Epistemology

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that examines the nature, origin, and limits of knowledge. Also
called theory of knowledge, it explores different types of knowledge, such as propositional knowledge
about facts, practical knowledge in the form of skills, and knowledge by acquaintance as a familiarity
through experience. Epistemologists study the concepts of belief, truth, and justification to understand the
nature of knowledge. To discover how knowledge arises, they investigate sources of justification, such as
perception, introspection, memory, reason, and testimony.

The school of skepticism questions the human ability to attain knowledge while fallibilism says that
knowledge is never certain. Empiricists hold that all knowledge comes from sense experience, whereas
rationalists believe that some knowledge does not depend on it. Coherentists argue that a belief is
justified if it coheres with other beliefs. Foundationalists, by contrast, maintain that the justification of
basic beliefs does not depend on other beliefs. Internalism and externalism disagree about whether
justification is determined solely by mental states or also by external circumstances.

Separate branches of epistemology are dedicated to knowledge found in specific fields, like scientific,
mathematical, moral, and religious knowledge. Naturalized epistemology relies on empirical methods and
discoveries, whereas formal epistemology uses formal tools from logic. Social epistemology investigates
the communal aspect of knowledge and historical epistemology examines its historical conditions.
Epistemology is closely related to psychology, which describes the beliefs people hold, while
epistemology studies the norms governing the evaluation of beliefs. It also intersects with fields such as
decision theory, education, and anthropology.

Early reflections on the nature, sources, and scope of knowledge are found in ancient Greek, Indian, and
Chinese philosophy. The relation between reason and faith was a central topic in the medieval period. The
modern era was characterized by the contrasting perspectives of empiricism and rationalism.
Epistemologists in the 20th century examined the components, structure, and value of knowledge while
integrating insights from the natural sciences and linguistics.

Definition
Epistemology is the philosophical study of knowledge. Also called theory of knowledge,[a] it examines
what knowledge is and what types of knowledge there are. It further investigates the sources of
knowledge, like perception, inference, and testimony, to determine how knowledge is created. Another
topic is the extent and limits of knowledge, confronting questions about what people can and cannot
know.[2] Other central concepts include belief, truth, justification, evidence, and reason.[3] Epistemology
is one of the main branches of philosophy besides fields like ethics, logic, and metaphysics.[4] The term is
also used in a slightly different sense to refer not to the branch of philosophy but to the positions of
particular philosophers within that branch, as in Plato's epistemology and Immanuel Kant's
epistemology.[5]
As a normative field of inquiry, epistemology explores how people should acquire beliefs. It determines
which beliefs or forms of belief acquisition fulfill the standards or epistemic goals of knowledge and
which ones fail, thereby providing an evaluation of beliefs. Descriptive fields of inquiry, like psychology
and cognitive sociology, are also interested in beliefs and related cognitive processes. Unlike
epistemology, they study the beliefs people have and how people acquire them instead of examining the
evaluative norms of these processes.[6][b] Epistemology is relevant to many descriptive and normative
disciplines, such as the other branches of philosophy and the sciences, by exploring the principles of how
they may arrive at knowledge.[9]

The word epistemology comes from the ancient Greek terms ἐπιστήμη (episteme, meaning knowledge or
understanding) and λόγος (logos, meaning study of or reason), literally, the study of knowledge. The
word was only coined in the 19th century to label this field and conceive it as a distinct branch of
philosophy.[10][c]

Central concepts
Epistemologists examine several foundational concepts to understand their essences and rely on them to
formulate theories. Various epistemological disagreements have their roots in disputes about the nature
and function of these concepts, like the controversies surrounding the definition of knowledge and the
role of justification in it.[15]

Knowledge
Knowledge is an awareness, familiarity, understanding, or skill. Its various forms all involve a cognitive
success through which a person establishes epistemic contact with reality.[16] Epistemologists typically
understand knowledge as an aspect of individuals, generally as a cognitive mental state that helps them
understand, interpret, and interact with the world. While this core sense is of particular interest to
epistemologists, the term also has other meanings. For example, the epistemology of groups examines
knowledge as a characteristic of a group of people that share ideas.[17] The term can also refer to
information stored in documents and computers.[18]

Knowledge contrasts with ignorance, which is often simply defined as the absence of knowledge.
Knowledge is usually accompanied by ignorance since people rarely have complete knowledge of a field,
forcing them to rely on incomplete or uncertain information when making decisions.[19] Even though
many forms of ignorance can be mitigated through education and research, there are certain limits to
human understanding that are responsible for inevitable ignorance.[20] Some limitations are inherent in
the human cognitive faculties themselves, such as the inability to know facts too complex for the human
mind to conceive.[21] Others depend on external circumstances when no access to the relevant
information exists.[22]

Epistemologists disagree on how much people know, for example, whether fallible beliefs can amount to
knowledge or whether absolute certainty is required. The most stringent position is taken by radical
skeptics, who argue that there is no knowledge at all.[23]

Types
Epistemologists distinguish between different types of knowledge.[25]
Their primary interest is in knowledge of facts, called propositional
knowledge.[26] It is a theoretical knowledge that can be expressed in
declarative sentences using a that-clause, like "Ravi knows that
kangaroos hop". For this reason, it is also called knowledge-that.[27][d]
Epistemologists often understand it as a relation between a knower and a
known proposition, in the case above between the person Ravi and the
proposition "kangaroos hop".[28] It is use-independent since it is not tied
to one specific purpose. It is a mental representation that relies on
concepts and ideas to depict reality.[29] Because of its theoretical nature,
it is often held that only relatively sophisticated creatures, such as
humans, possess propositional knowledge.[30]

Propositional knowledge contrasts with non-propositional knowledge in The distinction between

the form of knowledge-how and knowledge by acquaintance.[31] propositional knowledge and
Knowledge-how is a practical ability or skill, like knowing how to read knowledge by acquaintance
or how to prepare lasagna.[32] It is usually tied to a specific goal and not plays a central role in the
epistemology of Bertrand
mastered in the abstract without concrete practice.[33] To know
Russell.[24]
something by acquaintance means to be familiar with it as a result of
experiental contact. Examples are knowing the city of Perth, knowing
the taste of tsampa, and knowing Marta Vieira da Silva personally.[34]

Another influential distinction in epistemology is between a posteriori and a priori knowledge.[35] A

posteriori knowledge is knowledge of empirical facts based on sensory experience, like seeing that the
sun is shining and smelling that a piece of meat has gone bad.[36] Knowledge belonging to the empirical
science and knowledge of everyday affairs belongs to a posteriori knowledge. A priori knowledge is
knowledge of non-empirical facts and does not depend on evidence from sensory experience. It belongs
to fields such as mathematics and logic, like knowing that .[37] The contrast between a
posteriori and a priori knowledge plays a central role in the debate between empiricists and rationalists
on whether all knowledge depends on sensory experience.[38]

A closely related contrast is between analytic and synthetic truths. A

sentence is analytically true if its truth depends only on the meaning of
the words it uses. For instance, the sentence "all bachelors are
unmarried" is analytically true because the word "bachelor" already
includes the meaning "unmarried". A sentence is synthetically true if its
truth depends on additional facts. For example, the sentence "snow is
white" is synthetically true because its truth depends on the color of
snow in addition to the meanings of the words snow and white. A priori
knowledge is primarily associated with analytic sentences while a
posteriori knowledge is primarily associated with synthetic sentences.
However, it is controversial whether this is true for all cases. Some The analytic–synthetic
philosophers, such as Willard Van Orman Quine, reject the distinction, distinction has its roots in the
saying that there are no analytic truths.[40] philosophy of Immanuel
Kant.[39]

