
frequency from the centre frequency of FM.
2. Output Primary Primary and Primary
characteristics and secondary and Thus the ac component of the error voltage represents
depends on secondary phase relation secondary the modulating signal.
frequency phase
relation. Thus at the error amplifier output we get demodulated
relationship
FM output.
3. Linearity of Poor Very good Good
output The FM demodulator using PLL ensures a high linearity,
characteristics between the instantaneous input frequency and VCO
4. Amplitude Not Not provided Provided control voltage (error amplifier output).
limiting provided inherently by the
inherently ratio 4.19 FM Receiver :
detector
5. Applications Not used in FM radio, TV SPPU : De.c. 05, Dec. 07, May 08, Dec: 10, Dec. 14
practice satellite receiver University Questions
station sound
Q. 1 What is the role of limiter stage in fMteceivers ?
receiver etc. section,
narrow Explain with a block diagram FM receiver/:
band FM (Dec. 05, May 08,,0ec:14,6l\llarks)
receivers.
Q.2 How are FM receivers different ftbmArXrecei~ers
4.18 FM Detection using PLL : ? (Dec: 01,·4 Marks)
Q. 3 With the help of block diagram 'explain
SPPU : Dec. 10, May 14
superheterodyne FM receiver. (Oec.10; l:i IVf~rks)
University Questions
Q. 1 How we recover the FM signal using Phase Locked Block diagram :
Loop (PLL)? (Dec. 10, 6 Marks) Fig. 4.19.1 shows the block diagram of a FM receiver.
Q. 2 . Explain FM detection using PLL.
The first thing that strikes us is its similarity with the AM
(May 14, 6 Marks)
receiver.

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•
• PCS (Sem. 4 / E&Tc I SPPU) 4-52 FM Transmission & Reception
Receiving
antenna Intermediate Frequency (IF) :

The mixer will mix these signals to produce signals

FM having frequencies f f (f + f and (f
, ,
0
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0
- fJ

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Out of these the difference of frequency component i.e.

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AGC (f f is selected and all others are rejected.

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\pscillat9f;; This frequency is called as the Intermediate Frequency
(IF).
AF ancF
power l))
11mplifier This frequency contains the same modulation as the
(D-288) Fig. 4.19.1 : Block diagram of FM receiver original signal f,.

The FM receiver also operates on the principle of In order to maintain a constant difference between the
"superheterodyning", as the AM receiver. local oscillator frequency and the incoming frequency,

However even though the AM and FM receivers operate ganged tuning is used.

on the same principle and the blocks upto the IF The value of IF in FM radio receiver is 10.8 MHz.
amplifier are identical, the FM receiver is different from IF Amplifier :
the AM receiver in the following way :
This intermediate frequency signal is then amplified by
Difference between FM and AM Receivers : one or more IF amplifier stages.
1. The operating frequencies in FM are much higher IF amplifiers satisfy most of the gain (and hence
than in AM. sensitivity) and the bandwidth requirements of the
2. The FM demodulators are different from AM receiver.
detectors. Therefore the sensitivity and selectivity of this receiver
3. The method to obtain the AGC is different in FM do not change much with changes in the incoming
receivers. frequency.

4. The FM receivers need the circuits like limiter and Amplitude limiter :
de-emphasis.
The FM wave which is transmitted by the transmitter has
Operation: a constant amplitude. But while travelling, noise and

The FM signal transmitted by the transmitter travels other unwanted signals get added to it and change its

through the air and reaches the receiving antenna. amplitude.

This signal is in the form of electromagnetic waves. It These unwanted amplitude changes in the received FM

induces a very small voltage (few µV) into the receiving signal must be removed before the signal goes for

antenna. demodulation.

RF amplifier : Otherwise distortion appears in the demodulated signal

The RF stage is an amplifier which is used to select the as the demodulators react to amplitude changes as well

desired signal and reject other out of many, present at as frequency changes.

the antenna. The amplitude limiter will remove all the unwanted

It also reduces the effect of noise. At the output of the amplitude variations from the received signal and it is

RF amplifier we get the desired signal at frequency "f;'. always placed before the FM detector as shown in the
block diagram of Fig. 6.1.1.
Mixer:
Detector and AF amplifier :
The mixer receives signals from the RF amplifier at
frequency (f,) and from the local oscillator at frequency The amplified IF signal is detected by the detector to
(f0 ) such that f 0 > f, . recover the original modulating signal.

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 • PCS (Sem. 4 I E&Tc I SPPU)
'Ip 4-53 FM Transmission & Reception

This is then amplified and applied to the loudspeaker. This improvement is applicable to the interference from
adjacent channel as well.
Automatic Gain Control (AGC) :
That means the FM system will treat the adjacent
AGC means automatic gain control. This circuit controls

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channel interference as noise and will suppress it

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the gains of the RF and IF amplifiers automatically to
accordingly.

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maintain a constant output voltage level even when the

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There is one more re. ·0n for better adjacent channel
signal level at the receiver input is fluctuating.

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interference rejection of FM.
This is done by feeding a controlling de voltage to the
Out of the 200 kHz bandwidth allotted to each FM
RF and IF amplifiers. channel, only 180 kHz is actually utilised and the
The amplitude of this de voltage is proportional to the remaining 20 kHz is used as guard band as shown in
detector output. Fig. 4.20.1.
This improves the rejection of adjacent channel
4.19.1 FM Receiver with Waveforms :
interference.
Fig. 4.19.2 shows various stages of an FM receiver Channeln Channel (n+1) Channel (n+2) ....

alongwith the waveforms at different points.

