Noun: Definition and Explanation 6.

Abstract Noun – Refers to

emotions, ideas, or qualities that
A noun is a word that names a person, cannot be seen or touched.
place, thing, or idea. It is one of the most
fundamental parts of speech in English o Examples: love, bravery,
grammar and is used to identify objects, honesty, freedom
emotions, concepts, and living beings. 7. Collective Noun – Refers to a group
Types of Nouns of people, animals, or things.

1. Proper Noun – Names a specific o Examples: team, herd, bunch,

person, place, or thing. family

o Always capitalized. 8. Possessive Noun – Shows

ownership or belonging.
o Examples: India, John,
Amazon, Taj Mahal o Examples: Ravi’s book, the
cat’s tail
2. Common Noun – Names general
items or people. Usage of Nouns in Sentences

o Not capitalized unless at the • Subject of a sentence: The dog is

beginning of a sentence. barking.

o Examples: city, boy, river, • Object of a verb: She bought a

school book.

3. Countable Noun – Can be counted • Object of a preposition: He is

as singular or plural. sitting on the chair.

o Examples: apple (one apple), • Possession: This is Rahul’s car.

apples (many apples), book, Singular and Plural Nouns
books
• Regular plural nouns: dog → dogs,
4. Uncountable Noun – Cannot be book → books
counted individually.
• Irregular plural nouns: child →
o Examples: water, rice, children, mouse → mice, tooth →
happiness, air teeth
5. Concrete Noun – Refers to things Nouns form the foundation of sentences,
that can be seen, touched, or felt making them essential for effective
physically. communication.
o Examples: table, dog,
mountain, perfume
 Pronoun: Definition and o Example: She made it
herself.
Explanation
4. Demonstrative Pronouns – Point to
A pronoun is a word that takes the place of
specific things.
a noun to avoid repetition and make
sentences smoother and easier to understand. o this, that, these, those

Why Do We Use Pronouns? o Example: These are my

shoes.
Without pronouns, we would have to repeat
the same noun again and again. 5. Interrogative Pronouns – Ask
questions.
Example without pronouns:
Riya is my friend. Riya is kind. Riya helps o who, whom, whose, which,
everyone. what

Example with pronouns: o Example: Who is your

Riya is my friend. She is kind. She helps teacher?
everyone. 6. Relative Pronouns – Connect
Types of Pronouns with Examples clauses or sentences.

1. Personal Pronouns – Replace o who, whom, whose, which,

specific people or things. that

o I, you, he, she, it, we, they o Example: The boy who won
the race is my brother.
o Example: He is reading a
book. 7. Indefinite Pronouns – Refer to
people or things not specifically
2. Possessive Pronouns – Show named.
ownership.
o someone, anyone, everyone,
o my, your, his, her, its, our, no one, anything, nothing,
their, mine, yours, hers, ours, everything
theirs
o Example: Someone knocked
o Example: This pen is mine. on the door.
3. Reflexive Pronouns – Refer back to
the subject.
Quick Tip to Identify Pronouns:
o myself, yourself, himself,
herself, itself, ourselves, If the word is replacing a noun or helping to
yourselves, themselves talk about someone/something without
naming it again — it’s likely a pronoun!
 • Present: I eat.

Verb: Definition and • Past: I ate.

Explanation • Future: I will eat.

A verb is a word that shows action, state of Examples in Sentences

being, or occurrence. It is one of the most
important parts of speech because every • He dances well. (Action verb)
complete sentence must have a verb. • She is a doctor. (Linking verb)
Types of Verbs • They have finished the homework.
(Helping + main verb)
1. Action Verbs
In short:
o Show physical or mental
actions. A verb is the engine of a sentence. Without
o Examples: run, jump, eat, a verb, a sentence cannot express complete
think, write meaning.
Sure, Puneet! Here's a clear and complete
o She runs every morning.
explanation of the Forms of Verbs —
2. Linking Verbs essential for mastering grammar and
writing/speaking accurately.
o Connect the subject to more
information; show a state or Forms of the Verb (with Examples)
condition, not action.
Every verb in English has three main
o Examples: am, is, are, was, forms, and some extended ones used for
were, become, seem different tenses and grammatical structures.
Here's a breakdown:
o He is tired.
1. Base Form (V1)
3. Helping (Auxiliary) Verbs
o Help the main verb show The original form of the verb. Used in the
tense, voice, or mood. present tense, especially with I, we, you,
they.
o Examples: have, has, had, is,
are, was, will, shall, can, • Examples:
may, must o go, write, play, eat, study
o They are going to the They play cricket every evening.
party.
2. Past Simple (V2)
Verb Tenses