Analysis
The analysis of knowledge is the attempt to identify the essential components or conditions of all and
only propositional knowledge states. According to the so-called traditional analysis,[e] knowledge has
three components: it is a belief that is justified and true.[42] In the second half of the 20th century, this
view was put into doubt by a series of thought experiments that aimed to show that some justified true
beliefs do not amount to knowledge.[43] In one of them, a person is unaware of all the fake barns in their
area. By coincidence, they stop in front of the only real barn and form a justified true belief that it is a real
barn.[44] Many epistemologists agree that this is not knowledge because the justification is not directly
relevant to the truth.[45] More specifically, this and similar counterexamples involve some form of
epistemic luck, that is, a cognitive success that results from fortuitous circumstances rather than
competence.[46]

Following these thought experiments, philosophers proposed

various alternative definitions of knowledge by modifying or
expanding the traditional analysis.[48] According to one view, the
known fact has to cause the belief in the right way.[49] Another
theory states that the belief is the product of a reliable belief
formation process.[50] Further approaches require that the person
would not have the belief if it was false,[51] that the belief is not
inferred from a falsehood,[52] that the justification cannot be
The so-called traditional analysis
undermined,[53] or that the belief is infallible.[54] There is no says that knowledge is justified true
consensus on which of the proposed modifications and belief. Edmund Gettier tried to show
reconceptualizations is correct.[55] Some philosophers, such as that some justified true beliefs do
Timothy Williamson, reject the basic assumption underlying the not amount to knowledge.[47]
analysis of knowledge by arguing that propositional knowledge is
a unique state that cannot be dissected into simpler
components.[56]

Value
The value of knowledge is the worth it holds by expanding understanding and guiding action. Knowledge
can have instrumental value by helping a person achieve their goals.[57] For example, knowledge of a
disease helps a doctor cure their patient, and knowledge of when a job interview starts helps a candidate
arrive on time.[58] The usefulness of a known fact depends on the circumstances. Knowledge of some
facts may have little to no uses, like memorizing random phone numbers from an outdated phone
book.[59] Being able to assess the value of knowledge matters in choosing what information to acquire
and transmit to others. It affects decisions like which subjects to teach at school and how to allocate funds
to research projects.[60]

Of particular interest to epistemologists is the question of whether knowledge is more valuable than a
mere opinion that is true.[61] Knowledge and true opinion often have a similar usefulness since both are
accurate representations of reality. For example, if a person wants to go to Larissa, a true opinion about
how to get there may help them in the same way as knowledge does.[62] Plato already considered this
problem and suggested that knowledge is better because it is more stable.[63] Another suggestion focuses
on practical reasoning. It proposes that people put more trust in knowledge than in mere true beliefs when
drawing conclusions and deciding what to do.[64] A different response says that knowledge has intrinsic
value, meaning that it is good in itself independent of its usefulness.[65]

Belief and truth

Beliefs are mental states about what is the case, like believing that snow is white or that God exists.[66] In
epistemology, they are often understood as subjective attitudes that affirm or deny a proposition, which
can be expressed in a declarative sentence. For instance, to believe that snow is white is to affirm the
proposition "snow is white". According to this view, beliefs are representations of what the world is like.
They are kept in memory and can be retrieved when actively thinking about reality or when deciding how
to act.[67] A different view understands beliefs as behavioral patterns or dispositions to act rather than as
representational items stored in the mind. This view says that to believe that there is mineral water in the
fridge is nothing more than a group of dispositions related to mineral water and the fridge. Examples are
the dispositions to answer questions about the presence of mineral water affirmatively and to go to the
fridge when thirsty.[68] Some theorists deny the existence of beliefs, saying that this concept borrowed
from folk psychology is an oversimplification of much more complex psychological processes.[69]
Beliefs play a central role in various epistemological debates, which cover their status as a component of
propositional knowledge, the question of whether people have control over and are responsible for their
beliefs, and the issue of whether there are degrees of beliefs, called credences.[70]

As propositional attitudes, beliefs are true or false depending on whether they affirm a true or a false
proposition.[71] According to the correspondence theory of truth, to be true means to stand in the right
relation to the world by accurately describing what it is like. This means that truth is objective: a belief is
true if it corresponds to a fact.[72] The coherence theory of truth says that a belief is true if it belongs to a
coherent system of beliefs. A result of this view is that truth is relative since it depends on other
beliefs.[73] Further theories of truth include pragmatist, semantic, pluralist, and deflationary theories.[74]
Truth plays a central role in epistemology as a goal of cognitive processes and a component of
propositional knowledge.[75]

Justification
In epistemology, justification is a property of beliefs that fulfill certain norms about what a person should
believe.[76] According to a common view, this means that the person has sufficient reasons for holding
this belief because they have information that supports it.[76] Another view states that a belief is justified
if it is formed by a reliable belief formation process, such as perception.[77] The terms reasonable,
warranted, and supported are closely related to the idea of justification and are sometimes used as
synonyms.[78] Justification is what distinguishes justified beliefs from superstition and lucky guesses.[79]
However, justification does not guarantee truth. For example, if a person has strong but misleading
evidence, they may form a justified belief that is false.[80]

Epistemologists often identify justification as one component of knowledge.[81] Usually, they are not only
interested in whether a person has a sufficient reason to hold a belief, known as propositional
justification, but also in whether the person holds the belief because or based on[f] this reason, known as
doxastic justification. For example, if a person has sufficient reason to believe that a neighborhood is
dangerous but forms this belief based on superstition then they have propositional justification but lack
doxastic justification.[83]

Sources
Sources of justification are ways or cognitive capacities through which people acquire justification.
Often-discussed sources include perception, introspection, memory, reason, and testimony, but there is no
universal agreement to what extent they all provide valid justification.[84] Perception relies on sensory
organs to gain empirical information. There are various forms of perception corresponding to different
physical stimuli, such as visual, auditory, haptic, olfactory, and gustatory perception.[85] Perception is not
merely the reception of sense impressions but an active process that selects, organizes, and interprets
sensory signals.[86] Introspection is a closely related process focused not on external physical objects but
on internal mental states. For example, seeing a bus at a bus station belongs to perception while feeling
tired belongs to introspection.[87]

Rationalists understand reason as a source of justification for non-empirical facts. It is often used to
explain how people can know about mathematical, logical, and conceptual truths. Reason is also
responsible for inferential knowledge, in which one or several beliefs are used as premises to support
another belief.[88] Memory depends on information provided by other sources, which it retains and
recalls, like remembering a phone number perceived earlier.[89] Justification by testimony relies on
information one person communicates to another person. This can happen by talking to each other but
can also occur in other forms, like a letter, a newspaper, and a blog.[90]

