SPORTS AND EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGY

Norman Triplett
• He performed a study in 1898, recently it is believed as the first research study in sport
psychology. He wrote what is now recognized to be first published study in the field of
social psychology.
• He noticed that cyclists racing against others in events were swifter than those who
participated alone for a time-trial, even when the gap was similar.

Coleman Griffith
• He is believed the founder of sport psychology, as the first researcher to study in the
field. He lectured a course called “Psychology and Athletics,” and in 1925, launched
the first research lab focusing on sport psychology matters.

What is Sports and Exercise Psychology?

Sports psychology
➢ Sports psychology is the study of how psychology influences sports, athletic
performance, exercise and physical activity
➢ Some sports psychologists work with professional athletes and coaches to improve
performance and increase motivation.
➢ An interdisciplinary science that draws on knowledge from many related fields
including biomechanics, psychology, kinesiology and psychology. It involves the
study of how psychological factors affect performance and how participation in
sports and exercise affect psychological factors and physical factors

Exercise Psychology
➢ A practice of human body which helps people to become more active, promising and
dauntless. It focuses much to the goal of health and well being, rather than performance.
It may use as legitimate interventions for some psychological disorders such as anxiety
and depression

PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS OF PERFORMANCE

➢ Awareness
➢ Focus / Concentration
➢ Anxiety
➢ Confidence
➢ Motivation

1. Awareness
➢ is the recognition of the need to do something to gain control. Moreover, it is the
first step to gaining control of any pressure situation. The athlete must “check-in” and
determine if the different aspects of his or her mental, emotional, and physical state
 need adjustment in order to give the best opportunity for success. checking-in
on the various aspects of one’s person helps to create awareness within the athlete, and
gives the person a foundation in which he or she can begin to optimize performance.

2. Focus / Concentration
➢ Concentration and attention are very important aspects of athletic performance.
There are two general ways to use concentration, and that is through either a
process focus or an outcome focus. A process focus involves directing one’s attention
to the act of completing a motion in the respective sport, while an outcome focus involves
directing one’s attention to an end product, or result. Both methods can be either
beneficial dangerous, depending on their use. It is important to use both, and the key
is the timing in which they are implemented.

3. Anxiety
➢ Anxiety is defined as an unpleasant emotional state. This construct can be divided
into two basic sections: state anxiety and trait anxiety. State anxiety is specific
to a certain situation or environment, while trait anxiety is specific to a certain
person or team, regardless of the situation. Think of state anxiety as something
that happens periodically (but not randomly) and trait anxiety as something that
always happens, no matter the environment. Too much or too little of either can
negatively affect performance.

4. Confidence
➢ Confidence is a result of how one thinks, what one focuses on, and how one reacts
to the events in one’s life. Most of all, a decision to not be bound by a fear of failure
will allow an athlete to put total effort into the present task. Failure has the natural
consequence to judge and classify based on “worthiness.” Successful athletes have
a tendency to ignore the natural consequences of failure and focus on his or her specific
job at the present moment.

5. Motivation
➢ Motivation is a key psychological factor of sport performance. Motivation
influences the amount of effort expended, the ability to bounce-back after
setbacks, how long an athlete will endure long and/or difficult training periods, and
actual competition results. The good news is that motivation is the factor over which
athletes have the most control.

Enhancing athletic performance

➢ Performance Routines
➢ Goal Setting
➢ Imagery / Visualization “Seeing is Believing”
➢ Positive Self-talk
➢ Relaxation Techniques
➢ Coping with Adversity
➢ Focusing
Performance Routines
➢ Sequence of task relevant thoughts and actions which an athlete engages in
systematically prior to his or her performance of a specific sport skill.

Goal Setting
It provides:
Motivation Commitment Direction
Examples:
ž Short-term goal: Training four times per week for the next six weeks
ž Long-term goal: Representing Slovakia in the next Olympic games.

Imagery / Visualization “Seeing is Believing”

- Visualization is the mental rehearsal technique which involves the athletes
creating a picture in their minds. This may be either an internal or external picture.
- In order for visualization to work effectively, the person must firstly, believe that
the strategy is effective and secondly that it is a skill which requires practices,
patience and time. “Seeing is believing”.