Verbs also tell when an action happens:

Used to describe an action that happened in Base Past Past Present s/es
the past. (V1) (V2) Participle Participle Form
(V3) (-ing)
• Examples:
go went gone going goes
o went, wrote, played, ate,
studied write wrote written writing writes

She went to the market yesterday. play played played playing plays

3. Past Participle (V3) eat ate eaten eating eats

Used with have/has/had in perfect tenses or study studied studied studying studies
passive voice.
• Examples:
Regular vs. Irregular Verbs
o gone, written, played, eaten,
studied Regular Verbs:

Follow a predictable pattern by adding -ed

They have eaten lunch already.
for past and past participle.
4. Present Participle / -ing Form (V4)
• Example: work → worked →
Formed by adding -ing to the base verb. worked
Used for continuous/progressive tenses.
Irregular Verbs:
• Examples:
Do not follow a fixed pattern; must be
o going, writing, playing, memorized.
eating, studying
• Example: run → ran → run
She is writing an article.
Usage Tip
5. s/es Form (V5)
To master verb forms:
Used in the simple present tense with
• Practice in context (make your own
singular third-person subjects (he, she, it).
examples).
• Examples:
• Learn irregular verbs list (start with
o goes, writes, plays, eats, the top 50).
studies
• Use apps or flashcards for revision.
He writes poems.

Summary Table of Verb Forms

 Adjective: Definition and • We saw a huge, ancient tree in the
forest.
Explanation for All Students
For High School & College Students:
What is an Adjective?
• The government launched an
An adjective is a word that describes or
ambitious economic reform program.
modifies a noun or pronoun. It gives more
information about a person, place, thing, or • He is known for his innovative and
idea. disciplined approach.

Think of adjectives as "describing Types of Adjectives:

words."
1. Descriptive Adjective – Describes
Example: qualities.
beautiful, strong, shiny
• The blue sky looks beautiful.
2. Quantitative Adjective – Tells how
o “Blue” tells us the color of
much or how many.
the sky.
some, many, ten, few
o “Beautiful” tells us what
3. Demonstrative Adjective – Points
kind of sky it is.
out specific things.
→ Both are adjectives.
this, that, these, those
What Do Adjectives Tell Us?
4. Possessive Adjective – Shows
Adjectives answer these questions: ownership.
my, your, his, her, their
1. What kind? – tall building, kind girl
5. Interrogative Adjective – Used in
2. How many? – three apples, many
questions.
books
which, what, whose
3. Which one? – this pen, that bag
6. Comparative and Superlative
4. How much? – little sugar, enough Adjectives – Compare two or more
time nouns.

Examples for Different Levels: o Fast → faster → fastest

For Younger Students (Primary Grades): o Good → better → best

• red ball, big dog, happy boy, five Adjective Order (Advanced Tip)
pencils
When using many adjectives, the order
For Middle School Students: usually follows:
Quantity + Quality + Size + Age + Shape
• The clever fox escaped quickly.
+ Color + Origin + Material + Purpose + 4. Modifying Sentences (Sentence
Noun Adverbs):
These adverbs modify entire
Example:
sentences to express opinion,
Three lovely little old round red Indian
viewpoint, or emphasis.
wooden cooking bowls
o Honestly, I don’t care.
Adverb
o Apparently, he missed the
What is an Adverb? bus.
An adverb is a word that modifies or Types of Adverbs
qualifies a verb, adjective, or another
adverb, providing additional information 1. Adverbs of Manner: Describe how
about manner, place, time, frequency, something happens. (E.g.,
degree, or reason. beautifully, slowly, carefully)