Other concepts
Rationality is closely related to justification and the terms rational belief and justified belief are
sometimes used as synonyms. However, rationality has a wider scope that encompasses both a theoretical
side, covering beliefs, and a practical side, covering decisions, intentions, and actions.[91] There are
different conceptions about what it means for something to be rational. According to one view, a mental
state is rational if it is based on or responsive to good reasons. Another view emphasizes the role of
coherence, stating that rationality requires that the different mental states of a person are consistent and
support each other.[92] A slightly different approach holds that rationality is about achieving certain goals.
Two goals of theoretical rationality are accuracy and comprehensiveness, meaning that a person has as
few false beliefs and as many true beliefs as possible.[93]

Epistemic norms are criteria to assess the cognitive quality of beliefs, like their justification and
rationality. Epistemologists distinguish between deontic norms, which are prescriptions about what
people should believe or which beliefs are correct, and axiological norms, which identify the goals and
values of beliefs.[94] Epistemic norms are closely related to intellectual or epistemic virtues, which are
character traits like open-mindedness and conscientiousness. Epistemic virtues help individuals form true
beliefs and acquire knowledge. They contrast with epistemic vices and act as foundational concepts of
virtue epistemology.[95]

Evidence for a belief is information that favors or supports it. Epistemologists understand evidence
primarily in terms of mental states, for example, as sensory impressions or as other propositions that a
person knows. But in a wider sense, it can also include physical objects, like bloodstains examined by
forensic analysts or financial records studied by investigative journalists.[96] Evidence is often understood
in terms of probability: evidence for a belief makes it more likely that the belief is true.[97] A defeater is
evidence against a belief or evidence that undermines another piece of evidence. For instance, witness
testimony connecting a suspect to a crime is evidence for their guilt while an alibi is a defeater.[98]
Evidentialists analyze justification in terms of evidence by saying that to be justified, a belief needs to
rest on adequate evidence.[99]

The presence of evidence usually affects doubt and certainty, which are subjective attitudes toward
propositions that differ regarding their level of confidence. Doubt involves questioning the validity or
truth of a proposition. Certainty, by contrast, is a strong affirmative conviction, meaning that the person is
free of doubt that the proposition is true. In epistemology, doubt and certainty play central roles in
attempts to find a secure foundation of all knowledge and in skeptical projects aiming to establish that no
belief is immune to doubt.[100]

While propositional knowledge is the main topic in epistemology, some theorists focus on understanding
rather than knowledge. Understanding is a more holistic notion that involves a wider grasp of a subject.
To understand something, a person requires awareness of how different things are connected and why
they are the way they are. For example, knowledge of isolated facts memorized from a textbook does not
amount to understanding. According to one view, understanding is a special epistemic good that, unlike
knowledge, is always intrinsically valuable.[101] Wisdom is similar in this regard and is sometimes
considered the highest epistemic good. It encompasses a reflective understanding with practical
applications. It helps people grasp and evaluate complex situations and lead a good life.[102]

Schools of thought

Skepticism, fallibilism, and relativism

Philosophical skepticism questions the human ability to arrive at knowledge. Some skeptics limit their
criticism to certain domains of knowledge. For example, religious skeptics say that it is impossible to
have certain knowledge about the existence of deities or other religious doctrines. Similarly, moral
skeptics challenge the existence of moral knowledge and metaphysical skeptics say that humans cannot
know ultimate reality.[103]

Global skepticism is the widest form of skepticism, asserting that there is no knowledge in any
domain.[104] In ancient philosophy, this view was accepted by academic skeptics while Pyrrhonian
skeptics recommended the suspension of belief to achieve a state of tranquility.[105] Overall, not many
epistemologists have explicitly defended global skepticism. The influence of this position derives mainly
from attempts by other philosophers to show that their theory overcomes the challenge of skepticism. For
example, René Descartes used methodological doubt to find facts that cannot be doubted.[106]

One consideration in favor of global skepticism is the dream argument. It starts from the observation that,
while people are dreaming, they are usually unaware of this. This inability to distinguish between dream
and regular experience is used to argue that there is no certain knowledge since a person can never be
sure that they are not dreaming.[107][g] Some critics assert that global skepticism is a self-refuting idea
because denying the existence of knowledge is itself a knowledge claim. Another objection says that the
abstract reasoning leading to skepticism is not convincing enough to overrule common sense.[109]
Fallibilism is another response to skepticism.[110] Fallibilists agree with skeptics that absolute certainty is
impossible. Most fallibilists disagree with skeptics about the existence of knowledge, saying that there is
knowledge since it does not require absolute certainty.[111] They emphasize the need to keep an open and
inquisitive mind since doubt can never be fully excluded, even for well-established knowledge claims
like thoroughly tested scientific theories.[112]

Epistemic relativism is a related view. It does not question the existence of knowledge in general but
rejects the idea that there are universal epistemic standards or absolute principles that apply equally to
everyone. This means that what a person knows depends on the subjective criteria or social conventions
used to assess epistemic status.[113]

Empiricism and rationalism

The debate between empiricism
and rationalism centers on the
origins of human knowledge.
Empiricism emphasizes that sense
experience is the primary source
of all knowledge. Some
empiricists express this view by
stating that the mind is a blank
slate that only develops ideas
about the external world through
the sense data it receives from the
John Locke and David Hume shaped the philosophy of empiricism.[114]
sensory organs. According to
them, the mind can arrive at
various additional insights by comparing impressions, combining them, generalizing to arrive at more
abstract ideas, and deducing new conclusions from them. Empiricists say that all these mental operations
depend on material from the senses and do not function on their own.[115]

Even though rationalists usually accept sense experience as one source of knowledge,[h] they also say that
important forms of knowledge come directly from reason without sense experience,[117] like knowledge
of mathematical and logical truths.[118] According to some rationalists, the mind possesses inborn ideas
which it can access without the help of the senses. Others hold that there is an additional cognitive
faculty, sometimes called rational intuition, through which people acquire nonempirical knowledge.[119]
Some rationalists limit their discussion to the origin of concepts, saying that the mind relies on inborn
categories to understand the world and organize experience.[117]

Foundationalism and coherentism

Foundationalists and coherentists disagree about the structure of knowledge.[120][i] Foundationalism
distinguishes between basic and non-basic beliefs. A belief is basic if it is justified directly, meaning that
its validity does not depend on the support of other beliefs.[j] A belief is non-basic if it is justified by
another belief.[123] For example, the belief that it rained last night is a non-basic belief if it is inferred
from the observation that the street is wet.[124] According to foundationalism, basic beliefs are the
foundation on which all other knowledge is built while non-basic beliefs constitute the superstructure
resting on this foundation.[123]
Coherentists reject the distinction between basic and non-basic beliefs, saying that the justification of any
belief depends on other beliefs. They assert that a belief must be in tune with other beliefs to amount to
knowledge. This is the case if the beliefs are consistent and support each other. According to coherentism,
justification is a holistic aspect determined by the whole system of beliefs, which resembles an
interconnected web.[125]

The view of foundherentism is an intermediary position combining elements of both foundationalism and
coherentism. It accepts the distinction between basic and non-basic beliefs while asserting that the
justification of non-basic beliefs depends on coherence with other beliefs.[126]

Infinitism presents another approach to the structure of knowledge. It agrees with coherentism that there
are no basic beliefs while rejecting the view that beliefs can support each other in a circular manner.
Instead, it argues that beliefs form infinite justification chains, in which each link of the chain supports
the belief following it and is supported by the belief preceding it.[127]