Positive Self-talk
- Internal dialogue. It’s influenced by subconscious mind, and it’ reveals your
thoughts, beliefs, questions and ideas

Relaxation Techniques
➢ Meditations
➢ Breathings
➢ Yoga
➢ Repetitive Prayer
➢ Guided Imagery

Coping with Adversity

- It means that effectively deals with a very difficult situation, either work, work
around problems in a way that keeps your life in balance

Focusing
- It can be used in any kind of therapeutic situations, including peer to peer
sessions, non-judging attention to an internal knowing which is directly experienced
but is not yet in words
HISTORY
PSYCHOLOGY
GREEK
- Psyche means “mind or spirit”
- Logos means “sayings or speaking of”
- Literally means “speaking of the mind”
Definitions of Psychology
- William James (1890): “The science of mental life”
- Current Definition: “The study of behavior”
Scope of Discipline
- from animals to humans
- from nerve cells to attitudes and personality
ACADEMIC ORIGINS OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY

Sports psychology has two main objectives are:

1) To understand how psychological factors, influence physical performance;
2) To understand how participation in sport affects psychological development

Roles of Sports Psychologists

RESEARCH
- Inquiry aimed at advancing knowledge and sharing it through professional meetings
and journal articles
TEACHING
- Teaching university courses in either psychology or exercise and sports science
CONSULTING
- Working with athletes of all ages and abilities in the fitness industry and sports
medicine and physical therapy

SPORT AND EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGIST

- Assess client that needs and abilities and monitor sporting performance and
behaviour. Also implement strategies to help clients overcome difficulties, improve
performance, or realize potential

Two types of Sports Psychologists

1. Clinical sports psychologists
Are on the front line in the treatment of the mental health problem
- Trained as clinical or counseling psychologists (i.e., licensed by state)
- CSPs deal with clients who have some type of psychological problem (i.e.,
neuroses & psychoses),
- Their goal is to help person function normally in daily life by overcoming
psychological problem(s)
- Therapy often lasts months, and even years, using intense, one-on-one
psychotherapy sessions to identify and correct problems (i.e., psychoanalysis)

2. Educational Sport Psychologists

Educate and increase athletes’ and coaches’ awareness of issues such as anxiety
management and confidence development
- Trained in sport/exercise science programs to teach “mental skills,”
- Deal with clients who are psychologically normal but have to perform in ultra intense,
pressure-packed situations (i.e., Superbowl, Olympics, Masters or Wimbleton),
- ESPs are “mental coaches” whose goal is to help athletes develop “super normal”
mental skills necessary to (a) perform optimally in challenging situations, (b)
experience personal highlights and (c) develop to their full potential
Sport and Exercise Psychology as an Art and Science
- The science of coaching job, teaching, or leadership focuses on victimization general
scientific principles. The art of coaching job, teaching, or leadership has known once,
and the way to individualize these general principles. Discourse intelligence is vital

THREE APPROACHES TO SPORT AND EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGY

1. Psycho physiological Orientation
Examines underlying psycho physiological processes of the brain in terms of primary
causes of behaviour. (Example: a training program to trained marksmen)
2. Social–Psychological Orientation
Behaviour is set by a complex interaction of the social atmosphere and therefore the
personal composition of the participant or sports equipment. (Example: however, a leader’s
vogue and methods foster cluster cohesion)
3. Cognitive–Behavioural Orientation
Behaviour is set by each atmosphere and thoughts (cognitions). (Example: finding out
variations in confidence and anxiety among court game players with or while not burnout)

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

ETHICAL STANDARDS FOR SPORT AND EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGISTS
1. Competence. Maintain the absolute best standards in your work and acknowledge the
bounds of your experience
2. Integrity. Clarify roles and do not incorrectly advertise
3. Skilled and scientific responsibility. Continually places the interests of purchasers
5. Concern for the welfare of others. Continually contributes to the welfare of these with
whom you are employed
4. Respect for people’s rights and dignity. Respect such basic rights as privacy and
confidentiality among purchasers
6. Social responsibility. Contribute to information and human welfare,
whereas, continually protective participants’ interests

SPORTS AND PERSONALITY

Personality
- It is the sum of the characteristics that make a person unique. The study of
Personality helps us work better with students, athletes, and exercisers

STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY
Psychological Core
- Most Basic or deepest level of Your attitudes, Values, interests, motives, and beliefs
yourself & Self-worth. Example: A person’s Religious values
Typical Responses
- The ways we each learn to adjust or respond to the Environment Example: Might be
happy, Go-lucky, Shy,
Role Related Behaviour
- How you act based on what you perceive your social situation. Example: Behaviour as
a Student/ Athlete, Teacher, Coach, and Parents