Received FM Amplified FM. IF Amplified Amplitude fkHz

:•:: ::w;: C1fiNf/lJJilfi: (~Mrnuft variations i.-1so--! i.-1so--! i.-1ao--!

...V.Vl~l l~v No amplitude
l~oc 1;of;1
;'ii'., (D-702)
Guard bands

Fig. 4.20.1: FM system provides guardbands

for better rejection of adjacent channel interference

4.20.2 Co-Channel Interference (Capture

Effect) in FM Receivers : SRPU : Dec. 10

University Questions
Q. 1 Describe in detail capture effect. (Oec.10, 4 Marks)
(D-293) Fig. 4.19.2 : Waveforms at various points in The capture effect is observed in the mobile receivers
an FM receiver such as FM car radio or police wireless etc travelling
from one transmitter to the other.
4.20 Interferences in FM Systems :
Assume that this mobile receiver is at a location where it
In addition to noise, there are many other forms of is simultaneously receiving two signals, from two
interferences present in the radio receivers as follows : transmitters.

1. Image frequency. For an FM mobile receiver, until the signal from the
second transmitter is less than about half of that from
2. Transmitters operating on an adjacent channel.
the first transmitter, there is no interference.
3. Cochannel interference or capture effect. But as the signal from the second transmitter becomes
The first type of interference has been discussed earlier stronger than the first one.

and the remaining two in the following sections. We can clearly listen to it at the background of the first
transmitter.
4.20.1 Adjacent Channel Interference :
As the mobile receiver travels closer and closer to the
FM has got two advantages : First there is an second transmitter, the signal from it becomes stronger
improvement in the S/N ratio and second it gives a and predominates the signal from the first transmitter.
better protection against the other interfering signals.
Eventually only the second transmitter remains audiable,
With a deviation of 75 kHz and 75 µS pre-emphasis, the
and the first one is eliminated.
FM gives a far superior noise rejection than AM.

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 •
, , PCS (Sem. 4 I E&Tc / SPPU) 4-54 FM Transmission & Reception

It is then said that the moving transmitter has been Q. 17 Explain the Armstrong method of generating FM with
"captured" by the second transmitte1·. a neat block diagram and phasor diagrams.

Now assume that the receiver is roughly in the center Q. 18 Differentiate between FM and PM.

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zone of the two transmitters and fading is taking place, Q. 19 Write a short note on : Stereophonic FM.

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then the signals from the two transmitters would be Q. 20 Explain the difference between frequency and phase

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strong alternately. modulation, stating the definition of each type and

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the meaning of modulation index in each state.
Due to this the receiver will be "captured" alternately by
Q. 21 Write short note on Pre-emphasis and
the two transmitters.
De-emphasis.
The capture effect is observed when the two FM
Q. 22 Write short note on : Frequency Spectrum of FM
transmitters are operating at the same transmitter
wave.
frequency.
Q. 23 Distinguish between Narrowband and Wideband

I Review Questions I Q. 24
FM.
List different methods of FM generation. Sketch the
circuit and explain the principle of reactance
Q.1 Explain clearly the difference between phase
modulator. Why is direct modulation not preferred
modulation and frequency modulation.
for FM generation ?
Q. 2 Audio equalizer is essential in case of Armstrong
Q. 25 Explain the working principle of FM detection by :
method of FM generation.
Q. 3 Explain the direct method of FM generation 1. Ratio detector 2. Quadrature detector
(reactance modulator) Explain the working of any one type in detail.
Q.4 Justify FM is called a constant B.W. system. Q. 26 Explain briefly the working principle of FM detection.
Q. 5 Compare and contrast : Draw the circuit diagram and explain the operation
1. Frequency modulation and phase modulation. of ratio detector.
2. Wideband and narrowband FM Q. 27 Explain the ratio detector and why is it preferred
Q. 6 Explain what is noise triangle ? over Foster-Seeley detector.

Q. 7 Explain why heterodyning does not vary the Q. 28 Explain with a neat diagram phase discriminator
frequency deviation ratio of a FM signal but (Foster- Seeley).
frequency multiplication does. Q. 29 Compare and contrast : Phase discriminator and
Q. 8 True or False : Justify : In FM, low modulation index ratio detector.
means wideband transmission. Q. 30 State advantages of FM over AM. Why AM detector
Q. 9 Draw a block diagram of wideband FM transmitter principle is not suitable to demodulate FM signal ?
based on Armstrong method of FM generation. Q. 31 Explain the capture effect in FM.
Explain its operation. Q. 32 Why is the quality of FM reception superior to the
Q. 10 Explain the basic method of obtaining FM from PM. quality of AM reception ?
Q. 11 What is pre-emphasis ? Why is it used ? Sketch the Q. 33 With the help of block diagram explain the operation
circuit of pre-emphasis. Explain why de-emphasis of the FM receiver. Draw the waveform at different
must also be used. points.
Q. 12 Write short note on : AFC Q. 34 State the requirements of FM detector.
Q. 13 Write short note on : Varactor diode modulator. Q. 35 Explain the principle of slope detection and explain
Q. 14 Define FM and draw the necessary waveforms to the operation of the balanced slope detector.
explain it.
Q. 36 Explain zero crossing detector as frequency
Q. 15 Derive an equation for FM wave. demodulator.
Q. 16 Compare AM and FM. Q. 37 Explain FM detection using PLL.

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