Internalism and externalism

The disagreement between internalism and externalism is about
the sources of justification.[129][k] Internalists say that justification
depends only on factors within the individual. Examples of such
factors include perceptual experience, memories, and the
possession of other beliefs. This view emphasizes the importance
of the cognitive perspective of the individual in the form of their
mental states. It is commonly associated with the idea that the
relevant factors are accessible, meaning that the individual can
become aware of their reasons for holding a justified belief
through introspection and reflection.[131]

Externalism rejects this view, saying that at least some relevant

factors are external to the individual. This means that the cognitive
perspective of the individual is less central while other factors,
specifically the relation to truth, become more important.[131] For Alvin Goldman was an influential
instance, when considering the belief that a cup of coffee stands defender of externalism.[128]
on the table, externalists are not only interested in the perceptual
experience that led to this belief but also consider the quality of
the person's eyesight, their ability to differentiate coffee from other beverages, and the circumstances
under which they observed the cup.[132]

Evidentialism is an influential internalist view. It says that justification depends on the possession of
evidence.[133] In this context, evidence for a belief is any information in the individual's mind that
supports the belief. For example, the perceptual experience of rain is evidence for the belief that it is
raining. Evidentialists have suggested various other forms of evidence, including memories, intuitions,
and other beliefs.[134] According to evidentialism, a belief is justified if the individual's evidence supports
the belief and they hold the belief on the basis of this evidence.[135]

Reliabilism is an externalist theory asserting that a reliable connection between belief and truth is
required for justification.[136] Some reliabilists explain this in terms of reliable processes. According to
this view, a belief is justified if it is produced by a reliable belief-formation process, like perception. A
belief-formation process is reliable if most of the beliefs it causes are true. A slightly different view
focuses on beliefs rather than belief-formation processes, saying that a belief is justified if it is a reliable
indicator of the fact it presents. This means that the belief tracks the fact: the person believes it because it
is a fact but would not believe it otherwise.[137]

Virtue epistemology is another type of externalism and is sometimes understood as a form of reliabilism.
It says that a belief is justified if it manifests intellectual virtues. Intellectual virtues are capacities or traits
that perform cognitive functions and help people form true beliefs. Suggested examples include faculties
like vision, memory, and introspection.[138]

Others
In the epistemology of perception, direct and indirect realists disagree about the connection between the
perceiver and the perceived object. Direct realists say that this connection is direct, meaning that there is
no difference between the object present in perceptual experience and the physical object causing this
experience. According to indirect realism, the connection is indirect since there are mental entities, like
ideas or sense data, that mediate between the perceiver and the external world. The contrast between
direct and indirect realism is important for explaining the nature of illusions.[139]

Constructivism in epistemology is the theory that how people view the world is not a simple reflection of
external reality but an invention or a social construction. This view emphasizes the creative role of
interpretation while undermining objectivity since social constructions may differ from society to
society.[140]

According to contrastivism, knowledge is a comparative term, meaning that to know something involves
distinguishing it from relevant alternatives. For example, if a person spots a bird in the garden, they may
know that it is a sparrow rather than an eagle but they may not know that it is a sparrow rather than an
indistinguishable sparrow hologram.[141]

Epistemic conservatism is a view about belief revision. It gives preference to the beliefs a person already
has, asserting that a person should only change their beliefs if they have a good reason to. One motivation
for adopting epistemic conservatism is that the cognitive resources of humans are limited, meaning that it
is not feasible to constantly reexamine every belief.[142]

Pragmatist epistemology is a form of fallibilism that emphasizes the close relation between knowing and
acting. It sees the pursuit of knowledge as an ongoing process guided by common sense and experience
while always open to revision.[143]

Bayesian epistemology is a formal approach based on the idea that people have degrees of belief
representing how certain they are. It uses probability theory to define norms of rationality that govern
how certain people should be about their beliefs.[144]

Phenomenological epistemology emphasizes the importance of first-person experience. It distinguishes

between the natural and the phenomenological attitudes. The natural attitude focuses on objects belonging
to common sense and natural science. The phenomenological attitude focuses on the experience of
objects and aims to provide a presuppositionless description of how objects appear to the observer.[145]
Particularism and generalism disagree about the right method of conducting epistemological research.
Particularists start their inquiry by looking at specific cases. For example, to find a definition of
knowledge, they rely on their intuitions about concrete instances of knowledge and particular thought
experiments. They use these observations as methodological constraints that any theory of more general
principles needs to follow. Generalists proceed in the opposite direction. They give preference to general
epistemic principles, saying that it is not possible to accurately identify and describe specific cases
without a grasp of these principles.[146] Other methods in contemporary epistemology aim to extract
philosophical insights from ordinary language or look at the role of knowledge in making assertions and
guiding actions.[147]

Postmodern epistemology criticizes the conditions of knowledge

in advanced societies. This concerns in particular the
metanarrative of a constant progress of scientific knowledge
leading to a universal and foundational understanding of
reality.[149] Feminist epistemology critiques the effect of gender
on knowledge. Among other topics, it explores how
preconceptions about gender influence who has access to
knowledge, how knowledge is produced, and which types of
knowledge are valued in society.[150] Decolonial scholarship
criticizes the global influence of Western knowledge systems,
often with the aim of decolonizing knowledge to undermine
Western hegemony.[151]
The work of Elizabeth S. Anderson
Various schools of epistemology are found in traditional Indian combines the perspectives of
philosophy. Many of them focus on the different sources of feminist, social, and naturalized
knowledge, called pramāṇa. Perception, inference, and testimony epistemology.[148]
are sources discussed by most schools. Other sources only
considered by some schools are non-perception, which leads to
knowledge of absences, and presumption.[152] Buddhist epistemology tends to focus on immediate
experience, understood as the presentation of unique particulars without the involvement of secondary
cognitive processes, like thought and desire.[153] Nyāya epistemology discusses the causal relation
between the knower and the object of knowledge, which happens through reliable knowledge-formation
processes. It sees perception as the primary source of knowledge, drawing a close connection between it
and successful action.[154] Mīmāṃsā epistemology understands the holy scriptures known as the Vedas as
a key source of knowledge while discussing the problem of their right interpretation.[155] Jain
epistemology states that reality is many-sided, meaning that no single viewpoint can capture the entirety
of truth.[156]

African epistemology is rooted in African ontology. It emphasizes the interconnectedness of reality in the
form of a continuum between knowing subject and known object, and understands knowledge as a
holistic phenomenon that includes sensory, emotional, intuitive, and rational aspects and is not limited to
the physical domain.[157]

Branches
Some branches of epistemology focus on the problems of knowledge within specific academic
disciplines. The epistemology of science examines how scientific knowledge is generated and what
problems arise in the process of validating, justifying, and interpreting scientific claims. A key issue
concerns the problem of how individual observations can support universal scientific laws. Further topics
include the nature of scientific evidence and the aims of science.[158] The epistemology of mathematics
studies the origin of mathematical knowledge. In exploring how mathematical theories are justified, it
investigates the role of proofs and whether there are empirical sources of mathematical knowledge.[159]