Five Major Ways of Studying Personality in Sports & Exercise

The Psychodynamic Approach
- The personality is characterized by two themes (Cox-1998)
- First, its places emphasis on unconscious determinants of behaviour (the super-ego)
- Second, this approach focuses on understanding the person as a whole rather than
identifying isolated traits or dispositions
Trait Approach
- Behaviour is determined by relatively stable traits that are a fundamental unit of
personality
- These Traits predispose one to act in a certain way, regardless of the situations
Situational Approach
- Behaviour is determined largely by the situation or environment. This situation is a
more important determinant of behaviour then particular personality traits. You
might act confident for instance, in one situation but tentative in another situation.
If you are introverted and shy, you still might act assertively or even aggressively if
you see someone getting mugged (inside the match or outside the match) like
football and Cricket players
Interactional Approach
- Behaviour is determined by both the person and the situational factors as well as by
their interaction. The majority of contemporary sports and exercise psychologist
favour the interactional approach
Phenomenological Approach
- Behaviour is best determined by accounting for both situations and personal
characteristics. A person understanding and interpretations of you and environment
are critical
Behaviour patterns
It is associated with cardiovascular disease and appears to be altered via exercise.
Exercise and increased fitness appear to be associated with increases in self-esteem
especially in individuals with low self-esteem

Cognitive Strategies and Mental Strategies

- Cognitive strategies reflect the behaviour aspect of personality and interact with
personality characteristics
- Cognitive strategies are related to superior performance in elite sport
Motivation
➢ Internal drive or neural process that arouses and directs behavior
➢ Is considered with the arousal of the interest in learning and to that extend, is basic
to learning. (Crow and Crow)
➢ Motivation is the central factor in the effective management of the process of
learning. Some types of motivation must be present in learning. ( Kelley)
TWO DIMENSIONS OF MOTIVATION
⚫ Direction aspect that affects choices about time and commitment to exercise and
other program goals
⚫ Intensity with which choices are pursued
REINFORCEMENT
+ Reinforcement increases the likelihood that a target or operant behavior will be
repeated
+ Positive reinforcement gives something to a client/athlete in response to a behavior
(e.g., social approval or congratulations on a good workout)
+ Negative reinforcement takes something away from a client/athlete in response to
a behavior (something aversive is removed or taken away to reward behavior such as
not requiring clients or athletes to rack their plates after a good workout is completed)
PUNISHMENT
+ Punishment decreases the likelihood that a target or operant behavior will be
repeated
+ Positive punishment involves presentation of something aversive such as criticism
of a client for poor exercise techniques
+ Negative punishment involves removal of something in order to decrease the
likelihood of a behavior such as removal of a privilege because of poor exercise
techniques or failure to reach a goal
SELF DETERMINATION or INTERNALIZATION
+ Intrinsic motivation - engaging in a behavior for the sense of enjoyment derived for
it; true love for the experience of exercise a sense of fun during its performance
+ Extrinsic motivation - engaged in a behavior to achieve another goal or outcome;
desire to be engaged in a behavior to get an external reward
+ Intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation lies on a continuum
+ Intrinsic motivation typically results in greater exercise adherence
+ Important to know where a client or athlete falls on the continuum of motivation

Major Points on the Continuum from External to Internal Motivation of a

Client/Athlete
➢ Amotivation - total lack of motivation
➢ External regulation - engagement in a behavior to avoid punishment
➢ Introjected regulation - engagement in exercise as a means to a valued end
➢ Identified regulation - follows trainer’s leadership because it is perceived as
beneficial instead of personally initiating exercise behavior
➢ Integrated regulation - personally values exercise behavior, internalizes it, and
freely engages in it; client/athlete and trainer agree on the goals of the client

Effects of Reward
+ External rewards can play a role in increasing intrinsic motivation and exercise
adherence
+ Rewards can also reduce intrinsic motivation if they are “controlling”
+ Rewards can be viewed as “controlling” if the recipient perceives a contingency or
connection between the behavior and the reward; removal of the reward may
decrease the likelihood of the intended behavior occurring
When to Intervene with Motivational Efforts
+ The transtheoretical model helps identify the stage of readiness for exercise
participation
+ By identifying a client’s or athlete’s stage of readiness, the trainer can apply the
appropriate processes for change or interventions in order to move the client or
athlete to the next level with the ultimate goals of action and maintenance

Stage of Readiness of a client / athlete

+ Precontemplation - no thought or intention of becoming physically active
+ Contemplation - thinks about and intends to become physically active; not
physically active yet
+ Preparation - accumulates 30 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity one
day per week
+ Action - accumulates 30 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity five or more
days per week, but has done so for less than six months
+ Maintenance - accumulates 30 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity five
or more days per week for more than six months

Self-Efficacy: Building Confidence

+ Performance accomplishments or successful performance of a behavior
+ Modeling effects or observing others perform a target behavior enhances imitative
behavior
+ Verbal persuasion from a respected source
+ Before or during exercise physiological arousal/self-belief can increase self-efficacy
whereas anxiety/disbelief can decrease self-efficacy
+ Achieving success has more impact than anything else on raising self-efficacy