Functions of Adverbs 2. Adverbs of Place: Describe where

something happens. (E.g., here,
1. Modifying Verbs: Explains how, there, above, outside)
when, where, or why an action
occurs. 3. Adverbs of Time: Describe when
something happens. (E.g., yesterday,
o He speaks fluently. (How) now, soon, later)
o She left yesterday. (When) 4. Adverbs of Frequency: Describe
o The cat hid underneath. how often something happens. (E.g.,
(Where) always, never, rarely, often)

2. Modifying Adjectives: Strengthens 5. Adverbs of Degree: Describe to

or weakens the quality described. what extent something happens.
(E.g., very, quite, almost,
o The movie was extremely completely)
boring. (How boring?)
6. Adverbs of Reason: Explain why
o It’s a completely new idea. something happens. (E.g., therefore,
(To what extent?) thus, consequently)
3. Modifying Other Adverbs: Alters 7. Conjunctive Adverbs: Connect
the degree or intensity of another independent clauses and show
adverb. relationships between them. (E.g.,
o She sings very well. (To what however, nevertheless, consequently,
extent?) moreover)

o He drives quite fast. (To what Examples of Adverbs in Complex

extent?) Sentences
 • She speaks remarkably fluently, 4. Showing Purpose or Reason:
even though English is not her first
o They went to the store for
language. (Manner)
milk.
• I will meet you outside, after the
o She apologized for being
conference ends. (Place)
late.
• He has rarely seen such dedication
5. Expressing Possession:
in his students. (Frequency)
o The keys of the car are
• Therefore, the project was
missing.
completed on time. (Reason)
o The works of Shakespeare
• She completed the task so quickly
are timeless.
that everyone was impressed.
(Degree) 6. Indicating Condition or Manner:

Preposition o She succeeded through hard

work.
What is a Preposition?
o The show went well despite
A preposition is a word that shows the the bad weather.
relationship between a noun or pronoun
and other parts of a sentence. It provides Types of Prepositions
details about location, direction, time, 1. Simple Prepositions: Single words
manner, reason, possession, purpose, or like in, on, at, by, for, from, over,
condition. under, with, without.
Functions of Prepositions 2. Compound Prepositions:
1. Showing Location: Prepositions made up of more than
one word. (E.g., in front of, on
o The book is on the table. account of, according to)
o She lives in London. 3. Phrasal Prepositions: Groups of
2. Indicating Direction: words functioning as a single
preposition. (E.g., due to, apart from,
o They walked towards the instead of)
river.
4. Prepositions of Place: in, on, under,
o He moved into the room. between, behind, above
3. Describing Time: 5. Prepositions of Time: before, after,
o I will meet you before noon. during, until, since, by

o The meeting is scheduled for

Monday.
 6. Prepositions of A conjunctive adverb is used to connect
Direction/Movement: to, towards, two independent clauses while showing a
from, through, into, across relationship such as contrast, cause and
effect, sequence, or addition.
Examples of Prepositions in Complex
Sentences Example Sentence:
• The files are in the drawer beside the I wanted to attend the seminar; however,
table. (Location) I was feeling unwell.
• He left the city after completing his • "However" is the conjunctive
studies. (Time) adverb connecting two independent
clauses.
• The bridge collapsed due to poor
maintenance. (Reason) • It shows a contrast between the
desire to attend the seminar and the
• They walked through the forest in
reason for not attending.
complete silence. (Direction)
More Examples of Conjunctive Adverbs:
• We discussed the proposal during
the meeting. (Time) 1. Cause and Effect:

Key Differences Between Adverbs and o The project was delayed;

Prepositions therefore, we had to
reschedule the presentation.
Adverbs Prepositions
o She studied hard;
Modify verbs, Show the relationship consequently, she scored
adjectives, or between well in her exams.
other adverbs nouns/pronouns and
other words 2. Contrast:

Usually answer: Usually answer: o The idea was innovative;

how, when, where, when, how, nevertheless, it was rejected.
where, why, to why o He tried his best; still, he
what extent couldn't succeed.
Can stand alone Must be followed by a 3. Addition:
noun or pronoun
o She is a talented musician;
E.g., slowly, E.g., in, on, at, before, furthermore, she is an
here, very, towards excellent dancer.
completely
o The proposal was approved;
moreover, it received great
Example of a Conjunctive Adverb appreciation.
 4. Sequence: Common examples: because, although,
o They completed the if, when, since, unless
assignment; then, they went Examples:
out for lunch.
oI will go out if it stops
o We visited the museum; raining.
afterwards, we went to the o She didn’t come because she
park. was unwell.
Tip: 3. Correlative Conjunctions – Used
in pairs to join equal elements.
Conjunctive adverbs are often followed by a
comma when connecting independent Common examples: either…or,
clauses. neither…nor, both…and, not only…but
also
Absolutely! Here's a clear and engaging
explanation of Conjunctions and Examples:
Interjections for Class 8 level students, oEither you study now or
with examples and easy-to-understand you’ll regret later.
points. o Both the teacher and the

Conjunctions (Joining Words) students were excited.

Why are Conjunctions Important?
What is a Conjunction?
They help make writing smooth and
A conjunction is a word that joins two or logical, and avoid choppy or repetitive
more words, phrases, or sentences. sentences.
Types of Conjunctions Interjections (Emotion Words)
1. Coordinating Conjunctions – What is an Interjection?
Connect words or groups of equal An interjection is a word or phrase that
importance. expresses strong emotion or sudden
feeling. It is usually followed by an
Common examples: and, but, or, so, exclamation mark (!) or a comma (,).
yet, for, nor
Examples of Interjections:
Examples:
Emotion Interjection Example Sentence
oI like tea and coffee.
o She is tired, but she will keep Surprise Wow! Wow! That was an
amazing show!
working.
2. Subordinating Conjunctions – Pain Ouch! Ouch! That really
Connect a dependent clause to an hurt.
independent clause.
 Joy Yay! Yay! We won the movement of articulatory
game! organs (like the tongue, lips,
Sadness Oh no! Oh no! I missed the and vocal cords).
bus. o Example: How the tongue
Greeting Hello! Hello! How are touches the roof of the mouth
you today? to make a /t/ sound.

Thinking Hmm... Hmm... I’m not 2. Acoustic Phonetics

sure about this.
o Deals with the physical
properties of sound waves
— such as frequency, pitch,
Why are Interjections Important?
and duration — as speech
They make language more expressive and travels through the air.
help show real feelings in writing or speech. 3. Auditory Phonetics
Quick Practice Sentences: o Focuses on how speech
1. I wanted to go, but I had homework. sounds are heard and
(Conjunction) interpreted by the ear and
brain.
2. Oh! I forgot to bring my notebook.
(Interjection) Usage and Importance of Phonetics

3. We can go if it doesn’t rain. 1. Language Learning and Teaching

(Conjunction) o Helps learners improve
4. Wow! Your drawing is beautiful. pronunciation and
(Interjection) distinguish between similar-
sounding words.
Definition of Phonetics
o Example: Differentiating
Phonetics is the scientific study of speech between "ship" /ʃɪp/ and
sounds — how they are produced, "sheep" /ʃiːp/.
transmitted, and perceived. It deals with
2. Speech Therapy
the physical properties of sounds used in
human language, regardless of the language o Assists speech-language
they belong to. pathologists in diagnosing
and treating speech
Branches of Phonetics disorders by analyzing
1. Articulatory Phonetics sound production.