Epistemological problems are found in most areas of philosophy. The epistemology of logic examines
how people know that an argument is valid. For example, it explores how logicians justify that modus
ponens is a correct rule of inference or that all contradictions are false.[160] Epistemologists of
metaphysics investigate whether knowledge of ultimate reality is possible and what sources this
knowledge could have.[161] Knowledge of moral statements, like the claim that lying is wrong, belongs to
the epistemology of ethics. It studies the role of ethical intuitions, coherence among moral beliefs, and the
problem of moral disagreement.[162] The ethics of belief is a closely related field covering the
interrelation between epistemology and ethics. It examines the norms governing belief formation and asks
whether violating them is morally wrong.[163]

Religious epistemology studies the role of knowledge and justification for religious doctrines and
practices. It evaluates the weight and reliability of evidence from religious experience and holy scriptures
while also asking whether the norms of reason should be applied to religious faith.[164] Social
epistemology focuses on the social dimension of knowledge. While traditional epistemology is mainly
interested in knowledge possessed by individuals, social epistemology covers knowledge acquisition,
transmission, and evaluation within groups, with specific emphasis on how people rely on each other
when seeking knowledge.[165] Historical epistemology examines how the understanding of knowledge
and related concepts has changed over time. It asks whether the main issues in epistemology are perennial
and to what extent past epistemological theories are relevant to contemporary debates. It is particularly
concerned with scientific knowledge and practices associated with it.[166] It contrasts with the history of
epistemology, which presents, reconstructs, and evaluates epistemological theories of philosophers in the
past.[167][l]

Naturalized epistemology is closely associated with the natural sciences, relying on their methods and
theories to examine knowledge. Naturalistic epistemologists focus on empirical observation to formulate
their theories and are often critical of approaches to epistemology that proceed by a priori reasoning.[169]
Evolutionary epistemology is a naturalistic approach that understands cognition as a product of evolution,
examining knowledge and the cognitive faculties responsible for it from the perspective of natural
selection.[170] Epistemologists of language explore the nature of linguistic knowledge. One of their topics
is the role of tacit knowledge, for example, when native speakers have mastered the rules of grammar but
are unable to explicitly articulate those rules.[171] Epistemologists of modality examine knowledge about
what is possible and necessary.[172] Epistemic problems that arise when two people have diverging
opinions on a topic are covered by the epistemology of disagreement.[173] Epistemologists of ignorance
are interested in epistemic faults and gaps in knowledge.[174]

There are distinct areas of epistemology dedicated to specific sources of knowledge. Examples are the
epistemology of perception,[175] the epistemology of memory,[176] and the epistemology of
testimony.[177]
Some branches of epistemology are characterized by their research method. Formal epistemology
employs formal tools found in logic and mathematics to investigate the nature of knowledge.[178][m]
Experimental epistemologists rely in their research on empirical evidence about common knowledge
practices.[180] Applied epistemology focuses on the practical application of epistemological principles to
diverse real-world problems, like the reliability of knowledge claims on the internet, how to assess sexual
assault allegations, and how racism may lead to epistemic injustice.[181][n]

Metaepistemologists examine the nature, goals, and research methods of epistemology. As a metatheory,
it does not directly defend a position about which epistemological theories are correct but examines their
fundamental concepts and background assumptions.[183][o]

Related fields
Epistemology and psychology were not defined as distinct fields until the 19th century; earlier
investigations about knowledge often do not fit neatly into today's academic categories.[185] Both
contemporary disciplines study beliefs and the mental processes responsible for their formation and
change. One important contrast is that psychology describes what beliefs people have and how they
acquire them, thereby explaining why someone has a specific belief. The focus of epistemology is on
evaluating beliefs, leading to a judgment about whether a belief is justified and rational in a particular
case.[186] Epistemology has a similar intimate connection to cognitive science, which understands mental
events as processes that transform information.[187] Artificial intelligence relies on the insights of
epistemology and cognitive science to implement concrete solutions to problems associated with
knowledge representation and automatic reasoning.[188]

Logic is the study of correct reasoning. For epistemology, it is relevant to inferential knowledge, which
arises when a person reasons from one known fact to another.[189] This is the case, for example, if a
person does not know directly that but comes to infer it based on their knowledge that
, , and .[190] Whether an inferential belief amounts to knowledge
depends on the form of reasoning used, in particular, that the process does not violate the laws of
logic.[191] Another overlap between the two fields is found in the epistemic approach to fallacy
theory.[192] Fallacies are faulty arguments based on incorrect reasoning.[193] The epistemic approach to
fallacies explains why they are faulty, stating that arguments aim to expand knowledge. According to this
view, an argument is a fallacy if it fails to do so.[192] A further intersection is found in epistemic logic,
which uses formal logical devices to study epistemological concepts like knowledge and belief.[194]

Both decision theory and epistemology are interested in the foundations of rational thought and the role
of beliefs. Unlike many approaches in epistemology, the main focus of decision theory lies less in the
theoretical and more in the practical side, exploring how beliefs are translated into action.[195] Decision
theorists examine the reasoning involved in decision-making and the standards of good decisions.[196]
They identify beliefs as a central aspect of decision-making. One of their innovations is to distinguish
between weaker and stronger beliefs. This helps them take the effect of uncertainty on decisions into
consideration.[197]

Epistemology and education have a shared interest in knowledge, with one difference being that
education focuses on the transmission of knowledge, exploring the roles of both learner and teacher.[198]
Learning theory examines how people acquire knowledge.[199] Behavioral learning theories explain the
process in terms of behavior changes, for example, by associating a certain response with a particular
stimulus.[200] Cognitive learning theories study how the cognitive processes that affect knowledge
acquisition transform information.[201] Pedagogy looks at the transmission of knowledge from the
teacher's side, exploring the teaching methods they may employ.[202] In teacher-centered methods, the
teacher takes the role of the main authority delivering knowledge and guiding the learning process. In
student-centered methods, the teacher mainly supports and facilitates the learning process while the
students take a more active role.[203] The beliefs students have about knowledge, called personal
epistemology, affect their intellectual development and learning success.[204]

The anthropology of knowledge examines how knowledge is acquired, stored, retrieved, and
communicated. It studies the social and cultural circumstances that affect how knowledge is reproduced
and changes, covering the role of institutions like university departments and scientific journals as well as
face-to-face discussions and online communications. It understands knowledge in a wide sense that
encompasses various forms of understanding and culture, including practical skills. Unlike epistemology,
it is not interested in whether a belief is true or justified but in how understanding is reproduced in
society.[205] The sociology of knowledge is a closely related field with a similar conception of
knowledge. It explores how physical, demographic, economic, and sociocultural factors impact
knowledge. It examines in what sociohistorical contexts knowledge emerges and the effects it has on
people, for example, how socioeconomic conditions are related to the dominant ideology in a society.[206]

History
Early reflections on the nature and sources of knowledge are found in ancient history. In ancient Greek
philosophy, Plato (427–347 BCE) studied what knowledge is, examining how it differs from true opinion
by being based on good reasons.[207] According to him, the process of learning something is a form of
recollection in which the soul remembers what it already knew before.[208][p] Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
was particularly interested in scientific knowledge, exploring the role of sensory experience and how to
make inferences from general principles.[209] The Hellenistic schools began to arise in the 4th century
BCE. The Epicureans had an empiricist outlook, stating that sensations are always accurate and act as the
supreme standard of judgments.[210] The Stoics defended a similar position but limited themselves to
lucid and specific sensations, which they regarded as true.[211] The skepticists questioned that knowledge
is possible, recommending instead suspension of judgment to arrive at a state of tranquility.[212]

The Upanishads, philosophical scriptures composed in ancient India between 700 and 300 BCE,
examined how people acquire knowledge, including the role of introspection, comparison, and
deduction.[214] In the 6th century BCE, the school of Ajñana developed a radical skepticism questioning
the possibility and usefulness of knowledge.[215] The school of Nyaya emerged in the 2nd century BCE
and provided a systematic treatment of how people acquire knowledge, distinguishing between valid and
invalid sources.[216] When Buddhist philosophers later became interested in epistemology, they relied on
concepts developed in Nyaya and other traditions.[217] Buddhist philosopher Dharmakirti (6th or 7th
century CE)[218] analyzed the process of knowing as a series of causally related events.[213]

Ancient Chinese philosophers understood knowledge as an interconnected phenomenon fundamentally

linked to ethical behavior and social involvement. Many saw wisdom as the goal of attaining
knowledge.[219] Mozi (470–391 BCE) proposed a pragmatic approach to knowledge using historical
records, sensory evidence, and practical outcomes to validate beliefs.[220] Mencius (c. 372–289 BCE)
explored analogical reasoning as another source of
knowledge.[221] Xunzi (c. 310-220 BCE) aimed to combine
empirical observation and rational inquiry. He emphasized the
importance of clarity and standards of reasoning without
excluding the role of feeling and emotion.[222]

The relation between reason and faith was a central topic in the
medieval period.[223] In Arabic–Persian philosophy, al-Farabi
(c. 870–950) and Averroes (1126–1198) discussed how philosophy
and theology interact and which is the better vehicle to truth.[224]
Al-Ghazali (c. 1056–1111) criticized many of the core teachings of
previous Islamic philosophers, saying that they rely on unproven
assumptions that do not amount to knowledge.[225] In Western
The Buddhist philosopher
philosophy, Anselm of Canterbury (1033–1109) proposed that Dharmakirti developed a causal
theological teaching and philosophical inquiry are in harmony and theory of knowledge.[213]
complement each other. [226]
Peter Abelard (1079–1142) argued
against unquestioned theological authorities and said that all
things are open to rational doubt.[227] Influenced by Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) developed
an empiricist theory, stating that "nothing is in the intellect unless it first appeared in the senses".[228]
According to an early form of direct realism proposed by William of Ockham (c. 1285–1349), perception
of mind-independent objects happens directly without intermediaries.[229] Meanwhile, in 14th-century
India, Gaṅgeśa developed a reliabilist theory of knowledge and considered the problems of testimony and
fallacies.[230] In China, Wang Yangming (1472–1529) explored the unity of knowledge and action,
holding that moral knowledge is inborn and can be attained by overcoming self-interest.[231]

The course of modern philosophy was shaped by René Descartes

(1596–1650), who claimed that philosophy must begin from a
position of indubitable knowledge of first principles. Inspired by
skepticism, he aimed to find absolutely certain knowledge by
encountering truths that cannot be doubted. He thought that this is
the case for the assertion "I think, therefore I am", from which he
constructed the rest of his philosophical system.[233] Descartes,
together with Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677) and Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz (1646–1716), belonged to the school of rationalism, which
asserts that the mind possesses innate ideas independent of
experience.[234] John Locke (1632–1704) rejected this view in
favor of an empiricism according to which the mind is a blank
slate. This means that all ideas depend on sense experience, either
as "ideas of sense", which are directly presented through the René Descartes used
senses, or as "ideas of reflection", which the mind creates by methodological doubt to seek
reflecting on ideas of sense.[235] David Hume (1711–1776) used certain foundations for
this idea to explore the limits of what people can know. He said philosophy.[232]
that knowledge of facts is never certain, adding that knowledge of
relations between ideas, like mathematical truths, can be certain
but contains no information about the world.[236] Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) tried to find a middle
position between rationalism and empiricism by identifying a type of knowledge that Hume had missed.
For Kant, this is knowledge about principles that underlie all experience and structure it, such as spatial
and temporal relations and fundamental categories of understanding.[237]

In the 19th-century, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831) argued against empiricism, saying that
sensory impressions on their own cannot amount to knowledge since all knowledge is actively structured
by the knowing subject.[238] John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) defended a wide-sweeping form of empiricism
and explained knowledge of general truths through inductive reasoning.[239] Charles Peirce (1839–1914)
thought that all knowledge is fallible, emphasizing that knowledge seekers should always be ready to
revise their beliefs if new evidence is encountered. He used this idea to argue against Cartesian
foundationalism seeking absolutely certain truths.[240]

In the 20th century, fallibilism was further explored by J. L. Austin (1911–1960) and Karl Popper (1902–
1994).[241] In continental philosophy, Edmund Husserl (1859–1938) applied the skeptic idea of
suspending judgment to the study of experience. By not judging whether an experience is accurate or not,
he tried to describe the internal structure of experience instead.[242] Logical positivists, like A. J. Ayer
(1910–1989), said that all knowledge is either empirical or analytic.[243] Bertrand Russell (1872–1970)
developed an empiricist sense-datum theory, distinguishing between direct knowledge by acquaintance of
sense data and indirect knowledge by description, which is inferred from knowledge by
acquaintance.[244] Common sense had a central place in G. E. Moore's (1873–1958) epistemology. He
used trivial observations, like the fact that he has two hands, to argue against abstract philosophical
theories that deviate from common sense.[245] Ordinary language philosophy, as practiced by the late
Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951), is a similar approach that tries to extract epistemological insights
from how ordinary language is used.[246]

Edmund Gettier (1927–2021) conceived counterexamples against the idea that knowledge is the same as
justified true belief. These counterexamples prompted many philosophers to suggest alternative
definitions of knowledge.[247] One of the alternatives considered was reliabilism, which says that
knowledge requires reliable sources, shifting the focus away from justification.[248] Virtue epistemology,
a closely related response, analyses belief formation in terms of the intellectual virtues or cognitive
competencies involved in the process.[249] Naturalized epistemology, as conceived by Willard Van Orman
Quine (1908–2000), employs concepts and ideas from the natural sciences to formulate its theories.[250]
Other developments in late 20th-century epistemology were the emergence of social, feminist, and
historical epistemology.[251]

See also

Philosophy portal

Epistemological pluralism – term used in philosophy, economics, and virtually any field of
study to refer to different ways of knowing things, different epistemological methodologies
for attaining a fuller description of a particular field
Knowledge falsification – Deliberate misrepresentation of knowledge
Logology (science)
Reformed epistemology – School of philosophical thought
 Theory of Knowledge (IB Course) – Compulsory International Baccalaureate subject