o Studies how speech sounds 3. Linguistics and Language

are produced by the Research
 o Used in documenting IPA Sound Word Articulation
endangered languages, Symbol Type Exampl Description
analyzing dialects, and e
comparing phonological /p/ Voiceless pen Lips come
systems. bilabial together and
plosive burst open
4. Forensic Linguistics /b/ Voiced bat Lips together
bilabial with vocal
o Phonetic analysis can be used plosive cord
in voice identification and vibration
criminal investigations. /t/ Voiceless top Tongue
alveolar against
5. Technology Development
plosive alveolar ridge
o Vital in creating speech /d/ Voiced dog Same as /t/
recognition systems, text-to- alveolar but with
speech software, and plosive voice
language processing AI. /k/ Voiceless cat Back of
velar tongue
6. Drama and Acting plosive against soft
palate
o Actors use phonetics to
/g/ Voiced go Like /k/ but
master accents and deliver
velar with voice
authentic-sounding plosive
dialogues. /f/ Voiceless fan Top teeth on
labiodent lower lip
Example of Phonetic Symbols (IPA)
al
Sound Word Example IPA Symbol fricative
/v/ Voiced van Like /f/ but
p pen /p/ labiodent with voice
al
b bat /b/
fricative
t top /t/ /s/ Voiceless sun Air through
alveolar narrow space
ʃ shoe /ʃ/ fricative at alveolar
ridge
θ thin /θ/
/z/ Voiced zoo Same as /s/
ð this /ð/ alveolar but voiced
fricative
Examples of Phonetics /ʃ/ Voiceless shoe “sh” sound
postalveol
1. Consonant Sounds (with IPA and ar
words) fricative
 /ʒ/ Voiced vision “zh” sound /ɪ/ Short sit Lower
postalveol (as in front than /iː/,
ar “measure”) close relaxed
fricative /e/ Mid front bed Mid-level
/h/ Voiceless hat Air passes
front
glottal through open
vowel
fricative glottis
/m/ Bilabial man Sound
/æ/ Low front cat Low front
nasal through nose, vowel
lips closed /ʌ/ Mid cup Central
/n/ Alveolar net Tongue to central vowel
nasal alveolar (stressed)
ridge, sound /ə/ Schwa about Unstresse
through nose (unstresse d central
/ŋ/ Velar ring “ng” sound d) vowel
nasal /ɑː/ Low back car Long
/l/ Lateral lamp Tongue
open back
approxim touches
vowel
ant ridge, air
flows around /ɒ/ Short hot Low back
sides back rounded
/r/ Alveolar red Tongue near vowel
approxim ridge without (British
ant touching English)
/j/ Palatal yes “y” sound /ɔː/ Mid back call Long mid
approxim back
ant rounded
/w/ Labio- wet Lips rounded vowel
velar + tongue near
/ʊ/ High put Short high
approxim soft palate
back back
ant
rounded
vowel
2. Vowel Sounds (with IPA and examples) /uː/ Long blue High back
high back rounded
IPA Vowel Word Descripti
vowel
Symb Type Examp on
3. Diphthongs (Double Vowels)
ol le
/iː/ Long see High front IPA Word Sound
front unrounde Symbol Example Description
close d vowel
/aɪ/ time eye-like sound

/eɪ/ name ay-like sound

 IPA Word Sound Tense Structu Exampl Usage/Sig
Symbol Example Description Type re e nal Words
verb to ago, in
/ɔɪ/ toy oy sound (V2) school. 2005
Past Subject They While,
/aʊ/ house ow sound
Continuo + were when, all
/əʊ/ go oh sound us was/wer playing day, at 6
(British English) e+ football. PM
verb-
/ɪə/ near ear sound ing
Past Subject He had Before,
/eə/ hair air sound
Perfect + had + finished after,
/ʊə/ pure oo-er sound past his already, by
participl homewo the time
e (V3) rk.
Past Subject She had For, since,
Articulatory Descriptions Summary Perf. + had been before,
Feature Types Cont. been + waiting until
verb- for an
Voicing Voiced (vocal cords vibrate) / ing hour.
Voiceless

Place Bilabial, Alveolar, Velar, Detailed Explanation

Palatal, Glottal etc.
1. Simple Past Tense
Manner Plosive, Fricative, Nasal,
• Structure: Subject + V2 (past form
Approximant etc.
of verb)
• Usage:
Lecture Notes: The Past Tense o Finished actions in the past:
Definition He played cricket yesterday.
Past tense is used to show actions or events
o Past habits or repeated
that happened before now (in the past). It
actions: They always visited
helps us talk about completed actions,
their grandma on Sundays.
ongoing actions in the past, or actions that
happened before another past event. o Series of completed events:
She woke up, brushed her
Main Forms of Past Tense
teeth, and went out.
Tense Structu Exampl Usage/Sig
Type re e nal Words 2. Past Continuous Tense
Simple Subject She Yesterday, • Structure: Subject + was/were +
Past + past walked last year, verb-ing
 • Usage: • Simple Past: yesterday, last week, in
2022, ago, when
o Action in progress at a
certain time in the past: I was • Past Continuous: while, when, as,
reading at 8 PM. all day/night
o Two actions happening at the
• Past Perfect: before, after, already,
same time: She was cooking
just, by the time
while he was studying.
o Background description in a • Past Perfect Continuous: for, since,
story: The sun was shining before, until
and birds were singing.
Common Errors
3. Past Perfect Tense
• I was go to school yesterday. →
• Structure: Subject + had + V3 (past
participle) I went to school yesterday.