References

Notes
a. Less commonly, the term "gnoseology" is also used as a synonym.[1]
b. Despite this contrast, epistemologists may rely on insights from the empirical sciences in
formulating their normative theories.[7] According to one interpretation, the aim of naturalized
epistemology is to answer descriptive questions, but this characterization is disputed.[8]
c. As a label for a branch of philosophy, the term "epistemology" was first employed in 1854 by
James E. Ferrier.[11] In a different context, the word was used as early as 1847 in New
York's Eclectic Magazine.[12] As the term had not been coined before the 19th century,
earlier philosophers did not explicitly label their theories as epistemology and often explored
it in combination with psychology.[13] According to philosopher Thomas Sturm, it is an open
question how relevant the epistemological problems addressed by past philosophers are to
contemporary philosophy.[14]
d. Other synonyms include declarative knowledge and descriptive knowledge.[28]
e. The accuracy of the label traditional analysis is debated since it suggests widespread
acceptance within the history of philosophy, an idea not shared by all scholars.[41]
f. The relation between a belief and the reason on which it rests is called basing relation.[82]
g. The brain in a vat is a similar thought experiment assuming that a person does not have a
body but is merely a brain receiving electrical stimuli indistinguishable from the stimuli a
brain in a body would receive. This argument also leads to the conclusion of global
skepticism based on the claim that it is not possible to distinguish stimuli representing the
actual world from simulated stimuli.[108]
h. Some forms of extreme rationalism, found in ancient Greek philosophy, see reason as the
sole source of knowledge.[116]
i. Both can be understood as responses to the regress problem.[121]
j. The theory of classical foundationalism has a stronger requirement by saying that basic
beliefs are self-evident or indubitable.[122]
k. The internalist-externalist debate in epistemology is different from the internalism-
externalism debate in philosophy of mind, which asks whether mental states depend only on
the individual or also on their environment.[130]
l. The precise characterization of the contrast is disputed.[168]
m. It is closely related to computational epistemology, which examines the interrelation between
knowledge and computational processes.[179]
n. Epistemic injustice happens when valid knowledge claims are dismissed or
misrepresented.[182]
o. Nonetheless, metaepistemological insights can have various indirect effects on disputes in
epistemology.[184]
p. To argue for this point, Plato used the example of a slave boy, who manages to answer a
series of geometry questions even though he never studied geometry.[208]

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Greco 2021, § The Value of Knowledge
62. Olsson 2011, pp. 874–875
Pritchard, Turri & Carter 2022, § 1. Value Problems
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63. Olsson 2011, p. 875
Greco 2021, § The Value of Knowledge
64. Pritchard, Turri & Carter 2022, § 6. Other Accounts of the Value of Knowledge
65. Pritchard 2013, pp. 15–16 (https://books.google.com/books?id=sfUhAQAAQBAJ&pg
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Greco 2021, § The Value of Knowledge
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Bunnin & Yu 2008, pp. 80–81
Dretske 2005, p. 85
Crumley II 2009, p. 18
67. Braddon-Mitchell & Jackson 2011, Lead section
Schwitzgebel 2024, Lead section, § 1.1 Representationalism
Schwitzgebel 2011, pp. 14–15
68. Schwitzgebel 2024, § 1.2 Dispositionalism
Schwitzgebel 2011, pp. 17–18
69. Schwitzgebel 2024, § 1.5 Eliminativism, Instrumentalism, and Fictionalism
Schwitzgebel 2011, p. 20
70. Blaauw & Pritchard 2005, pp. 14–15
Schwitzgebel 2024, § 2.3 Degree of Belief, § 2.5 Belief and Knowledge
71. Dretske 2005, p. 85
Lowe 2005, p. 926
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72. Lowe 2005, p. 926
Dowden & Swartz, § 3. Correspondence Theory
Lynch 2011, pp. 3–5
Crumley II 2009, p. 58
73. Glanzberg 2023, § 1.2 The Coherence Theory
Lowe 2005, pp. 926–927
Lynch 2011, p. 3
Crumley II 2009, p. 58
74. Lynch 2011, pp. 5–7, 10
Glanzberg 2023, § 1. The Neo-classical Theories of Truth, § 2. Tarski’s Theory of
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Blaauw & Pritchard 2005, pp. 148–149
75. Lynch 2011, p. 5
Blaauw & Pritchard 2005, p. 148
76. Goldman & Bender 2005, p. 465
Kvanvig 2011, pp. 25–26
77. Crumley II 2009, pp. 83–84
Olsson 2016
78. Kvanvig 2011, p. 25
Foley 1998, Lead section
79. Ichikawa & Steup 2018, § 1.3 The Justification Condition
80. Crumley II 2009, p. 149
Comesaña & Comesaña 2022, p. 44 (https://books.google.com/books?id=LaFhEAA
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81. Blaauw & Pritchard 2005, pp. 92–93
82. Silva & Oliveira 2022, pp. 1–4 (https://books.google.com/books?id=99FkEAAAQBAJ&pg=P
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83. Ichikawa & Steup 2018, § 1.3.2 Kinds of Justification
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84. Kern 2017, pp. 8–10, 133 (https://books.google.com/books?id=eyh5DQAAQBAJ&pg
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Smith 2023, p. 3
Steup & Neta 2024, § 5. Sources of Knowledge and Justification
Hetherington, "Knowledge", § 3. Ways of Knowing
85. Steup & Neta 2024, § 5.1 Perception
Hetherington, "Knowledge", § 3. Ways of Knowing
86. Khatoon 2012, p. 104 (https://books.google.com/books?id=Ha1KBZm9CXQC&pg=P
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Martin 1998, Lead section
87. Steup & Neta 2024, § 5.2 Introspection
88. Hetherington, "Knowledge", § 3d. Knowing by Thinking-Plus-Observing
Steup & Neta 2024, § 5.4 Reason
Audi 2002, pp. 85, 90–91
Audi 2006, p. 38 (https://books.google.com/books?id=-YPTEeIhOXYC&pg=PA38)
89. Steup & Neta 2024, § 5.3 Memory
Audi 2002, pp. 72–75
Gardiner 2001, pp. 1351–1352
Michaelian & Sutton 2017
90. Steup & Neta 2024, § 5.5 Testimony
Leonard 2021, Lead section, § 1. Reductionism and Non-Reductionism
Green 2022, Lead section
91. Blaauw & Pritchard 2005, pp. 123–124
Foley 2011, pp. 37, 39–40
Harman 2013, § Theoretical and Practical Rationality
Mele & Rawling 2004, pp. 3–4
92. Heinzelmann 2023, pp. 312–314
Kiesewetter 2020, pp. 332–334
93. Foley 2011, pp. 39–40
Blaauw & Pritchard 2005, pp. 123–124
94. Blaauw & Pritchard 2005, p. 109
Engel 2011, p. 47
95. Blaauw & Pritchard 2005, p. 88
Choo 2016, pp. 91–92
Montmarquet 1987, pp. 482–483]
96. Blaauw & Pritchard 2005, pp. 50–51
DiFate, Lead section, § 1. The Nature of Evidence: What Is It and What Does It Do?
Kelly 2016, Lead section
McGrew 2011, pp. 58–59
97. McGrew 2011, p. 59
 98. Sudduth, Lead section, § 2c. Constraints on Propositional Defeaters
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99. Blaauw & Pritchard 2005, p. 51
Kelly 2016, § 1. Evidence as That Which Justifies Belief
100. Blaauw & Pritchard 2005, pp. 18–19, 44
Hookway 2005a, p. 134
Hookway 2005b, p. 220
101. Blaauw & Pritchard 2005, p. 150
Grimm 2011, pp. 84, 88
Gordon, Lead section
102. Kekes 2005, p. 959
Blaauw & Pritchard 2005, p. 157
Whitcomb 2011, p. 95
103. Cohen 1998, § Article Summary
Hookway 2005, p. 838
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104. Hookway 2005, p. 838
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105. Hazlett 2014, p. 18 (https://books.google.com/books?id=4INnAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA18)
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106. Hookway 2005, p. 838
Comesaña & Klein 2024, Lead section
107. Windt 2021, § 1.1 Cartesian Dream Skepticism
Klein 1998, § 8. The Epistemic Principles and Scepticism
Hetherington, "Knowledge", § 4. Sceptical Doubts About Knowing
108. Hookway 2005, p. 838
Steup & Neta 2024, § 6.1 General Skepticism and Selective Skepticism
109. Steup & Neta 2024, § 6.2 Responses to the Closure Argument
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110. Cohen 1998, § 1. The Philosophical Problem of Scepticism, § 2. Responses to Scepticism
111. Hetherington, "Fallibilism", Lead section, § 9. Implications of Fallibilism: Knowing
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112. Rescher 1998, § Article Summary
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Luper 2004, pp. 271–272
114. Wolenski 2004, pp. 17–18, 22–23
115. Lacey 2005, p. 242
Markie & Folescu 2023, Lead section, § 1.2 Empiricism
116. Lacey 2005a, p. 783
117. Lacey 2005a, p. 783
Markie & Folescu 2023, Lead section, § 1. Introduction
118. Tieszen 2005, p. 175 (https://books.google.com/books?id=2fgQ_fuCcKAC&pg=PA175)
119. Lacey 2005a, p. 783
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120. Audi 1988, pp. 407–408
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121. Bradley 2015, p. 170 (https://books.google.com/books?id=qKXDCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA170)
122. Blaauw & Pritchard 2005, p. 64
123. Stairs 2017, pp. 155–156
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124. Stairs 2017, p. 155
125. Stairs 2017, pp. 156–157
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126. Ruppert, Schlüter & Seide 2016, p. 59 (https://books.google.com/books?id=nF2mCw
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128. BonJour 2016.
129. Pappas 2023, Lead section
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Fumerton 2011, Lead section
130. Bernecker 2013, Note 1
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131. Pappas 2023, Lead section
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132. Crumley II 2009, p. 160
133. Crumley II 2009, pp. 99, 298
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134. Mittag, § 2b. Evidence
135. Crumley II 2009, pp. 99, 298
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137. Crumley II 2009, p. 84
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Olsson 2016
138. Crumley II 2009, pp. 175–176
Baehr, "Virtue Epistemology", Lead section, § 1. Introduction to Virtue Epistemology
139. Brown 1992, p. 341
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140. Chiari & Nuzzo 2009, p. 21 (https://books.google.com/books?id=CrqNAgAAQBAJ&p
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141. Cockram & Morton 2017
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142. Foley 1983, p. 165
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143. Legg & Hookway 2021, Lead section, § 4. Pragmatist Epistemology
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145. Pietersma 2000, pp. 3–4
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146. Greco 2021, § 1. Methodology in Epistemology: Particularism and Generalism
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147. Greco 2021, § 2. Methodology in Epistemology: Beyond Particularism
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150. Anderson 1995, p. 50
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153. Phillips 1998, § 1. Buddhist Pragmatism and Coherentism
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154. Phillips 1998, § 2. Nyāya Reliabilism
155. Phillips 1998, § 2. Mīmāṃsā Self-certificationalism
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157. Chimakonam & Ogbonnaya 2021, pp. 179–182
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160. Warren 2020, § 6. The Epistemology of Logic
161. McDaniel 2020, § 7.2 The Epistemology of Metaphysics
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162. DeLapp, Lead section, § 6. Epistemological Issues in Metaethics
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163. Chignell 2018, Lead section
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165. Tanesini 2017, Lead section
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166. Ávila & Almeida 2023, p. 235 (https://books.google.com/books?id=sFTaEAAAQBAJ&
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167. Sturm 2011, pp. 303–304, 08–309
168. Sturm 2011, p. 304
169. Crumley II 2009, pp. 183–184, 188–189, 300
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171. Barber 2003, pp. 1–3, 10–11, 15
172. Vaidya & Wallner 2021, pp. 1909–1910
173. Croce 2023, Lead section
174. Maguire 2015, pp. 33–34 (https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-017-9309-4_4)
175. Siegel, Silins & Matthen 2014, p. 781
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178. Douven & Schupbach 2014, Lead section
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180. Beebe 2017, Lead section
181. Lackey 2021, pp. 3, 8–9, 13
182. Fricker 2007, pp. 1–2
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183. Gerken 2018, Lead section
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184. Gerken 2018, Lead section
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190. Clark 2009, p. 516 (https://books.google.com/books?id=i1tNI9646Q4C&pg=PA516)
191. Stairs 2017, p. 156 (https://books.google.com/books?id=Km1QDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA156)
192. Hansen 2023, § 3.5 The Epistemic Approach to Fallacies
193. Hansen 2023, Lead section
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197. Kaplan 2005, pp. 434, 443–444
Steele & Stefánsson 2020, § 7. Concluding Remarks
198. Chazan 2022, p. 15
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200. Harasim 2017, p. 11
201. Harasim 2017, pp. 11–12
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203. Emaliana 2017, pp. 59–61
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208. Pappas 1998, § Ancient Philosophy
209. Pappas 1998, § Ancient Philosophy
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210. Hamlyn 2006, pp. 287–288
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211. Hamlyn 2006, p. 288
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212. Wolenski 2004, p. 8
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213. Dunne 2006, p. 753
214. Black, Lead section
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220. Littlejohn, § 2a. The Mozi, Later Mohists and Debaters (bianshi)
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221. Littlejohn, § 2c. Mencius (Mengzi, c. 372-289 B.C.E.) and Analogical Reasoning
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222. Littlejohn, § 2d. Xunzi (310-220 B.C.E.): Dispelling Obsessions
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223. Wolenski 2004, pp. 10–11
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227. Wolenski 2004, p. 11
228. Wolenski 2004, p. 11
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229. Kaye, Lead section, § 4a. Direct Realist Empiricism
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230. Phillips 2024, Lead section
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231. Littlejohn, § 2g. Wang Yangming on liangzhi: Direct, Clear, Universal Knowledge, §
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232. Wolenski 2004, pp. 14–15
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234. Hamlyn 2005, p. 261
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237. Wolenski 2004, pp. 27–30
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238. Pappas 1998, § Modern Philosophy: From Hume to Peirce
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239. Hamlyn 2005, p. 262
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240. Pappas 1998, § Modern Philosophy: From Hume to Peirce
241. Pappas 1998, § Twentieth Century
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242. Rockmore 2011, pp. 131–132
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243. Hamlyn 2005, p. 262
244. Pappas 1998, § Twentieth Century
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245. Baldwin 2010, § 6. Common Sense and Certainty
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246. Hamlyn 2006, pp. 317–318
247. Hamlyn 2005, p. 262
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Pappas 1998, § Twentieth Century
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Pappas 1998, § Twentieth Century, § Recent Issues
249. Goldman & Beddor 2021, § 4.1 Virtue Reliabilism
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250. Crumley II 2009, pp. 183–184, 188–189
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Vagelli 2019, p. 96 (https://books.google.com/books?id=hT33DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA96)

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