• Usage: • She did not went home. →

o Action completed before She did not go home.

another past action: I had
finished my work before they • He had saw the movie. →
arrived.
He had seen the movie.
o To show the order of two past
actions: When the show • They was playing football. →
started, we had already
reached the theatre. They were playing football.
4. Past Perfect Continuous Tense Tips to Master Past Tense
• Structure: Subject + had been + • Practice irregular verbs (e.g., go →
verb-ing went, eat → ate, see → saw)
• Usage: • Always use had + V3 for past
o Action that started in the past perfect and had been + verb-ing for
and continued up to another past perfect continuous
past point: They had been • Look for signal words to decide
working for two hours before which form to use
lunch.
• Write daily diary entries about what
o Emphasizes duration: He was you did yesterday
tired because he had been
running. Practice Questions

Signal Words A. Fill in the Blanks

 1. I _______ (go) to the market 1. Simple Past Tense
yesterday.
• In simple past tense, the verb form
2. They _______ (play) cricket when it stays the same for all subjects,
started to rain. whether singular or plural.
3. She _______ (finish) her homework Subject Verb Sentence
before dinner. Example Example
I went I went to school
4. We _______ (study) for two hours yesterday.
before the test. He/She/It went She went to
school
B. Identify the Tense
yesterday.
Underline the verb(s) and state which past We/You/They went They went to
tense is used: school
yesterday.
1. He had been reading for hours. Key Point:
2. I watched a movie last night. • No need to add s/es with verbs in
3. The children were playing outside. past tense.

4. She had left before I arrived. • Only the past form (V2) of the verb
is used for every subject.
C. Correct the Sentences
2. Past Continuous Tense
1. They was happy to see me.
• Use was with singular subjects (I,
2. I did not wrote the letter. he, she, it)
3. She had ate her lunch. • Use were with plural subjects (we,
4. We had been wait for a long time. you, they)

D. Write Your Own Subject Helping Example

Verb Sentence
Write one sentence each using: I was I was reading a
1. Simple Past book.
He/She/It was He was playing
2. Past Continuous football.
We/You/They were They were
3. Past Perfect
watching a
4. Past Perfect Continuous movie.
Key Point:
Subject-Verb Agreement in Past
• "was" → singular subject
Tense
• "were" → plural subject
Basic Rules 3. Past Perfect Tense
 • Had is used with all subjects Past Perfect had + past had + past
(singular and plural). participle participle
(V3) (V3)
Subject Helping Example Past Perfect had been + had been +
Verb Sentence Continuous verb-ing verb-ing
I had I had finished
my work.
He/She/It had She had eaten Common Mistakes to Avoid
lunch.
We/You/They had They had left • She were playing. → She
early. was playing.
Key Point:
• They was late. → They were
• "had" is common for all subjects — late.
no change based on singular or
plural. • He had goes to school. →
He had gone to school.
4. Past Perfect Continuous Tense
Practice Sentences
• Had been is used with all subjects
(singular and plural). Correct the subject-verb agreement:
Subject Helping Example 1. I ______ (was/were) tired after the
Verb Sentence long day.
I had been I had been
studying for two 2. They ______ (was/were) swimming
hours. when it rained.
He/She/It had been He had been
3. She ______ (had/have) already left.
sleeping.
We/You/They had been They had been 4. We ______ (had been/had being)
working hard all working on the project.
day.
Key Point: (Answer Key: was, were, had, had been)

• No subject change — "had been" fits

for everyone!

Quick Summary Table

Tense Singular Plural

Subjects Subjects
Simple Past Verb (past Verb (past
form) form)
Past was + verb- were + verb-
Continuous ing ing